ICT NOTES CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce
information (output), and store the information for future use1.

Functionalities of a computer2
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

Computer Components
Any kind of computers consists of Hardware AND Software.
Computer hardware- is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system.
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor,
mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound
cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched.
DEFINATION OF TERMS

Data

These are raw, unprocessed and unorganized facts that are relatively meaningless to the user. E.g.
Number of hours worked by employee

Information

This is processed data.it is organized and presented in a given context so as to make it useful.

Information communication Technology (ICT)

includes all technologies (hardware, software & networking) used to process and communicate
information.

Information system (IS)

It is a combination of software, hardware, and telecommunication networks to collect useful data,

especially in an organization.

USES OF INFORMATION

a) Decision making
b) Monitoring and control

Characteristics of High Quality Data

 Accuracy- As the name implies, this data quality characteristic means that information is
correct.
 Completeness- “Completeness” refers to how comprehensive the information is.
 Reliability- reliability means that a piece of information doesn’t contradict another piece
of information in a different source or system.
 Relevance- You must consider whether you really need this information, or whether you’re
collecting it just for the sake of it.
 Timeliness- refers to how up to date information is. If it was gathered in the past hour, then
it’s timely – unless new information has come in that renders previous information useless.
A BRIEF COMPUTER HISTORY

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire
computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail
along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate dates against
each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.No Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.
Advantages of Computers

Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy

 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence

 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment
it may be playing a card game.
Reliability

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation

 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives
a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the
cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers

Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.

 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency

 It functions as per the user’s instruction; thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment

 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling

 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

  It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike humans.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

1
Computer) microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer

2 Workstation
however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds

3 Mini Computer
of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds

4 Main Frame of users simultaneously. Software technology is different from
minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of

5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per second.

ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

Info communication and technology has drastically altered the means within which business is
performed. Now, most corporations used accounting info systems in running their operations.
Developments in info technology have radically increased accounting systems. Computers and
alternative digital technologies have amplified workplace productivity facilitating the quick
exchange of documents, gathering and analysis of information. In the gift business situation info
& communication Technology helps in several ways in which square measure about to delineate
below:

 Communication - In the business world, communication plays a very important role in

maintaining the connection between workers, suppliers, and customers. Therefore, the
utilization of IT we will alter the thanks to communicate through e-mail, video chat rooms
or social networking web site.
 Helps in Inventory Management - Inventory management systems establish the number
of every item a corporation maintains, associate degree order of further stock by employing
a means of inventory management. By victimization in IT in inventory management, it
additionally can help in track amount of every item a corporation maintains, triggering
once it involves managing inventory.
 Management Information Systems - Information knowledge is extremely necessary for
a company and a valuable resource demand for the safe and effective care. Knowledge
used is as a part of a strategic set up for achieving the aim and mission. Then, the corporate
ought to use the management data system (MIS) to modify the corporate to trace sales
knowledge, expenditure and productivity similarly as info to trace profits from time to time,
maximizing come back on investment and acknowledge areas of improvement.
 Customer Relationship Management - Companies are using IT to improving the way of
design and manage customer relationship. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
systems capture every relation a company has with a customer, so that a more experience
gain is possible. If a customer makes a call to Centre and report an issue, the customer
relation officer will be able to see what the customer has purchased, view shipping
information, call up the training manual for that item and effectively respond to the issue.
 ICT & Business Decision-Making - The role of information technology in management
decision-making is seen in tools such as ERP software and decision support systems that
help managers see company performance data in real time so that they can make more
informed decisions. Such software presents an online dashboard with information about
the company's finances, customers, sales and marketing trends and inventory levels.
Managers can use the data to decide which products to promote or stop selling, where to
cut expenses, which customers need support and when to place supply and materials orders.
  Technology as a Link to the World - Communication may be a part of business. So,
transportation and processes create business an internet of sophisticated processes that
interaction with one another. With technology, it's been doable to widen business
operations. Now, concerning anyone will do business much anyplace, from any area in
their house. Technology has created it doable for businesses to own a wider reach within
the world. The simplest example of this can be the web and also the World Wide internet.
The web is currently a vital a part of any businesses’ promoting campaign, because it allows
the business to draw in customers worldwide

OTHER BUSINESS ROLE OF ICT

Other examples of ICT’s role in business include the following:

 Internet –enabled system, such as secure entry system and wireless cameras, help to
improve business security and reduce risk of theft and loss of confidential information.
 ICT allow companies to store important company data in a database in the cloud to reduce
paper waste, increases security and allow for easy backups.
 ICT allow companies to expand internationally as easily as setting up a multi –language
website that market to global customer and allow purchases in multiple currencies.
 From enabling telecommunication to reduce energy use through modern systems, IT has
a role in company sustainability that can save money and improve the company’s
reputation.

