CHAPTER 2

COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

2.1 An Overview Of Computers

2.2 Data Representation
2.3 Computer Hardware
2.4 An Overview of Software

2.1An Overview of Computers

2.1.1Computers: Mind Tools
Computers have been called “mind tools” because they enhance our ability to perform tasks
that require mental effort. Computers are adept at performing activities such as making
calculations quickly, sorting large lists, and searching through vast information libraries.
Human can do all these activities, but a computer can often accomplish them much more
rapidly and more accurately. Our ability to use a computer complements our mental
capabilities and may make us more productive. The key to making effective use of the
computer as a tool is to know what a computer does, how it works, and how you can use it.

A computer system typically includes a computer, peripheral devices, and software. The
electronic and mechanical devices that manipulate data are known as hardware. The term
“hardware” refers to the computer itself and components called peripheral devices that
expand the computer’s input, output, and storage capabilities. Computer hardware in and
of itself does not provide a particularly useful mind tool. To be useful, a computer requires
a computer program or software, which is a set of instructions that tells a computer how to
perform a particular task. Computers can become even more effective when connected to
other computers so that people can share information.

2.1.2 Definition of computer

A Computer can be thought of as an electronic device that is capable of doing the following
tasks:

 Accept data in some prescribed form as an input

 Process the data according to pre-established instructions or procedures

 Provide the desired information in a suitable output format and medium.

 Store data, instruction, and information (processed data) for further and
future use.

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A computer accepts input: Examples of the kinds of input a computer can process include
the words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, pictures, audio signals
from a microphone, and instructions for completing a process.

A computer processes data: Data refers to the symbols that represent facts and ideas.
Computer manipulate data in many ways, and we call this manipulation “processing”.
Some of the ways that a computer can process data include performing calculations, sorting
list of words or numbers, etc. In the context of computers, then, we can define a process as
a systematic series of actions that a computer uses to manipulate data. A computer process
data in a device called the central processing unit (CPU) which we will see in more detail
later.

A computer stores data: A computer must store data so that it will be available for
processing. Computer typically have more than one location for storing data, depending on
how the data is being used. The computer puts data in one place while it is waiting to be
processed and, in another place, when it is not needed for immediate processing. Memory
is an area of a computer that holds data that is waiting to be processed. Storage is the area
where data can be left on a permanent basis while it is not needed for processing.

A Computer produces output: Computer output is the results produced by a computer.

The word “output” is also a verb that means the process of producing output. Some
examples a computer output include reports, documents, music, graph, and pictures. An
output device displays, prints or transmits the result of processing.

Research is also being conducted that would replace the keyboard with a means of using
voice or handwriting for input. Currently these types of input are imprecise because people
pronounce and write words very differently, making it difficult for a computer to recognize
the same input from different users. However, advances in this field have led to systems
that can recognize a small number of words spoken by a variety of people. In addition,
software has been developed that can be taught to recognize an individual's handwriting

2.1.3 Characteristics of Computer

The characteristics of a computer shows the capability and the potential of the computer for
processing data. This saves time, space, money, labour etc.

Some of the basic characteristics of computer are: -

 Speed
The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computer works only
one step at a time.
Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic
operation. Computer speed measured in terms of micro second (10-6 one millionths),
nano second (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-12 one trillionths).

 Storage
A computer can store large amount of information in a few numbers of disks. And
the time it took to retrieve or process a single information is not more than a micro

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 or a nano second. In general, a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount
of information in organised manner so that accessing information is very fast.

Note:
 Computer is efficient because it can store large amount of information
within a limited space in a very organized manner
 Computer is fast because it can access the stored information in a fraction of
a second

 Accuracy

Now a day’s computers are being used for surgical purposes which needs almost
hundred percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computer is accurate
and consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the
computer processes with a very accurate.
 Automatic
Once necessary information and program is feed to the computer, it performs
processing without human intervention.

 Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work
for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed,
a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this
capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.

 Versatility
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use
your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory
management or to prepare electric bills.

2.1.4 Limitations of computers

 No IQ
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to
decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own
decision as you can. Hence computers do not think.

 No Feeling
It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does
not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

 Computers are not self-directing machines:

They cannot instruct themselves & they are not independent machines.

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 Once computers are fed the desired instruction, they can perform what they have been
ordered.

