Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Palanan Extension Unit

LEARNING MODULE IN TEACHING MATHEMATICS IN THE

PRIMARY GRADES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Module 1 Foundations of Teaching and Learning

Lesson 1. The Nature of Mathematics
Lesson 2. Learning Theories in Mathematics Education
Lesson 3. Framework for Philippine Mathematics Teacher Education
References
Module 2 Understanding the School Mathematics Curriculum
Lesson 1. The Goals of Philippine Mathematics Education
Lesson 2. NCTM’s Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
Lesson 3. The Philippine Mathematics Curriculum
References
Module 3 Methods of Teaching Mathematics
Lesson 1. Interpersonal Approach
Cooperative Learning Strategy
Peer Practice Strategy
Game-Based strategy
Lesson 2. Teacher Guided Approach
Direct Instruction
Discovery Approach
Lesson 3. Self-Based Approach
Inquiry Method
Problem-Based learning
Research-Based Strategy
References
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Module 4 Planning for Mathematics Instruction
Lesson 1. Assessing Students’ Prior Knowledge
Lesson 2. Selecting the Tools and Materials
References
Module 5 Assessment in Mathematics
Lesson 1. Purpose and Goals of Assessment
Lesson 2. Types of Assessment
Lesson 3. Tools and Techniques in Assessment
References
Module 6 Developing Learning Plan
Lesson 1. A Three-Phase Lesson Format
Lesson 2. Process for Preparing a Lesson
Lesson 3. Planning of Different Types of Lessons
References

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 MODULE 1
Foundations of Teaching and Learning Mathematics

INTRODUCTION

Have you ever asked yourself what makes a mathematics teacher in the 21st Century?
What characteristics of a mathematics teacher do possess to become highly effective
and efficient in teaching mathematics? What mathematics should you teach within the
elementary school level? These are just a few questions that you may encounter as you
go through the teaching and learning of Mathematics. The fundamental core of
effective teaching in mathematics combines an understanding of how learners learn,
the way to promote that learning by teaching problem solving, and the way to plan for
and assess that learning in a daily basis.
This module presents you with the nature of mathematics, mathematics learning
theories, and a framework for teaching mathematics.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you should be able to:

a. explain the nature of mathematics;
b. discuss mathematics learning theories; and
c. discuss the framework for teaching mathematics.

LEARNING CONTENT

Lesson 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Before one develops a philosophical framework for teaching mathematics, you need to
understand first what mathematics is and what it is nature.

What is Mathematics?

Frequently, learners view mathematics as arithmetic. In school mathematics, arithmetic

is about numbers with emphasis on computation. Learners believe that the only way to
learn mathematics is through computing and memorizing formulas. This practice is
prevalent in primary grades. Hence, understanding the real meaning of mathematics is
at stake.

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For South Africa, the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (2011) defines
Mathematics as follows:

“Mathematics is a language that makes use of symbols and notations to describe

numerical, geometrical, and graphical relationships. It is a human activity that involves
observing, representing, and investigating patterns and quantitative relationships in
physical and social phenomena and between mathematical objects themselves. It helps
to develop the mental processes that enhance logical and critical thinking, accuracy,
and problem-solving that will contribute to decision-making.”

Based on the definition given above, it encompasses the notion of mathematics as

arithmetic focuses merely on computations. It emphasizes the necessary skills (e.g.,
critical thinking skills and problem-solving skills) needed for the 21st Century learning
environment.

The Nature of Mathematics

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989) defines the nature of

mathematics as follows:

1. Mathematics is a study of patterns and relationships. Children must become

conscious of recurring ideas and relationships between mathematical ideas. These
relationships and concepts provide a unifying thread throughout the curriculum.
Children should come to work out how one idea is different or the same with other
ideas.

