Why Did Nonavian Dinosaurs Become Extinct?

Data from diverse sources indicate that the Late Cretaceous (100 to 65 million years ago)
climate was milder than today's because of shallow seas covering the continents. At the
end of the Cretaceous, the geological record shows that these seaways retreated from the
continents back into the major ocean basins. No one knows why. Over a period of about
100,000 years, while the seas pulled back, climates around the world became dramatically
more extreme: warmer days, cooler nights; hotter summers, colder winters. Perhaps
nonavian dinosaurs (that is, all the dinosaurs except those belonging to the Ave or bird
family) could not tolerate these extreme temperature changes and became extinct.

If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals, such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and
crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? Those animals are at the
mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It's hard to understand why
they would not be affected, whereas nonavian dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope,
especially if some dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow
seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the
Mesozoic. So why did the nonavian dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with
the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of
a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data.

Volcanism has also been implicated in dinosaur extinction. The end of the Cretaceous
coincided with a great increase in volcanic activity throughout the world. Lava flooded large
areas of India, and explosive eruptions in the South Atlantic and the midwestern United
States hurled ash over much of the globe. These eruptions could have spewed great
quantities of poisonous gases into the atmosphere, causing acid rain and more acidic
waters in the surface layers of the ocean. Over the short term, a cooling would result from
the airborne volcanic ash, which would cut off sunlight. Climatic changes from increased
volcanism may have caused the extinction of many nonavian dinosaurs, but they do not
satisfactorily explain the selective patterns of extinction in the fossil record.

Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for nonavian dinosaur extinctions eventually

led to a key observation that, in turn, has fueled a decade of vigorous and often vitriolic
debate. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly as one moves from older layers of
rock, documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into younger rocks representing the
beginning of the Cenozoic. Between the last layer representing the end of the Cretaceous
and the first layer representing the start of the Cenozoic, there is often a thin bed of clay.
Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long it took to deposit this 1 cm of clay by
looking at the concentration of the element iridium (Ir) in it.

Iridium is no longer common on Earth's surface. Because it usually exists in a metallic state,
it was preferentially incorporated into Earth's core as the planet cooled and consolidated.
Iridium is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in which the solar system's
original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic meteorites continually
bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many of these meteorites
fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have
taken to deposit the observed amount of iridium in the boundary clay. These calculations
suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. On the basis of
other evidence, however, scientists know the deposition of the boundary clay could not
have lasted one million years, so the unusually high concentration of iridium seemed to
require a special explanation.

Consequently, scientists hypothesized that a large asteroid, about 10 to 15 km across,

collided with Earth, and the resulting fallout created the boundary clay. Their calculations
show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several months,
inhibiting photosynthesis in plants, decreasing surface temperatures on continents to
below freezing, causing extreme episodes of acid rain, and significantly raising long-term
global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. This disruption of the food chain and
climate would have eradicated the nonavian dinosaurs and other organisms in less than 50
years.

1. According to paragraph 1, the presence of large amounts of water on the

continents during the Late Cretaceous caused

Data from diverse sources indicate that the Late Cretaceous (100 to 65 million years ago)
climate was milder than today's because of shallow seas covering the continents. At the
end of the Cretaceous, the geological record shows that these seaways retreated from the
continents back into the major ocean basins. No one knows why. Over a period of about
100,000 years, while the seas pulled back, climates around the world became dramatically
more extreme: warmer days, cooler nights; hotter summers, colder winters. Perhaps
nonavian dinosaurs (that is, all the dinosaurs except those belonging to the Ave or bird
family) could not tolerate these extreme temperature changes and became extinct.
 climate conditions that were more extreme than today's climate
a reduction in the size of the major ocean basins around the world
temperatures that probably made it more difficult for some dinosaurs to survive
cooler summer temperatures and warmer winter temperatures

2. In paragraph 2, why does the author bring up the fact that snakes, lizards,
turtles, and crocodiles all survived extinction when nonavian dinosaurs did not?

If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals, such as snakes, lizards, turtles, and
crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? Those animals are at the
mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It's hard to understand why
they would not be affected, whereas nonavian dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope,
especially if some dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow
seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the
Mesozoic. So why did the nonavian dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with
the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of
a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data.

To provide evidence that nonavian dinosaurs were particularly sensitive to climate

change
To argue that at least some dinosaurs were warm-blooded
To point out that snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles were very well adapted to
the new climate conditions
To challenge the idea that the extinction of nonavian dinosaurs was caused simply
by climate change

3. According to paragraph 3, the increase in volcanism does NOT adequately

explain which of the following?