 Computer cannotsympathize (feel sorry for)

 Computer cannot do by trial and error

2.1.5Applications of computers
Why we use Computers?
The following are some of the capabilities and potential of Computers, which are reasons
for using Computers.

• Today computers are used almost in any field

• Medicine
– Patient monitoring, diagnosis, controlling parameters etc
• Learning
– Digital libraries, learning tools, etc
• Engineering
– Better drawing, automated manufacturing plants
• Entertainment
– Music composition, movie animations, games
• Data Processing and Data Management:
– E.g. census analysis, weather forecasting
• Operations Control in Real time systems
– E.g. rocket guidance, Production control, booking
• Communication
– Internet, telephone
• Routine tasks of repetitive nature
– Report generation
– Maintenance of accounts
– Letter writing
– Payroll and inventory controls etc

2.2 Data Representation

Data in a computer system is represented by a flow of an electric current through a circuit.

The presence (on) or absence (off) of this current is interpreted as 1 and 0. Any data that is
manipulated or stored in a computer is treated as a combination of 0 and 1. This is called a
binary system as only two digits (0 and 1) are used.

2.2.1Units Of Data Representation

 When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer system, it is
packed in units;

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 Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bit, byte and word;
 These units are based on the binary number system;
BIT
 Bit (derived from binary digit) is the basic unit of data storage
 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of current and “OFF” is
represented by the nonexistence of current
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity or
magnetised particles on the disk’s surface;

BYTE
 Bits can be organised into large units to make them represent more and meaningful
information;
 This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of data representation” in a
computer system;
 The commonly used byte contains 8 bits;
 Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of data that
can be represented is 28 or 256 possible combinations;
 Each byte can represent a character(a character is either a letter, a number or a special
symbol such as +,-,?,*, $, etc
 A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory, processing unit,
external storage and during communication;
 In order to expand the measuring capacity of byte we use prefixes listed below
 Kilo (K)≈ 103 = 1 Thousand
 Mega (M)≈ 106=1 Million
 Giga (G) ≈ 109= 1 Billion
 Tera (T) ≈ 1012 = 1 Trillion
 Peta (P) ≈ 1015= 1 Quadrillion

Note: 1 KB = 1024 = 210

 1 KB = 210 bytes
 1 MB = 220 bytes
 30
1 GB =2 bytes
 1 TB = 240 bytes
 1 PB = 250 bytes

Example:

4MB is approximately equal to ≈ 4 X106 bytes

4MB is exactly equal to = 4 X220 bytes
WORD

 Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a transmission
media transmits at a time

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 Although bytes can store or transmit information, the process can even be faster if more
than one byte is processed at a once;
 A combination of bytes, then form a “word”
 A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes based on the capacity of the computer;
 Word length is usually given in bits
 We say that a computer is an 8-bits, a 16 bit, a 32 bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate
that the amount of data it can process at a time;
 The large the word length a computer has the more powerful and faster it is.

2.2.2Data Representation Standards

The number of characters that can be represented using the binary system in a computer
system is dependent on the number of digits (bits) used for representing a single character.
Various countries or organisations have adopted different data representation standards at
different times. For example the ASCII standard is discussed below.

 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) ASCII

standard is a coding method that has been adopted in USA for data
communication.
 Microcomputers using 8-bit word length use 7-bits to represent the basic code.
 The 8th bit can be permanently 1 or 0
 with 7 bits up to 128 (27 )characters can be coded
COMPACT REFERENCE TO THE ASCII CODE

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Page 7
 2.3 Computer Hardware
A computer system is the integration of

1) Data
2) Hardware
3) Software
4) Human ware

Through the interaction of the entire component, a computer system is used to accept input from
users, to process the input data, and finally to generate output that will be used by the user.

1. Data
WHAT IS DATA?

Text, numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video that describe people, events, things,
ideas etc

UnprocessedàText, numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video

WHAT IS INFORMATION?

Text, numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video used as the basis for human action,
judgement or decisions.

ProcessedàText, numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video

2. Hardware
Hardware is the general term for the physical devices that carry out the activities of
capturing, processing, storing, and communicating data and information.

The hardware of a computer system is categorized into six parts.