POSITIVE USE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY

1. Communication: Time and money can be saved since information can be transferred
much more quickly. It is now speedier and more effective thanks to ICT.
2. Globalization: Video conferencing reduces travel and lodging costs. ICT has enabled the
world economy to become a single interconnected system that allows one to contact a
business or family member and bring nations and people closer together.
3. Cost-effectiveness: Sending an e-mail seems free, even when it isn't, and it is
unquestionably less expensive than making a phone call. ICT has also aided in the
automation of commercial procedures, reorganizing firms to make them incredibly
efficient.
 4. Greater accessibility: ICT has enabled businesses to be automated, providing customers
access to a site or voicemail seven days a week.
5. Bridging the culture clash: More access to technology has made it possible for
individuals of different cultures to speak with one another and exchange ideas, increasing
awareness and decreasing prejudice.
6. Creation of new employment: The emergence of new, fascinating occupations has been
the most significant benefit of ICT.
7. Education: Computers, their programming, and the Internet have made it possible to
educate people in ways that were impossible for earlier generations.
8. Complicated structure: Teachers can explain the complex system and lesson and ensure
students understand it thanks to ICT.
9. Make Things Easier: Teachers may design interactive classrooms using ICT, which
makes the lesson more fun.
10. GUI Enhance Learning: Images may be employed in education to enhance students' long-
term memory using ICT.

NEGATIVE USE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY

1. Lack of work security - Because technology is constantly evolving, experts in various

industries think that ICT has created job security a major problem. If people want to feel
comfortable in their work, they must continually learn new things or be aware of
developments in their field.
2. Cultures were becoming dominant - Although ICT could have made the globe more
interconnected, it has also led to one society absorbing a weaker one. For instance, it is
currently said that American teens have an influence on how the majority of young
teenagers throughout the world today act, dress, and behave.
3. Privacy - Information technology may have boosted, simplified, and improved
communication, but it has also given rise to privacy concerns. People are increasingly
concerned that their formerly private information may become public knowledge due to
mobile phone signal interceptions and e-mail hacking. Apart from these issues, Computer
 worms, Trojan horses, malware, spam, and phishing are a few of the various threats that
may ruin our daily lives.
4. Reliance on Technology - Professor Ian Robertson, a neuropsychology specialist at
Trinity College Dublin who conducted the study, said: "People have a lot to remember
nowadays, and they're dependent on technology for the memories, but the less you use of
your memory, the weaker it becomes. Because they utilize a spell-checker or a calculator
to complete simple addition or subtraction, many don't bother learning."
5. Information Reliability: Just because something is online doesn't guarantee it is
dependable. Anybody with computer and internet access can create a blog or post
something on a website. The open-source encyclopedia Wikipedia is an excellent
illustration of this because, although being a good source of knowledge, academic
institutions do not accept it as a reliable source of references.
6. Expensive: Too expensive to be able to afford.
7. Need Separate Training: Lack of experience makes it challenging for instructors to utilize
ICT technologies.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
2 Store Data
and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert

3 Processing Data
them into useful information.
 Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such
4
Information as a printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
5
workflow performed.

1. Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates
a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.

Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard - Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data
to the computer.

 Mouse- It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round
ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals
 to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally, it has two buttons called the
left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can be used
to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into
the computer.

 Scanner- Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is
used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard
disk of the computer for further manipulation.

 Other input devices include: Joy Stick, Light pen, Track Ball, Graphic Tablet, Microphone,
Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR), Optical Character Reader(OCR), Bar Code Reader,
Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

2. CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation
of all parts of the computer.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
 I. Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
 II. Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
III. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section - Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations

like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the above operations.

 Logic Section - Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.

Memory

Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored.

Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
 I. Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

II. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made
up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM
and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

III. Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

3. Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This
unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form
understandable by the users.

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

  Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into
a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
  Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different
character sets available in the market are 48-character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation
of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

4. STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA

Primary storage
a) Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside
the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time.
Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM) - The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as
long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to
volatile nature. It is Faster, Used as cache memory, Large size, High power
consumption and expensive

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) -DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order
to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites
the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it
is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.

b) Cache
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU.

c) Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that
are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips
are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine
and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory- PROM is read-only memory that can be modified
only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming.
It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) - EPROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate
region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For
erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure
to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) - EEPROM is
programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location
can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Communication devices
A communication device is a hardware device capable of transmitting an analog or digital signal
over the telephone, other communication wire, or wirelessly.
Below is a full listing of all the different types of communications devices you may encounter
when dealing with a computer.

 Bluetooth devices
 Infrared devices
 Modem (over phone line)
 Network card (using Ethernet)
 Smartphone
 Wi-Fi devices (using a Wi-Fi router); examples shown below.