Volcanism has also been implicated in dinosaur extinction. The end of the Cretaceous
coincided with a great increase in volcanic activity throughout the world. Lava flooded large
areas of India, and explosive eruptions in the South Atlantic and the midwestern United
States hurled ash over much of the globe. These eruptions could have spewed great
quantities of poisonous gases into the atmosphere, causing acid rain and more acidic
waters in the surface layers of the ocean. Over the short term, a cooling would result from
the airborne volcanic ash, which would cut off sunlight. Climatic changes from increased
volcanism may have caused the extinction of many nonavian dinosaurs, but they do not
satisfactorily explain the selective patterns of extinction in the fossil record.

Which species became extinct and which survived

Why the climate seems to have become temporarily cooler
Changes in water acidity in the surface layers of the ocean
The presence of poisonous gases in the atmosphere

4. The word "vigorous" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for nonavian dinosaur extinctions eventually

led to a key observation that, in turn, has fueled a decade of vigorous and often vitriolic
debate. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly as one moves from older layers of
rock, documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into younger rocks representing the
beginning of the Cenozoic. Between the last layer representing the end of the Cretaceous
and the first layer representing the start of the Cenozoic, there is often a thin bed of clay.
Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long it took to deposit this 1 cm of clay by
looking at the concentration of the element iridium (Ir) in it.

Energetic
Scientific
Continuous
Productive

5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about iridium?

Iridium is no longer common on Earth's surface. Because it usually exists in a metallic state,
it was preferentially incorporated into Earth's core as the planet cooled and consolidated.
Iridium is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in which the solar system's
original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic meteorites continually
bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many of these meteorites
fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have
taken to deposit the observed amount of iridium in the boundary clay. These calculations
suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. On the basis of
other evidence, however, scientists know the deposition of the boundary clay could not
have lasted one million years, so the unusually high concentration of iridium seemed to
require a special explanation.
 It was present at the time the solar system originally formed.
There is very little iridium found in Earth's core.
Iridium on meteorites is rarely in its metallic state.
At high levels, iridium is toxic enough to have caused mass extinctions.

6. According to paragraph 5, as a result of determining how long it took to

deposit the iridium-rich boundary clay, scientists realized that

Iridium is no longer common on Earth's surface. Because it usually exists in a metallic state,
it was preferentially incorporated into Earth's core as the planet cooled and consolidated.
Iridium is found in high concentrations in some meteorites, in which the solar system's
original chemical composition is preserved. Even today, microscopic meteorites continually
bombard Earth, falling on both land and sea. By measuring how many of these meteorites
fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have
taken to deposit the observed amount of iridium in the boundary clay. These calculations
suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. On the basis of
other evidence, however, scientists know the deposition of the boundary clay could not
have lasted one million years, so the unusually high concentration of iridium seemed to
require a special explanation.

meteorites had stopped fling to Earth while the boundary clay was being deposited
the thin bed of boundary clay was formed over a period of about one million years
the thin bed of boundary clay layer was older than they previously thought
the iridium in the boundary clay could not have been deposited through the usual

7. The word "eradicated" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Consequently, scientists hypothesized that a large asteroid, about 10 to 15 km across,

collided with Earth, and the resulting fallout created the boundary clay. Their calculations
show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several months,
inhibiting photosynthesis in plants, decreasing surface temperatures on continents to
below freezing, causing extreme episodes of acid rain, and significantly raising long-term
global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. This disruption of the food chain and
climate would have eradicated the nonavian dinosaurs and other organisms in less than 50
years.
 reached
starved
affected
eliminated

8. According to paragraph 6, the dust produced by the large asteroid after it

collided with Earth led to all of the following EXCEPT:

Consequently, scientists hypothesized that a large asteroid, about 10 to 15 km across,

collided with Earth, and the resulting fallout created the boundary clay. Their calculations
show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several months,
inhibiting photosynthesis in plants, decreasing surface temperatures on continents to
below freezing, causing extreme episodes of acid rain, and significantly raising long-term
global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. This disruption of the food chain and
climate would have eradicated the nonavian dinosaurs and other organisms in less than 50
years.

a short-term drop in temperatures on land

a loss of sunlight for several months
the temporary freezing of much of the world's oceans
a warmer climate over the long term

9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be
added to the passage.

These large bodies of water kept the temperature of the nearby air relatively
constant from day to night, summer to winter.

Where would the sentence best fit?

Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in passage.