2. Mathematics is an art, characterized by order and internal consistency. Many

children consider mathematics a confusing set of discrete facts and skills that need to
memorize. Teachers tend to focus on developing the required skills to ‘do’ mathematics,
and by doing this unconsciously, they may forget that children need guidance to
recognize and appreciate the underlying orderliness and consistency as they construct
their understanding of mathematics.

3. Mathematics is a language that uses carefully defined terms and symbols. Using
symbols and precise terms, learners can communicate well about mathematics and to
talk and think like mathematicians.

4. Mathematics is a tool. Learning the terms and symbols in mathematics enhances

our ability to speak about science, real-life situations, and mathematics itself. Like every
language, you wish to grasp the meaning of those words, and when it is appropriate to
use them.

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5. Mathematics is a way of thinking. Mathematics provides people with strategies
for organizing, analyzing, and synthesizing information. Often symbolizing a real-life
problem reduces it to a widely known mathematical procedure, making the problem
easier to solve.

WEB Link

To learn more about what is Mathematics and the Nature of Mathematics through the
WEB, you may open the following links:

What is Mathematics available at

http://pages.uoregon.edu/moursund/Math/mathematics.htm

The Nature of Mathematics available at

http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap2.htm#Mathematics

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243769794_The_nature_of_mathemat
ics_Its_role_and_its_influence.

Proceed to Activity 1 to further test your understanding of the lesson presented above.

Lesson 2: Learning Theories in Mathematics Education

In mathematics education, there is no consensus about what it means to

understand mathematics. One needs to consider the different perspectives and study
the different learning theories to make sense of mathematics. That is why different
learning theories developed by which teachers can use as tools or lenses for
interpreting how the learner learns (Simon, 2009). Hence, learning theories are
developed through the analysis of learners and adults as they develop new
understandings. Different learning theories like Behaviorism, Cognitivism,
Constructivism, and Situated learning influence the way mathematics is taught. These
theories have different interpretations of what they mean in classroom practice.
Remember that learning theory isn’t a teaching strategy - theory informs the teaching
practice.
In this section, you will learn the learning theories that directly applicable to
mathematics education like Behaviorism, Constructivism, and Situated learning.

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Behaviorism

Behaviorism is rooted in the work of B.F. Skinner with the concept of operant
conditioning. Behaviorism theorists believe that knowledge exists independently and
outside people experiences. Behaviorists view the learner as a blank slate who must
provide with the experience. Behaviorists believe that learning happened when new
behaviors or changes in behavior acquired through associations between stimuli and
responses. Hence, association results in a change in behavior.

Learning Process

The learning process is predicated on objectively observable changes in behavior.

Behaviorists define learning as the acquisition of recent behavior or change in behavior.
Learning starts when a cue or stimulus from the environment given. Therefore, the
learner reacts to the stimulus with some style of response. Consequences that reinforce
the required behavior arrange to follow the specified change behavior (e.g., study for a
test and acquire a decent grade). The new behavioral pattern may repeat so that it
becomes automatic. The change in behavior of the learner signifies that learning has
occurred. Teachers use behaviorism once they reward or punish learner behaviors.

Examples and applications of behaviorist learning theory:

• Drill/Rote work
• Repetitive practice
• Bonus points (providing an incentive to try to do more)
• Participation points (providing an incentive to participate)
• Verbal Reinforcement (saying “good job”)
• Establishing rules

Limitations

Behaviorism instruction doesn’t prepare the learner for problem solving or creative
thinking. Learners do what they instructed them to do and don’t take the initiative to
change or improve things. Hence, learners perform solely on recall of basic facts,
automatic responses, or performing tasks.

Cognitivism

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Cognitivism is also called Cognitive Information Processing (CIP), based on the thought
process behind the behavior. The CIP theory predicated on the concept that humans
process the data they receive, instead of merely responding to stimuli (i.e., that give
some thought to what’s happening). The changes in behavior are observed but only as
an indicator of what’s happening within the learner’s mind. The learner’s mind is like a
mirror from which new knowledge and skills will reflect.