These are:
1. Input unit/Devices
2. Output unit/Devices
3. Central processing Unit
4. Memory unit (primary Storage)
5. Secondary Storage Unit
6. Communication hardware

The following figure shows block diagram representation of the microcomputer system

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a. Input unit/ Devices

Input devices are the physical components that the user uses to capture and enter data and
instructions into the computer system. Input devices translate user data and instructions into a form
that the computer can understand. There are several types of input devices.
 Keyboard – usually for character input
 Pointing devices
o Mouse, trackball, touchpad, touch screen, light pen, joystick –usually for
instruction input
 Reading devices
o Scanner (for graphic input), OCR reader, barcode reader
 Sound, image and video input devices
o Microphone, Digital Video Camera, Digital Video Camera, Web Cam

b. Output Devices

Output devices are the components that are used to present the processed output or information in a
form that is communicable to the user.
The most common output types are:
 Display Devices
 Display devices are the components that are used to generate output (texts,
graphics and video output) in a visual form.
o Examples of display devices include

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  Ordinary CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) screens that look like ordinary TV
screens
 LCD (Liquid Crystal Displays) flat screen such as those used with laptop
computers.
 Plasma Screens
 Data and video projectors
 Printer
o Device that is used to generate hard copy – printed-paper materials. Printers can be
categorised depending on:
 How images are made (impact and non-impact printers)
 Impact printers are those that make physical contact with the paper,
like traditional typewriter. Dot Matrix printer is an example of
impact printer.
 Non-impact printers use a different technology (without physical
contact with the paper) to produce prints on hardcopy. Inkjet and
Laser printers are example of non-impact printers.
 Speaker
o Speakers are used to generate sound output

C. Central processing Unit

The CPU is the core component of the computer system where the major task of processing data
(converting data into information is carried out). .

Central Processing Unit – (CPU) of a computer is the brain of the computer that actually converts
data into information. It manages and controls the overall functionality of the computer and is a
measure of the computing power of the computer system.
The main components of the processing unit are:

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

o Performs the mathematical (addition, subtraction, division and multiplication),
comparison (greater than, less than, equal), and logical (and, or, not) operation.

 Control unit
o Responsible for directing the system to carryout various internal tasks, such
interpreting and executing program instructions
o Controls the electronic flow of information, fetching and storing data and
instruction from/to registers and memory
 Registers
o Under the direction of the control unit, registers are the high-speed storage area
used by the CPU. They are used to temporarily store data and instruction that
relate to the process being executed.

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Usually computer speed is measured using the system clock speed expressed in the number of clock
ticks per second. Clock speed is expressed in megahertz or gigahertz (one million or billion clock
ticks per second). The speed of system clock determines the speed at which the processor executes
instructions. Other things being equal, computer speed increases with increase in clock speed.
Today’s personal computers have clock speed greater than 2.0 GHz, which is still increasing.

d. Memory unit (primary Storage)

Memory is an internal primary data storage device that is used by the computer system in start-up
and during operation. As the CPU cannot process data directly from input device or secondary
storage devices, data and instructions have to be loaded to the internal memory before the CPU can
process them. Internal memory stores:
 Whole or part of the program under execution
 Data that is being processed
 Operating system that is used to manage the operation of the computer

There are two major types of memory, Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory
(RAM).

 ROM is a read-only memory that provides start-up instruction when the computer starts.
Information stored in ROM is written only once by the manufacture and cannot be changed
by the user.
In general:
 ROM is memory that cannot be changed.
 It can be read, but not modified in any way other than replacing the memory chips
themselves.
 ROM is used in situations where information must be saved and not altered.
 The primary use of ROM in the computer is during the boot process.
 The ROM on the computer's motherboard contains instructions that tell the machine how
to execute the "boot process".
 ROM is not volatile; data stored there are kept permanently.

 RAM is a temporary volatile memory space used to store data and instructions by the
computer while performing operations. Data stored in RAM exists as long as power is on.
When a computer is turned-off, all the data stored in RAM is flashed forever. Having a
large RAM size increases the processing power of the computer as more powerful
instructions can be run.

The performance of memory is by the amount of bits it can store and speed at which data can be
accessed from the memory.
 The storage capacity is often expressed in MB or GB. Today’s personal computer memory
can store hundreds of megabytes.