Data from diverse sources indicate that the Late Cretaceous (100 to 65 million years ago)
climate was milder than today's because of shallow seas covering the continents.■ At the
end of the Cretaceous, the geological record shows that these seaways retreated from the
continents back into the major ocean basins.■ No one knows why.■ Over a period of about
100,000 years, while the seas pulled back, climates around the world became dramatically
more extreme: warmer days, cooler nights; hotter summers, colder winters.■ Perhaps
nonavian dinosaurs (that is, all the dinosaurs except those belonging to the Ave or bird
family) could not tolerate these extreme temperature changes and became extinct.

10. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the
most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary
because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the
passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The nonavian dinosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period, and
scientists have proposed several theories to explain why.

A. There is evidence that calls into question the hypothesis that the seas retreated from the
continents at the end of the Cretaceous period.

B. Increased volcanic activity led to acid rain, a short-term cooling of the atmosphere, and
other harmful effects, but it does not explain the selective patterns of extinction.

C. The clay at the Cretaceous-Cenozoic boundary is unusually rich in iridium, which

suggests that the extinctions were caused by Earth's collision with a large asteroid.

D. Loss of continental seas made the climate more extreme, but some cold- blooded
animals survived the change and the seas had retreated before without massive
extinctions.

E. Iridium poisoning may have inhibited photosynthesis in plants, leading to a disruption of

the food chain, but a disruption does not explain the loss of all nonavian dinosaurs.

F. Evidence of volcanic activity during the Cenozoic period supports the theory that Earth
was being struck by meteorites when the extinctions happened.
 Infant-Directed Speech
Infant-directed speech is a style of speech directed toward infants. This type of speech
pattern was previously called motherese because it was assumed that it applied only to
mothers. However, that assumption was wrong, and the gender-neutral term
infant-directed speech is now used more frequently.

Infant-directed speech is characterized by short, simple sentences. Pitch (the highness or

lowness of a sound) becomes generally higher, the range of frequencies (essentially, the
difference between the highest and the lowest pitch used) increases, and intonation (the
rise and fall in pitch) is more varied. There is also repetition of words, and topics are
restricted to items that are assumed to be comprehensible to infants, such as concrete
objects in the baby's environment. Sometimes infant-directed speech includes amusing
sounds that are not even words, imitating the prelinguistic speech of infants. In other
cases, it has little formal structure but is similar to the kind of telegraphic speech that
infants use as they develop their own language skills.

Infant-directed speech changes as children become older. Around the end of the first year,
infant-directed speech takes on more adultlike qualities. Sentences become longer and
more complex, although individual words are still spoken slowly and deliberately. Pitch is
also used to focus attention on particularly important words.

Infant-directed speech plays an important role in infants' acquisition of language.

Newborns respond to such speech more readily than they do to regular language, a fact
that suggests that they may be particularly receptive to it. Furthermore, some research
suggests that unusually extensive exposure to infant-directed speech early in life is related
to the comparatively early appearance of first words and earlier linguistic competence in
other areas.

Is infant-directed speech similar across cultures? In some respects, it clearly is. According to
a growing body of research, there are basic similarities across cultures in the nature of
infant-directed speech. Consider, for instance, a comparison of the major characteristics of
speech directed at infants used by native speakers of English and Spanish. Of the ten most
frequent features, six are common to both: exaggerated intonation, high pitch, lengthened
vowels, repetition, lower volume, and instructional emphasis (that is, heavy stress on
certain key words, such as emphasizing the word "ball" in the sentence, "No, that's not a
ball."). Similarly, mothers in the United States, Sweden, and Russia all exaggerate and
elongate the pronunciation of the three vowel sounds of "ee," "ah," and "oh" when
speaking to infants in similar ways, despite differences in the languages in which the
sounds are used. Even deaf mothers use a form of infant-directed speech: When
communicating with their infants, deaf mothers use sign language at a significantly slower
tempo than when communicating with adults, and they frequently repeat the signs.

The cross-cultural similarities in infant-directed speech are so great, in fact, that they
appear in some facets of language specific to particular types of interactions. For instance,
evidence comparing American English, German, and Mandarin Chinese speakers shows
that in each of the languages, pitch rises when a mother is attempting to get an infant's
attention or produce a response, while pitch falls when she is trying to calm an infant. Why
do we find such similarities across very different languages? One hypothesis is that the
characteristics of infant-directed speech activate innate responses in infants. As we have
noted, infants seem to prefer infant-directed speech over adult-directed speech, suggesting
that their perceptual systems may be more responsive to such characteristics. Another
explanation is that infant-directed speech facilitates language development, providing cues
as to the meaning of speech before infants have developed the capacity to understand the
meanings of words.