CIP is employed when the learner plays a role in seeking ways to grasp and process
information that he or she receives and relate it to what’s already known and stored
within the memory.

Learning Process

Cognitive learning theorists believe that learning occurs through the internal processing
of data. Unlike behaviorism, CIP is governed by an internal process instead of by
external circumstances. The cognitive approach to learning theory pays more attention
to what goes on inside the learner’s head and focuses on mental processes instead of
observable behavior. Changes in behavior are observed and used as indicators on
what’s happening inside the learner’s mind.

Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining new insights or

changing old ones. Thus, it could be a change in knowledge which is stored in memory,
and not just a change in behavior.

Examples and applications of cognitive learning theory:

• Classifying or chunking information
• Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
• Providing structure (organizing your lecture in efficient and meaningful ways)
• Real-world examples
• Discussions
• Analogies
• Imagery/providing pictures
• Mnemonics

Constructivism

Constructivism is rooted in Jean Piaget’s work developed within the 1930s. At the
center of constructivism is that the notion that learners don’t seem to be blank slates
but rather creators or constructors of their learning. It predicates on how an individual
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interprets and creates the meaning of his or her experiences. Hence, knowledge builds
on individual experience. Since learner incorporates a different set of learning
experiences and perceptions, learning is exclusive and different for every individual.

Learning Process

Constructivist theorists believe that learning could be a process where individuals

construct new ideas or concepts that supported prior knowledge or experience. Each of
us generates our mental images, which we use to form our experiences. We resolve
conflicts between ideas and reflect on theoretical explanations. Learning, therefore, is
just the method of adjusting our mental images to accommodate our new experiences.

This theory focuses on preparing people for problem-solving. Therefore, to achieve

success, the learner needs a base of information upon which to interpret and build
ideas. Furthermore, with constructivism, outcomes don’t seem to be always predictable
because learners are constructing their knowledge. Thus, constructivism doesn’t work
when the results always to be consistent.

Examples
• Case studies
• Research projects
• Problem-based learning
• Brainstorming
• Collaborative learning/group work
• Discovery learning
• simulations

Situated Learning Theory

Situated learning theory is rooted in the work of Lave and Wegner developed in the
early ‘90s. This theory argues that learning occurs best when it takes place in the
context in which it applied. Learners should act in an apprentice capacity within
communities of practice where learning opportunities arise situationally. As learners
gain experience and competence, they gradually move from an apprenticeship role to
full participants in their community of practice.

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Learning Process
Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition. It applies in the context
of technology-based learning activities for schools that focus on problem-solving skills
(Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1993).

Situated Learning Theory anchors on the following principles (a)knowledge needs to be

presented in an authentic context, i.e., settings and applications that would naturally
involve that knowledge, and (b) learning requires social interaction and collaboration.

Examples:
• Practice Teaching
• On-the-Job Training
• Apprentice

WEB Link

To learn more about learning theories through the WEB, you may open the following
links:

Constructivism, Situated Learning and other Learning Theories available at

http://pages.uoregon.edu/moursund/Math/learning-theories.htm

Situated Learning Theory available at https://helpfulprofessor.com/situated-

learning-theory/#3

Proceed to Activity 2 to further test your understanding of the lesson presented above.

Lesson 3: Framework for Philippine Mathematics Teacher Education

As teachers of mathematics, one must study the various psychologies of learning so

that learners can attain their maximum learning. Teachers, with a thorough
understanding of the psychology of learning, may do a better job in teaching
mathematics to learners for all levels of ability. Teachers also must consider learners’
differences so that they will learn mathematics as possible. An effective and efficient
mathematics teacher emphasizes objectives, learning opportunities, and assessment
procedures that assist learners individually to perceive meaning in the mathematics

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curriculum (Ediger, 1999, p.1). In this section, you will learn the theoretical foundations
or framework of teaching mathematics in the Philippine setting.