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  The speed at which data is accessed is measured as a fraction of a second, often in
nanoseconds (one-billionth of a second).
In General:
 RAM is where data and instructions are temporarily stored while waiting to be processed.
 It is also where results of execution are stored.
 It is where instructions and data are stored before being executed, and where the results are
placed after execution.
 RAM is volatile; data stored there are not kept permanently. When the data are executed,
they move from the CPU back to RAM, and then are sent to the designated output device.
If power to RAM is lost, so is the data contained there: nothing in RAM is permanently
stored.

e. Secondary Storage unit/devices

Secondary storage devices are internal or external storage devices that are used to store programs
and user data for later access.
Why Secondary Storage?
 Convenience – data store on a secondary storage can be accessed at a latter time, unlike
primary storage which stores data temporarily
 Economical – secondary storage media is less expensive and hence users can store vast
amount data that can be accessed at a latter stage
 Reliability – Data on a secondary storage is usually physically safe

There are different types of secondary storage devices. The most common storage devices are
discussed below.

a) Magnetic Storage Devices

Storage devices coated with a magnetic material that can be electrically influenced to hold
information recorded in digital (binary) form. Examples are given below

Hard Disk
A hard disk contains both the disk and the drive (the slot) that is used to read and write data
on the disk. A hard disk uses rigid turning disks to store data and programs. They have
read/write heads which can read data from the hard disk and write data to the hard disk.
The hard disk drive is sealed. This protects the hard disk drive internals from dust,
condensation, and other sources of contamination. Hard disks can store much more data
than floppy disks, and access and transmit it faster. Currently an average hard disk can store
60 to 80 GB of data. For both hard disks and floppy disks, data is stored on the surface in
sectors and tracks.

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Magnetic Tape
A tape drive, also known as a streamer, is a device that reads data from and writes data to a
magnetic tape. It is typically used for archiving or backing up of data stored on hard disks.
Magnetic tapes are long lasting and inexpensive storage media.

Magnetic tapes are made of thin plastic material coated with magnetic coding. Magnetic tapes look
like an audiocassette, but are used to store data.
o Data is expressed in terms of density, the number of (bytes) or characters per inch
o Usually can store very large amount of data – tape cartridges can store giga bytes and
tetra bytes
o Sequential data storage and access
o Very slow read/write operation
 Example of magnetic tape include backup Tape Cartridge
 Reel-to-reel magnetic tape is commonly used to store information (backup)

b) Optical Storage Devices

Optical storage is a newer storage technology using a high-power laser beam to burn small
holes in a disk's surface coating. Data is represented by the presence and absence of holes
in the disk’s surface.
Optical media are more durable than tape and less vulnerable to environmental conditions.
On the other hand, they tend to be slower than typical hard disks, and hold less data.
Compact Disk (CD)
A compact disc (CD) is an optical disk used to store digital data.It was originally developed
for storing digital audio.

Types of CDs
The different types of CDs include: CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW:

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CD-ROM (Compact Disc – Read Only Memory): is a version of the CD that allows the
information to be stored so that the user can only read from the disks. Once data is recorded
on a CD-ROM, new data cannot be stored and the disc cannot be erased.
Although CD-ROMs look like music discs, they can only be used with a computer
equipped with a CD-ROM drive.
CD-R (Compact Disc - Recordable): refers to compact disks that can be recorded only
once, but read many times. If the recorded content is no longer wanted, additional material
can be recorded only on the remaining space on the disk. The disks themselves are
constructed differently from ordinary CDs.
CD-RW (Compact Disc - Rewritable): is an extension of CD-R whereby you can rewrite
data or audio to the same CD many times. Not all CD drives can read CDRWs.

Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

DVD is an optical disc storage media that can be used for storing data, including movies
with high video and sound quality. DVDs resemble CD: their physical dimensions are the
same – 12 cm or the mini 8cm - but they are encoded in a different format. This enables
DVDs to store more data than that of CDs. A typical DVD can often hold more data than 6
CDs. DVDs can store an entire movie, or several hours of audio.
Common Types of DVDs
DVD-ROM: These DVDs are read-only disks. They are accessed using a special DVD
drive attached to a personal computer. They are often used for movies (which are more
specifically referred to as DVD-Video) and computer games.
DVD-R: It offers a write-once, read-many time’s storage format similar to CDR, but can
hold more information than a CD-R.
DVD-RW: A Rewritable DVD format similar to CD-RW.

c. Flash disk/memory

Sometimes called (data traveller)/USB Flash/disk-on-key. It is a very

convenient secondary storage device. It is pproduced from flash memory chips

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Note: Data and instructions are moved around inside the computer by means of a bus. The bus
carries the data between RAM and the CPU as well as within the CPU itself.

e. Microfilm and Microfiche

 Store microscopic images of documents on roll or sheet of film
 Images recorded using computer output microfilm recorder

Microfilm — 100- to Microfiche — small

215-foot roll of film sheet of film, usually 4”
 6”

The picture below shows computer output microfilm recorder and rolled microfilm

Storage media Life Expectancies

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f. Communication hardware

The hardware used for communication purposes.