Despite the similarities in the style of infant-directed speech across diverse cultures, there
are some important cultural differences in the quantity of speech that infants hear from
their parents. For example, although the Gusii of Kenya care for their infants in an
extremely close, physical way, they speak to them less than American parents do.

1. According to paragraph 1, the term "motherese," which was used to refer to

speech directed toward infants, was inappropriate because it suggested that
infant-directed speech

Infant-directed speech is a style of speech directed toward infants. This type of speech
pattern was previously called motherese because it was assumed that it applied only to
mothers. However, that assumption was wrong, and the gender-neutral term
infant-directed speech is now used more frequently.

was used by mothers across the world

was used only by mothers
was used by mothers not only when talking to infants
 was primarily used in speaking to mothers

2. Each of the following is mentioned in paragraph 2 as a common feature of

infant-directed speech EXCEPT

Infant-directed speech is characterized by short, simple sentences. Pitch (the highness or

lowness of a sound) becomes generally higher, the range of frequencies (essentially, the
difference between the highest and the lowest pitch used) increases, and intonation (the
rise and fall in pitch) is more varied. There is also repetition of words, and topics are
restricted to items that are assumed to be comprehensible to infants, such as concrete
objects in the baby's environment. Sometimes infant-directed speech includes amusing
sounds that are not even words, imitating the prelinguistic speech of infants. In other
cases, it has little formal structure but is similar to the kind of telegraphic speech that
infants use as they develop their own language skills.

simple sentences
frequent shifts in intonation
saying the same words several times
lower pitch

3. According to paragraph 3, which of the following tends to be the same whether

people are speaking to an infant or to a one-year-old child?

Infant-directed speech changes as children become older. Around the end of the first year,
infant-directed speech takes on more adultlike qualities. Sentences become longer and
more complex, although individual words are still spoken slowly and deliberately. Pitch is
also used to focus attention on particularly important words.

The careful way they say individual words

What they talk about
The complexity of their sentences
The length of their sentences

4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in
important ways or leave out essential information.
Infant-directed speech plays an important role in infants' acquisition of language.
Newborns respond to such speech more readily than they do to regular language, a
fact that suggests that they may be particularly receptive to it. Furthermore, some
research suggests that unusually extensive exposure to infant-directed speech early
in life is related to the comparatively early appearance of first words and earlier
linguistic competence in other areas.

Furthermore, some research suggests that it is unusual for infants exposed to

infant-directed speech to use adult language earlier.
Furthermore, some research suggests that the more exposure infants have to
infant-directed speech, the more linguistically competent they will become later in life.
Furthermore, some research suggests that an infant's first words are unusual in that
they imitate the parents' infant-directed speech.
Furthermore, some research suggests that infants begin acquiring language sooner
if they hear a great deal of infant-directed speech.

5. According to paragraph 5, which of the following is NOT a feature common to

the infant-directed speech of both English speakers and Spanish speakers?

Is infant-directed speech similar across cultures? In some respects, it clearly is. According to
a growing body of research, there are basic similarities across cultures in the nature of
infant-directed speech. Consider, for instance, a comparison of the major characteristics of
speech directed at infants used by native speakers of English and Spanish. Of the ten most
frequent features, six are common to both: exaggerated intonation, high pitch, lengthened
vowels, repetition, lower volume, and instructional emphasis (that is, heavy stress on
certain key words, such as emphasizing the word "ball" in the sentence, "No, that's not a
ball."). Similarly, mothers in the United States, Sweden, and Russia all exaggerate and
elongate the pronunciation of the three vowel sounds of "ee," "ah," and "oh" when
speaking to infants in similar ways, despite differences in the languages in which the
sounds are used. Even deaf mothers use a form of infant-directed speech: When
communicating with their infants, deaf mothers use sign language at a significantly slower
tempo than when communicating with adults, and they frequently repeat the signs.

Moderate intonation
Repeated words and phrases
Speaking more quietly
Emphasis on key words
6. In paragraph 5, why does the author discuss deaf mothers in connection with
infant-directed speech?

Is infant-directed speech similar across cultures? In some respects, it clearly is. According to
a growing body of research, there are basic similarities across cultures in the nature of
infant-directed speech. Consider, for instance, a comparison of the major characteristics of
speech directed at infants used by native speakers of English and Spanish. Of the ten most
frequent features, six are common to both: exaggerated intonation, high pitch, lengthened
vowels, repetition, lower volume, and instructional emphasis (that is, heavy stress on
certain key words, such as emphasizing the word "ball" in the sentence, "No, that's not a
ball."). Similarly, mothers in the United States, Sweden, and Russia all exaggerate and
elongate the pronunciation of the three vowel sounds of "ee," "ah," and "oh" when
speaking to infants in similar ways, despite differences in the languages in which the
sounds are used. Even deaf mothers use a form of infant-directed speech: When
communicating with their infants, deaf mothers use sign language at a significantly slower
tempo than when communicating with adults, and they frequently repeat the signs.

