Introduction To Electronics

Lec 6

Dr. M. Hebaishy

Digital Logic Design Ch1-1

 MAGNETIC INDUCTION

Digital Logic Design Ch1-2

 Faraday’s law,

Digital Logic Design Ch1-3

 Inductance
 An inductor is a device that stores energy in a magnetic field.
 the basic principle behind inductance states, when a current flows through a
conductor, it generates a magnetic field around the conductor.
 As the magnetic flux lines build up, they create an opposition to the flow of
current.
 All conductors have some inductance. The amount of inductance depends on the
conductor and the shape of it. Straight wire has small amounts of inductance
whereas coils of wire have much more inductance.
 The unit by which inductance is measured is the henry (H).
 A henry is the amount of inductance required to induce an emf of 1 volt when the
current in a conductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. The henry is a
large unit; the millihenry (mH) and microhenry (µH) are more commonly used.
The symbol for inductance is L.

Digital Logic Design Ch1-4

 INDUCTORS
 Inductors are devices designed to have a specific inductance.
 They consist of a conductor coiled around a core and are classified by the type of
core material—magnetic or nonmagnetic.

 Inductors can also be fixed or variable.

Digital Logic Design Ch1-5

 Laminated iron-core inductors are used for all large inductors .
 These inductors vary from 0.1 to 100 henries, the inductance depending on the
amount of current flowing through the inductor.
 These inductors are sometimes referred to as chokes.
 They are used in the filtering circuits of power
supplies to remove AC components from the DC output.
 Inductors, like resistors, can be connected in series,
parallel, or series-parallel combinations.
 The total inductance of several inductors connected in series is equal to the sum
of the individual inductances.

 If two or more inductors are connected in parallel the total inductance is found by
using the formula:

Digital Logic Design Ch1-6

 L/R TIME CONSTANTS

 A time constant is the time required for current through a conductor to

increase to 63.2% or decrease to 36.8% of the maximum current.
 An RL circuit , L/R is the symbol used for the time constant of an RL circuit.
 This can be expressed as:

Digital Logic Design Ch1-7

 SELF-TEST

Digital Logic Design Ch1-8

 Capacitance
 Capacitance is the ability of a device to store electrical energy in an
electrostatic field.
 A capacitor is a device that possesses a specific amount of capacitance.
 A capacitor is made of two conductors separated by an insulator
 The conductors are called plates and the insulator is called a dielectric.

Digital Logic Design Ch1-9

 When a DC voltage source is connected to a capacitor, a current flows until the
capacitor is charged.
 The dielectric prevents electrons from moving between the plates. Once the
capacitor is charged, all current stops.
 The capacitor’s voltage is equal to the voltage of the voltage source.
 A charged capacitor can be removed from the voltage source and used as an energy
source.
 The amount of energy stored in a capacitor is in proportion to the size of the
capacitor.
 The basic unit of capacitance is the farad (F).
 A farad is the amount of capacitance that can store 1 coulomb (C) of charge when
the capacitor is charged to 1 volt.
 Four factors affect the capacitance of a capacitor They are:
1. Area of the plate 2. Distance between the plates
3. Type of dielectric material 4. Temperature

Digital Logic Design Ch1-10

 A capacitor is either fixed or variable. Capacitance is directly proportional to the
area of the plate.
 Doubling the plate area doubles the capacitance if all other factors remain the
same.
 Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.

Digital Logic Design Ch1-11

 Like resistors and inductors, capacitors can be connected in series, parallel, and
series-parallel combinations.
 The total capacitance of capacitors in series is calculated like the total resistance of
parallel resistors:

 Placing capacitors in parallel effectively adds to the plate area. This makes the total
capacitance equal to the sum of the individual capacitances:

Digital Logic Design Ch1-12

 RC TIME CONSTANTS

 An RC time constant reflects the relationship between time, resistance, and

capacitance.

 The time it takes a capacitor to charge and discharge is directly proportional to the
amount of the resistance and capacitance.
 The time constant reflects the time required for a capacitor to charge up to 63.2%
of the applied voltage or to discharge down to 36.8%. The time constant is
expressed as:
t = RC
where: t = time in seconds
R = resistance in ohms
C = capacitance in farads
Digital Logic Design Ch1-13
 EXAMPLE: What is the time constant of a 1- microfarad capacitor and a 1-
megohm resistor?