Example: Network interface card, modem, router, switch etc.

2.4 An Overview of Software

Computer software
Software is a term for computer programs. A programis a set of instructions that enables a
computer to operate or instructions that tell the computer how to perform a specific task.
Computer software has two major categories:
 System software
 Application software

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Systems software
Systems software includes the computer's basic operating system and language software.
The term also usually covers any software used to manage the computer and the network.
Thus we can say that systems software includes operating systems, device drivers,
programming tools, utilities and more.
Operating Systems

Operating System or Operating software is a program or a set of programs that

serves as anInterface between the users, application programs and the hardware
of a computer system.

Operating System (OS) is the basic software that controls a computer. It

coordinates and manipulates computer hardware, such as computer memory,
printers, disks, keyboard, mouse, and monitor; it organizes files on a variety of
storage media, such as floppy disk, hard drive, compact disc, digital video disc,
and tape; and it manages hardware errors and the loss of data.

Operating systems control different computer processes, such as running a

spreadsheet program or accessing information from the computer's memory.

NOTE: In the absence of an operating system a computer equipment will be there

with out doing nothing

Functions of operating system

Operating system has several functions. Some of the major operating system functions are
discussed below.

I. For Initial set up of the computer

II. Checking and managing of the hardware (peripherals, disk drives, memory...)

III. Primary Memory Management

Memory management is the process of allocating memory to different application. In memory
management, the operating system is responsible for:
 Keeping track of memory:- the operating system keeps record of the memory usage,
including which areas are in use by whom and which areas are available
 Deciding which programs to load to memory: – The operating system decides which
programs or data to load by allocating and de-allocating memory space to programs
 Keeping track of each application separately in memory and preventing the programs from
mixing each other.

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 IV. Secondary storage Management
The operating system is responsible for the management of the secondary data storage devices, such
as magnetic tapes and disks, optical disks.
The main function under this area includes:
 Supplies all the necessary disk information, such as disk capacity, the
space occupied by data and programs, the damaged area in the disk,
formatting a disk and informing the available free space on a disk.

 Provide tools for efficient use of the secondary storage media–such as disk
defragmentation, scandisk, cleanup disk, and backup

V. File Management
Data stored in any storage device are stored as files, regardless of the different characteristics and
physical organisation of the storage devices. The operating system provides a simpler standard
logical view of the files stored in the storage devices.
The operating system also provides different routines for the management of files including:
 Creation and deletion of files and folders
 Manipulation of files and folders – copying, renaming, deleting, printing
 Backing up files on permanent storage devices

VI. It provides language for users

Examples of operating system software: Unix, Windows 95/98/2000/me/xp, MS-DOS

Windows NT, PASCAL P6, PC-DOS etc.

Types of operating system

Several factors can be considered in classifying operating system. Few of factors to consider
include:
1. Based on the interface provided by the operating system
o Command line Interface (CLI) - users have to enter instruction one by one using
the keyboard.
 Example: Microsoft Disk Operating System – MS-DOS

o Graphical User Interface (GUI) – these operating systems offer an easy to use
graphical interface where users can use mouse to enter instruction to the system.
With a GUI, a computer user can easily execute commands by clicking on
pictures, words, or icons with a pointing device known as a mouse

 Example: Windows 95, 98, 2000…, Unix

Note:GUI OS generally have the disadvantage of requiring more hardware—such as faster CPUs,
more memory, and higher-quality monitors—than do CLI operating systems .

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2. Based on the process that they can run at a time

I. Single-tasking OS

The more primitive single-tasking operating systems can run only one process at a time. For
instance, when the computer is printing a document, it cannot start another process or respond to
new commands until the printing is completed.

II. Multi-tasking OS

All modern operating systems are multitasking and can run several processes simultaneously. In
most computers, however, there is only one central processing unit (CPU; the computational and
control unit of the computer), so a multitasking OS creates the illusion of several processes running
simultaneously on the CPU. The most common mechanism used to create this illusion is time-slice
multitasking, whereby each process is run individually for a fixed period of time. If the process is
not completed within the allotted time, it is suspended and another process is run. The processes
appear to run simultaneously because the user's sense of time is much slower than the processing
speed of the computer.