The Philippine Council of Mathematics Teachers Educators (MATHTED), Inc. and the
Science Education Institute of the Department of Science and Technology (SEI-DOST)
presents Framework for Philippine Mathematics Teacher Education. This framework
envisions what a competent mathematics teacher is and identifies the knowledge
components that mathematics teachers should possess.

Figure 1. Adapted from Framework for Philippine Mathematics Teacher Education (2011). Knowledge and
Skills Component of Mathematics Teaching. SEI-DOST & MATHED, Manila, Philippines. Copyright 2011 by
the Science Education Institute, Department of Science and Technology and the Philippines Council of
Mathematics Teacher Education (MATHED), Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 1 shows that a fully competent mathematics teacher should possess a solid
foundation of mathematical content knowledge, is armed with mathematical
pedagogical knowledge as well as general pedagogical knowledge and management
skills, and displays an appropriate mathematical disposition and values of one’s
professional development.

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Mathematical Content Knowledge refers to mathematics teachers’ knowledge of,
understanding of, and competencies in the content of mathematics. It means that
teachers must be well-versed with the content of the mathematics that they are
assigned to teach. The question is that “What elementary mathematics teachers should
know?” or “To what extent of the contents of mathematics does the teacher need to
know?” This question can clarify with the following figure:

What high school

st rd
Mathematics for 1 to 3 yr mathematics teachers
math majors should know?

Mathematics for 7 – 10/11

What elementary
Mathematics mathematics teachers
for K - 6 should know?

Figure 2. Adapted from the Framework for Philippines Mathematics Teacher Education (2011).
Recommended Content Expertise and Exposure of K-10/11 Mathematics Teachers in Comparison to
Mathematics in Schools and Universities. SEI-DOST & MATHED, Manila, Philippines. Copyright 2011 by
the Science Education Institute, Department of Science and Technology and the Philippines Council of
Mathematics Teacher Education (MATHED), Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure 2 shows the mathematics that teachers at the K-6 levels should know the K-9/10
mathematics taught in elementary and secondary schools and must have been exposed
to mathematics at level 10/11.

Mathematics teachers at the K-6 grade levels should display the right amount of
knowledge and competencies in the following areas:
• Numbers and number sense (Number Theory);
• Patterns, symbols, functions (Algebra and Trigonometry);
• Properties of geometric figures and measurements (Metric, Non-metric,
Trigonometry, and Analytic Geometry);
• Sets;
• Contemporary mathematics (Discrete Mathematics);

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 • Data handling, counting techniques, measures of chance (Probability and
Statistics).

Mathematical Pedagogical Knowledge refers to the understanding of mathematics

teachers and the use of teaching approaches, learning theories, assessment principles,
and modalities particular to mathematics. It means that teachers do not know only the
content of mathematics deeply but also well-versed as to the teaching of mathematics.
This knowledge attributed to Shulman’s 1986, which he coined the term “Pedagogical
Content Knowledge.” In the framework, this knowledge refers to Mathematical
Pedagogical Knowledge to indicate the type of knowledge component necessary in
carrying out the teaching of mathematics.

Mathematical Pedagogical Knowledge includes four domains:

• Knowledge of School Mathematics Curriculum. Mathematics teachers must

know the contents of the school mathematics curriculum and how the curriculum
is developed and designed mainly to learn how to use it and plan for its effective
implementation. Teachers must understand the curriculum in ways that allow
them to explain and unpack ideas to enable them to help learners learn (Ball &
Bass, 2004).
• Knowledge of Learners’ Cognition of Mathematics. Mathematics teachers
must have a sufficient understanding of how learners learn, in general, and
understand mathematics. Through this knowledge, it helps teachers to know
what mathematical tasks are appropriate and what teaching methodologies are
effective in promoting learners’ development of critical and analytical thinking,
problem- solving and other mathematical skills (NRC, 2001).
• Knowledge of the Tasks of Mathematics Teaching. Mathematics teachers
need to know how to select the best problems and exercises to give so that
learners learn the different methods and approaches to solving problems and the
applications of concepts. They also know the different ways of assessing
learners’ understanding of mathematics and their mathematical skills. They also
need to know when to use technology and how to use various technological tools
in teaching mathematics.
• Knowledge of Mathematical Discourse. Mathematics teachers must be able
to detect learners’ misconceptions of mathematical concepts as well as
appreciate learners’ deep and broad understanding of mathematical theories.
Mathematical discourse includes simple verbal explanations and short discussions
among learners and between learners and teacher. Through this knowledge can
one engages learners deeply in mathematics.