 The time constant is not the time required to charge or discharge a capacitor fully.

 Fig. shows the time constants needed to charge and discharge a capacitor. Note
that it takes approximately five time constants to fully charge or discharge a
capacitor. Digital Logic Design Ch1-14
 SELF-TEST
 Four capacitors are connected in series, 1.5 µF, 0.05 µF, 2000 pF, and 25 pF.

What is the total capacitance of the circuit?

 3. Four capacitors are connected in parallel, 1.5µ F, 0.05 µF, 2000 pF, and 25

pF. What is the total capacitance of the circuit?

Digital Logic Design Ch1-15

 AC Circuits
 The waveform produced by an AC generator is called a sinusoidal waveform or
sine wave.
 The sine wave is the most basic and widely used of all the AC waveforms. It can
be produced by both mechanical and electronic methods.
 Two complete alternations of voltage with no reference to time make up a cycle.
One cycle per second is defined as a hertz (Hz).

Digital Logic Design Ch1-16



Digital Logic Design Ch1-17

 AC VALUES
 The effective value of alternating current can be determined by a mathematical
process called the root-mean-square (rms) process.
 The effective value of a sine wave is equal to 0.707 times the peak value.
 Most meters are calibrated to indicate the effective, or rms, value of voltage and
current.

Digital Logic Design Ch1-18

 EXAMPLE: A current sine wave has a peak value of 10 amperes. What is the
effective value?

 EXAMPLE: A voltage sine wave has an effective value of 40 volts. What is the
peak value of the sine wave?

Digital Logic Design Ch1-19

 The time required to complete one cycle of a sine wave is called the period. The
period is usually measured in seconds. The letter t is used to represent the
period.
 The number of cycles that occurs in a specific period of time is called the
frequency .
 The unit of frequency is the hertz. One hertz equals one cycle per second.

 where: f represents the frequency, and t represents the period.

 EXAMPLE: What is the frequency of a sine wave with a period of 0.05 second?

Digital Logic Design Ch1-20

 EXAMPLE: If a sine wave has a frequency of 60 hertz, what is its period?

Digital Logic Design Ch1-21

Digital Logic Design Ch1-22


Digital Logic Design Ch1-23

 SELF-TEST

Digital Logic Design Ch1-24

Answer

Digital Logic Design Ch1-25

 An inductor coil has a central core area, ( A ) with a constant number of turns of
wire per unit length.
 So if a coil of N turns is linked by an amount of magnetic flux, Φ then the coil has
a flux linkage of NΦ
 current, ( i ) that flows through the coil will produce an induced magnetic flux in
the opposite direction to the flow of current.
 Then according to Faraday’s Law, any change in this magnetic flux linkage
produces a self-induced voltage in the single coil of:

Digital Logic Design Ch1-26

 The relation between the flux in the inductor and the current flowing through the
inductor is given as: NΦ = Li.
 Back emf Generated by an Inductor:

 Where: L is the self-inductance and di/dt the rate of current change.

 In a steady state DC current, then the induced emf voltage will be zero because
the instantaneous rate of current change is zero, di/dt = 0.

Digital Logic Design Ch1-27

Current and Voltage in an Inductor

Digital Logic Design Ch1-28

 Example
 A steady state direct current of 4 ampere passes through a solenoid coil of 0.5H.
What would be the average back emf voltage induced in the coil if the switch in
the circuit was opened for 10mS and the current flowing through the coil dropped
to zero ampere.

Digital Logic Design Ch1-29

 Power in an Inductor
 We know that an inductor in a circuit opposes the flow of current, ( i ) through it
because the flow of this current induces anemf that opposes it, Lenz’s Law.
 Then work has to be done by the external battery source in order to keep the
current flowing against this induced emf.
 The instantaneous power used in forcing the current, ( i ) against this self-induced
emf, ( VL ) is given from above as:

 Power in a circuit is given as, P = V*I therefore:

 If the current flowing through the inductor is constant as in a DC circuit, then

there is no change in the stored energy as P = Li(di/dt) = 0. Digital Logic Design Ch1-30


END

Digital Logic Design Ch1-31