Multi-tasking OS can use a technique known as virtual memory to run processes that require more
main memory than is actually available. To implement this technique, space on the hard drive is
used to mimic the extra memory needed. Accessing the hard drive is more time-consuming than
accessing main memory, however, so performance of the computer slows.

Working on MS-Windows xx environment

Windows Version xx is an operating system that Microsoft has produced for use on
personal computers. An operating system allows your computer to manage software and
perform essential tasks. It is also a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that allows you to
visually interact with your computer’s functions in a logical, fun, and easy way
The first screen appears after you turn on the power of computer is a desktop as shown in
the figure below

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The Desktop is the main Windows xx screen as shown in the figure above. It is the work
area where dialog boxes, windows, icons, and menus appear. Like an office desk, the
Windows xx desktop contains items you can use to do your job. For instance, from your
desktop, you can perform file-management tasks and run software applications. You can
customize the appearance of the desktop to suit your preferences.
The Desktop Components
The desktop for Windows xx operating system consists of two main components
i. Desktop that contains many components like icons, file, folder, shortcut. Etc.
ii. Task Bars

1- Icons: An icon is a graphic image, a small picture or object that represents a file,
program, web page, or command. Icons help you execute commands, open

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 programs or documents quickly. To execute a command by using an icon, click or
double-click on the icon. It is also useful to recognize quickly an object in a browser
list. For example, all documents using the same extension have the same icon.
We can classify icons as the following
 Folder Icons
 File Icons
 Shortcut Icons

Question: What is the function of the task bar?

What is the difference between a file, a folder, and a shortcut?

All the data on your hard drive consists of files and folders. The basic difference between
the two is that files store data, while folders store files and other folders. The folders, often
referred to as directories, are used to organize files on your computer. The folders
themselves take up virtually no space on the hard drive. Files, on the other hand, is a
collection of data stored in one unit, identified by a filename. And filename period file
extension can range from a few bytes to several gigabytes. They can be documents,
programs, libraries, and other compilations of data. File name consists of two part: - file
name and file extension as shown in the figure below

A shortcut is a link that points to a program on the computer. Shortcuts allow users to
create links to their programs in any folder, Start bar, Taskbar, Desktop or other locations
on their computer. A shortcut in Windows is commonly identified by a small arrow in the
bottom corner of the icon.

Special Icons on the desktop

a. Recycle bin: The Recycle Bin is a location (Folder) where deleted files are
temporarily stored on Microsoft Windows. The Recycling Bin allows users to
recover files that have been deleted in Windows.

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 b. My Computer: My Computer allows the user to explore the contents of their
computer drives as well as manage their computer files. Once My Computer is
open, you'll see all available drives on your computer. For most users, you'll only be
concerned with the Local Disc (C:) drive, which is the hard that stores all your files

Shutting Down the computer

At the bottom of the right pane is the Shutdown button. Click the Shutdown button to turn
off your computer. Clicking the arrow next to the Shutdown button displays a menu with
additional options for switching users, logging off, restarting, or shutting down.

Switch user: If you have more than one user account on your computer, Fast User
Switching is an easy way for another person to log on to the computer without logging you
off or closing your programs and files.
Log off: When you log off from Windows, all of the programs you were using are closed,
but the computer is not turned off.
Lock: Locking your PC is a good option if you’ll be back soon. You'll have to enter your
password when you come back, which helps keep your work more secure.
Restart: The Restart button "reboots" your computer (it is sometimes called a "warm boot"
or "soft boot.") That means it saves your information to the hard drive, turns off the
computer for a moment, and then turns it back on again.

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Sleep: Clicking on Sleep puts your computer in a low-power state, but doesn't turn it off.
The main advantage is that it allows you to get back to work quickly, without having to
wait for the computer to do a full reboot

Working with Windows

Whenever you open a program, file, or folder, it appears on your screen in a box or frame
called a window (that's where the Windows operating system gets its name). Because
windows are everywhere, it’s important to understand how to move them, change their size,
or just make them go away.
Parts of a window
Although the contents of every window are different, all windows share some things in
common. For one thing, windows always appear on the desktop - the main work area of
your screen. In addition, most windows have the same basic parts.
Title bar.
Displays the name of the document and program (or the folder name if you're working in a
folder).
Minimize, Maximize, and Close buttons.These buttons hide the window, enlarge it to fill
the whole screen, and close it, respectively (more details on these shortly).
Menu bar.Contains items that you can click to make choices in a program.
Scroll bar.Let’s you scroll the contents of the window to see information that is currently
out of view.
Borders and corners. You can drag these with your mouse pointer to change the size of
the window.