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General Pedagogical Knowledge refers to the knowledge on the understanding of
learners and their development as learners, knowledge of general teaching pedagogies,
and classroom processes, including lesson planning techniques, knowledge of theories
of assessment, and understanding of professional responsibilities.

• Knowledge of Learners, their Cognitive Development, and Contexts.

Mathematics teachers must know the general characteristics of learners that are
under their care – their developmental and cognitive background, aptitude, the
different situations and contexts that they come from, their beliefs and attitudes.
• Knowledge of General Teaching Techniques and Classroom Processes.
Mathematics teachers do not only know specific techniques for teaching
mathematics but also possess a solid foundation of general teaching techniques.
Some examples of teaching strategies that have been proven effective are group
work, practical work, investigative studies, and class presentations. Through this
knowledge, teachers can expand their repertoire of techniques that are tailor-
fitted to mathematics.
• Knowledge of Theories of Assessment. Mathematics teachers must know
the different theories of assessment. These theories would make teachers
understand assessment in rich content, enabling them to shift and adjust
practices as called for by specific situations and contexts.
• Knowledge of Professional Responsibilities. It refers to the professional
responsibilities of teachers, which include knowing and understanding the
national and local standards of education and communicating effectively with
parents of learners, among many others.

Classroom Management Skills refer to the approaches of mathematics teachers in

providing for a favorable environment for learner learning. These include organizing the
physical set-up, providing alternative modalities, and the use of equipment, tools, kits,
gadgets, and facilities needed for teaching mathematics effectively. Mathematics
teachers must have sufficient knowledge in managing the classroom to maintain a
conducive learning environment.

Mathematical Disposition refers to the ability of mathematics teachers to make

decisions for themselves that would impact on learners’ learning and their professional
development. It includes beliefs and attitudes of teachers, their inclination to use
mathematics, and their willingness to reach out to others.

WEB Link

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To learn more about the psychological foundations of teaching mathematics through
the WEB, you may open the following link:

Psychological Foundations of Teaching in Mathematics available at

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED431606.pdf

Proceed to Activity 3 to further test your understanding of the lesson presented above.

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The activities provided in this section help you to develop further your
understanding of the theoretical foundations and perspectives in teaching and learning
mathematics. You may post your answer on the discussion forum.

Activity 1: Making a Concept Map

Concept Maps are tools for organizing and presenting knowledge. They are visual
representations that show relationship of concepts. They can be used as a diagnostic
preassessment or a formative assessment during learning activities.

Make a concept map to summarize what you have read about the nature of
mathematics. Include a brief description of your concept map. Write your output below
the space.

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Activity 2: Thinking About How You Learned Mathematics

Think about the math classes you have in your elementary and secondary years. Recall
the learning strategies you used to learn mathematics during those years.
Generally, what have you noticed about the way you learned mathematics during your
elementary years and in your high school years. Compare how you learned
mathematics during your elementary years with that during high school years. Write
your thoughts here.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Activity 3: Thinking About How Your Teachers Taught Mathematics

3A. How do you think mathematics should have taught in a different way when you
were in elementary school so that you and your classmates would have enjoyed
learning mathematics more, and you would have developed a deeper understanding of
mathematics?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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3B. Why do you think these different ways of teaching mathematics would have
enhanced you and your classmates’ learning?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
ASSESSMENT TASKS