To emphasize the universality of infant-directed speech

To make the point that slow pacing and repetition are the most important features
of infant-directed speech
To argue that an adult can know how to use infant-directed speech without actually
having heard others use it
To show how well-researched infant-directed speech has become

7. The word "facets" in the passage is closest in meaning to

The cross-cultural similarities in infant-directed speech are so great, in fact, that they
appear in some facets of language specific to particular types of interactions. For instance,
evidence comparing American English, German, and Mandarin Chinese speakers shows
that in each of the languages, pitch rises when a mother is attempting to get an infant's
attention or produce a response, while pitch falls when she is trying to calm an infant. Why
do we find such similarities across very different languages? One hypothesis is that the
characteristics of infant-directed speech activate innate responses in infants. As we have
noted, infants seem to prefer infant-directed speech over adult-directed speech, suggesting
that their perceptual systems may be more responsive to such characteristics. Another
explanation is that infant-directed speech facilitates language development, providing cues
as to the meaning of speech before infants have developed the capacity to understand the
meanings of words.

aspects
adaptations
rules
combinations

8. Paragraph 6 supports which of the following ideas about how infants respond
to infant-directed speech?

The cross-cultural similarities in infant-directed speech are so great, in fact, that they
appear in some facets of language specific to particular types of interactions. For instance,
evidence comparing American English, German, and Mandarin Chinese speakers shows
that in each of the languages, pitch rises when a mother is attempting to get an infant's
attention or produce a response, while pitch falls when she is trying to calm an infant. Why
do we find such similarities across very different languages? One hypothesis is that the
characteristics of infant-directed speech activate innate responses in infants. As we have
noted, infants seem to prefer infant-directed speech over adult-directed speech, suggesting
that their perceptual systems may be more responsive to such characteristics. Another
explanation is that infant-directed speech facilitates language development, providing cues
as to the meaning of speech before infants have developed the capacity to understand the
meanings of words.

Infants may not respond to exaggerated pitch if it does not match the situation.
Infants may respond more readily to speech adapted to their perceptual systems.
Infants may respond only when they can attach conceptual meaning to the words
they hear.
Infants may not respond if the nature of the interaction does not require it.

9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be
added to the passage.

In particular, there are very interesting accounts of special ways words are spoken to
infants and they have been documented among quite distinct languages.

Where would the sentence best fit?

Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in passage.

Is infant-directed speech similar across cultures? In some respects, it clearly is. According to
a growing body of research, there are basic similarities across cultures in the nature of
infant-directed speech.■ Consider, for instance, a comparison of the major characteristics
of speech directed at infants used by native speakers of English and Spanish.■ Of the ten
most frequent features, six are common to both: exaggerated intonation, high pitch,
lengthened vowels, repetition, lower volume, and instructional emphasis (that is, heavy
stress on certain key words, such as emphasizing the word "ball" in the sentence, "No,
that's not a ball."). ■ Similarly, mothers in the United States, Sweden, and Russia all
exaggerate and elongate the pronunciation of the three vowel sounds of "ee," "ah," and
"oh" when speaking to infants in similar ways, despite differences in the languages in which
the sounds are used ■. Even deaf mothers use a form of infant-directed speech: When
communicating with their infants, deaf mothers use sign language at a significantly slower
tempo than when communicating with adults, and they frequently repeat the signs.

10. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the
most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary
because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the
passage. This question is worth 2 points.

When adults speak to infants, they typically employ a special type of speech pattern
technically known as "infant-directed speech."

A. Infants respond positively to infant-directed speech, and especially high exposure to

such speech may have a beneficial effect on language acquisition.

B. There are many different features of infant-directed speech, but six of them occur across
all language groups.

C. Most of the similarities in infant-directed speech across different language groups

appear in a few specific types of interactions.

D. There are striking cross-cultural similarities both in the way adults speak to infants and
in how certain linguistic features are associated with situations.
E. Infant-directed speech may stimulate innate responses in infants or contribute to
language development by providing cues to the meaning of Speech.

F. While infant-directed speech is found in all cultures, cultures vary in the amount of
speech infants hear that is not specifically directed to them.
Answers:
1. D
2. D
3. A
4. A
5. A
6. D
7. D
8. C
9. A
10. BCD
11. B
12. D
13. A
14. D
15. A
16. A
17. A
18. B
19. A
20. ADE