Example: Open a notepad application and see the components

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Note:
A dialog box is a special type of window that asks you a question, allows you to select options to
perform a task, or provides you with information. You'll often see dialog boxes when a program or
Windows needs a response from you before it can continue. Unlike regular windows, most dialog
boxes can't be maximized, minimized, or resized. They can, however, be moved.

Working with file and folder (file management)

1. Selecting a single or multiple object

 To select a single object, click on it once.

 There are several ways to select Multiple files or folders.
 To select a consecutive group of files or folders, click the first item, press and hold
down the Shift key, and then click the last item.
 To select Multiple files or folders that are near each other, drag the mouse pointer to
create a selection around the outside of all the items that you want to include.
 To select non-consecutive files or folders, press and hold down the Ctrl key, and
then click each item that you want to select.
 To select all of the files or folders in a window, on the toolbar, click Organize, and
then click Select all. If you want to exclude one or more items from your selection,
press and hold down the Ctrl key, and then click the items.
Notes: After selecting files or folders, you can perform many common tasks, such as
copying, deleting, renaming, printing, and compressing. Simply right-click the selected
items, and then click the appropriate choice.
2. Rename
 Click the file or folder to select it
 Click the organize button on the toolbar, and then click Rename
 With the name selected highlights, type a new name, or click to position the
insertion point, and then edit the name.
 Press Enter
Notes: Right-click the file or folder you want to rename, click Rename, type a name, and
then press Enter. You can also select the file, then press F2, type a name, and then press
Enter.
File names can be up to 255 characters. You can use spaces and underscores in names, but
you can’t use the following characters: * :<> | ? “ \ or /. Remember the best way to keep
your files organized is with a consistent naming convention.
3. Copying

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When you copy an item, the original item remains in its original location plus you have the
new copy
 Open the location that contains the file you want to copy.
 Right-click the file, and then click Copy.
 Open the location where you want to store the copy
 Right-click an empty space within the location, and then click Paste
The copy of the original file is now stored in the new location.
Notes:
 Another way to copy and paste files is to use the keyboard shortcuts Ctrl+C (Copy)
and Ctrl+V (Paste).
 You can also press and hold the right-mouse button and then drag the file to the new
location.
When you release the mouse button, click Copy here.

4. Moving
Cut or Moving a file (or folder) is different from copying it. Moving cuts, the item from its
previous location and places it in a new location. Copying leaves the original item where it
was and creates a copy of the item elsewhere. In other words, when you copy something
you end up with two of it. When you move something, you only have the one thing.
 Open the drive or folder containing the file or folder you want to move.
 Select the files or folders you want to move.
 Click the Organize button on the toolbar, and then click Cut
 Display the destination folder where you want to move the files or folder.
 Click the Organize button on the toolbar, and then click Paste.
 Copy or Move a File or Folder Using Drag and Drop
 Open the drive or folder containing the file or folder you want to copy or move.
 Select the files or folders you want to copy or move.
 In the Navigation pane, point to a folder list to display the expand and collapse
arrows.
 Click the arrows to display the destination folder, and then click the destination
folder.
 Right-click the selected files or folders, drag to the destination folder, and then click
Copy Here or Move Here.
Notes: To move the selected items, drag them to the destination folder. To copy the items,
hold down the Ctrl key while you drag. Another way to copy and paste files is to use the
keyboard shortcuts Ctrl+X (Cut) and Ctrl+V (Paste). Pay attention to pop-up messages that
appear when dragging—you can use these to find out what will happen when you release
the mouse button.

5. Create a Folder
Steps
 Open the drive or folder where you want to create a folder.
 Click the New folder button on the toolbar.
 With the New Folder name selected, type a new name.
 Press Enter.