Task 1: A Reflection

1A. Based on the discussion on the nature of mathematics, what should you emphasize
in teaching mathematics? Why?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

1B. Give an example of how mathematics is a study of patterns and relationships, a

way of thinking, an art, and a language.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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Task 2: Conceptual Test

Column A contains a description and definition of learning theories in mathematics and

knowledge components in mathematics teaching. Column B contains learning theories
and knowledge components in mathematics teaching. Match the concepts in Column B
with the most appropriate definitions or descriptions in Column A. Write the letter of the
correct answer on the space next to the numbers in Column A.

Column A Column B

_____ 1. Learning occurs through internal a. Situated Learning Theory processing

of information. b. Constructivism
_____ 2. Learning occurs in how learners c. Behaviorism
interpret and create the meaning of d. Cognitivism
their experiences. e. Mathematics Content
Knowledge
_____ 3. Learning occurs when new f. Mathematical Disposition
behaviors or changes in behaviors g. Professional Development
acquired through associations h. Classroom Management Skills
between stimuli and responses. i. General Pedagogical Knowledge
_____ 4. Learning occurs best when it takes j. Mathematical Pedagogical
place in the context in which it applied. Knowledge
k. Learners’ Cognition of
Mathematics
_____ 5. A teacher is well-versed as to the l. Knowledge of Mathematical
content and competencies in the Discourse
mathematics curriculum.
_____ 6. A teacher has a wide knowledge of
the use of teaching approaches,
learning theories and assessment
principles specifically to
mathematics.
_____ 7. A teacher has a wide knowledge of
the use of teaching approaches,
learning theories and assessment
principles in general contexts and
environment.
_____ 8. A teacher knows on

17
 providing for a favorable learning
environment such as organizing the
physical set-up of the classroom and
use of tools and gadgets needed for
effective teaching.
_____ 9. A teacher can make
decisions for himself/herself that
would impact on learners’ learning
such as his/her attitudes and beliefs
towards teaching mathematics.
_____ 10. A teacher has a desire for further
professional growth and
development.

REFERENCES:

Ball, D.L. & Bass, H. (2004). Knowing mathematics for teaching. In R. Strasser, G.
Brandell, B. Grevholm, O. Helenius (Eds.), Educating for the future: Proceedings of an
international symposium on mathematics teacher education (pp. 159 – 178). Sweden:
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Department of Education (2018). Mathematics teaching and learning framework for

south africa: Teaching mathematics for understanding. South Africa: Department of
Education

John A. Van de Walle, Karen S. Karp, and Jennifer M. Bay-Williams (2015). Elementary
and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally, 9th edition. Pearson
Education Limited. Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England.

Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice: mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511609268

Ediger, Marlow (1999). Psychological foundations in teaching mathematics. ERC.

Retrieve on July 20, 2020 from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED431606.pdf

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NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) (1989). Curriculum and evaluation
standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM

National Research Council (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. J.
Kilpatrick, J. Swafford, B. Findell (Eds.) Mathematics Learning Study Committee, Center
for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.

Reys, R.E. et al. (2017). Helping children learn mathematics. 2 nd Ed. John Wiley & Sons
Australia, Ltd 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064

SEI-DOST & MATHED (2011). Framework for philippine mathematics teacher education.
Manila: SEI-DOST & MATHED, (pp. 11 – 37) Retrieved on July 20, 2020 from
http://www.sei.dost.gov.ph/images/downloads/publ/sei_mathteach.pdf

Simon, M. A. (2009). Amidst multiple theories of learning in mathematics education.

Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 40(5), 477–490.

Shulman, L. (1986). Knowledge growth in teaching. Those who understand. Educational

Researcher 15(2), pp. 4 – 14.

ONLINE RESOURCE(S):

https://www.slideshare.net/knowellton/module-63-mathematics

https://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/learning/theories/

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