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Notes: Right-click a blank area on the desktop or in the folder window, point to New, and
then click Folder.
6. Deleting
Steps
 Select the file or folder.
 Click the Organize button and select Delete from the pull-down menu.
 After you select delete a confirmation message appears.
Notes:
 You can also delete a file or folder by press right click on the item and then click
delete or press Del buttons on the keyboard.
 The easiest way to delete on the desktop by drag and drop it to recycle Bin.
 When you delete a file or folder from your hard disk, it's not deleted right away.
Instead, it's stored in the Recycle Bin until the Recycle Bin is emptied.
 If you delete a file or folder from a network folder or from a USB flash drive, it
might be permanently deleted rather than being stored in the Recycle Bin.
 If a file can’t be deleted, it might be in use by a program that's currently running.
Try closing the program or restarting your computer to fix the problem. For more
information.
 To permanently delete a file without first moving it to the Recycle Bin, select the
file, and then press Shift + Delete.
 When you delete a file, it's usually moved to the Recycle Bin so that you can restore
the file later if necessary.
 To permanently remove files from your computer and reclaim any hard disk space
they were using, you need to delete the files from the Recycle Bin. You can delete
individual files from the Recycle Bin or empty the entire Recycle Bin at once.
 Open the Recycle Bin by double-clicking the Recycle Bin on the desktop. To
permanently delete one file, click it, press Delete, and then click Yes. To delete all
of the files, on the toolbar, click Empty the Recycle Bin, and then click Yes

 You can empty the Recycle Bin without using Empty Recycle Bin opening it by
right-clicking the Recycle Bin and then clicking Empty Recycle Bin.

 To Restore item from recycle Bin, Open the Recycle Bin by double-clicking the
Recycle Bin on the desktop. To restore a file, click it, and then, on the toolbar, click
Restore this item. To restore all of the files, make sure that no files are selected,
and then, on the toolbar, click Restore all items. The files will be restored to their
original locations on your computer.
Note
Deleted files do not stay in the Recycle Bin indefinitely. By default, the deleted files in the
Recycle Bin can occupy 10% of your hard disk space. When you’ve deleted enough files to
exceed this 10%, the oldest files in the Recycle Bin are automatically and permanently
deleted from your hard disk.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

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Programming languages are the mediums used by human beings to communicate their instruction to
computers
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES are also classified as
 Machine Languages
 Low Level Languages
 High Level Languages

Examples of programming languages:

FORTRAN, COBOL, PL/one, BASIC,FOCUS, NOMAD,PASCAL,C,C+, etc ....
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Application Software
Application software is a set of computer programs (instruction) that are developed to address the
user needs to perform specific function or solve specific problems. Some of the major application
software categories are discussed below:
 Word Processing – such application are used for processing and manipulating text-based
data, such as writing documents.
o Example: Microsoft Word
 Spreadsheet - such applications are built-in with various routines that are used for
processing numerical data. Applications that fall in this category are often used in
financial, statistical, mathematical problem solving.
o Example: Microsoft Excel, SPSS, PeachTree
 Data Management – These applications provide a structured system to manage data that
enable to store, retrieve, and manipulate data.
o Microsoft Access, Paradox, Oracle, Sybase
 Desktop Publishing - these applications are similar to word processors providing a powerful
sophisticated routines for creating publications, such as high quality newsletters,
advertising and marketing materials.
o Example: Microsoft Publisher, Quark Express
 Graphics – such software are used in creating, storing, analysing, displaying, printing of
charts, graphs, maps, design drawings. Examples of graphics applications are:
o Presentation software
o CAD (computer Aided Design) – such as AutoCAD
 Multimedia – multimedia applications are used for processing audio, animation, video,
graphics and images.

3 Human ware
Information technology professional are responsible for acquiring, developing, maintain or
operating the hardware and software associated with computers and communication networks. The
following IT professionals have the highest profile:
IT PROFESSIONAL DUTY
Programmers use programming languages to create computer and
(software Engineer) communications network software

Systems Analysts work with users to determine the requirements an application

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 must meet. As part of their job, they may specify the purchase
of software package that gets the job done or order the
development of custom software.
Project Managers coordinate the development of a project and manage the team of
programmer/analysts
Network Specialists design, operate, and manage computer communications
networks
Trainers work with end-users, helping them to become comfortable and
skilled in using hardware or software
Computer Operators oversee the operations of computers in data centre sometimes
called computer centres (facilities at which large and midrange
computers systems are located). These systems are shared by
many users who are interconnected with the system through
communications links. Computer operators also perform
support activities, such starting application, loading magnetic
tape, and anything else that will ensure the smooth operation of
computer facilities.
Computer Engineer the IT professionals who design, develop and oversee the
manufacturing of computer equipment
Systems Engineers The IT professionals who install and maintain hardware.

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