LWT - Food Science and Technology 162 (2022) 113415

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LWT
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Cooking quality, nutritional and antioxidant properties of gluten-free maize

– Orange-fleshed sweet potato pasta produced by extrusion
R.O. Baah , K.G. Duodu , M.N. Emmambux *
Department of Consumer & Food Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Maize and orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) composite (100:0, 50:50, 70:30, 80:20) flours were extruded into
Gluten-free pasta pasta using a twin-screw extruder. The cooking quality, textural and nutritional properties of the pasta were
Cooking loss assessed. An increase in the proportion of OFSP flour added increased the cooking loss but decreased cooking
Dietary fibre
time and water absorption capacity of pasta. The dietary fibre in the OFSP flour caused a loosening of the
Beta-carotene
Extrusion technology
compact structure of the pasta, disrupting the compact protein-starch matrix of maize, resulting in higher
cooking loss and sticky pasta. Extruded pasta had low cooking time due to pre-gelatinized starch, which pro­
motes greater water absorption and heat dissemination during cooking. Extruded pasta samples had lower beta-
carotene, probably due to cis-trans isomerization, fragmentation, and oxidative decomposition, but the pasta
showed higher antioxidant properties, likely due to Maillard reaction and caramelization products with reducing
properties. These results indicate that OFSP can be composited with maize flour and extruded to produce good
quality and nutritious gluten-free pasta.

1. Introduction OFSP an affordable food source with antioxidant properties that can
potentially offer protection against oxidative stress-induced non-­
Micronutrient deficiency continues to be a significant nutritional communicable diseases (Vimala et al., 2011). It is also gluten-free.
concern in poor communities, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, with Consumers are currently shifting towards consuming gluten-free
children and women being the most vulnerable (Bain et al., 2013). based foods due to personal choice to exclude gluten from their diet
Vitamin A deficiency impairs numerous functions and, as a result, can and for patients with gluten intolerance and celiac disease. This has led
lead to many health consequences such as impaired iron mobilization, to the development of cereal-based gluten-free pasta made from rice and
growth retardation, blindness, reduced immune response, increased maize. However, the gluten-free diet may be deficient in nutrients such
susceptibility to infectious disease, and increased childhood mortality in as fibre, B vitamins, iron, and trace minerals (Marti & Pagani, 2013;
most developing countries (Liu et al., 2016: Xu et al., 2021) Theethira & Dennis, 2015). Pasta is mainly preferred due to its conve­
Bio-fortification of staple crops is an intervention that can be considered nience, palatability, relatively long shelf stability, and nutritional
as a sustainable and innovative way to address micronutrient malnu­ properties. Considering this information, the diversification of diet
trition, and it involves increasing the concentrations of nutrients in crops through the inclusion of OFSP could help alleviate vitamin A deficiency.
using agronomic approaches and plant breeding (Bouis et al., 2011). Besides the nutritional aspect of gluten-free pasta production, the
Examples of β-carotene bio-fortified food crops are yellow maize, yellow cooking and textural qualities also remain a major technological chal­
cassava, golden rice, and orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP). lenge. The difficulty in producing gluten-free products is associated with
According to Laurie et al. (2018), OFSP can be considered the most the lack of gluten in the food system (Marti & Pagani, 2013). Extrusion
successful example of a bio-fortified staple crop and presents a possible processing can be used to design a compact structure with gelatinized
option to address vitamin A deficiency. A study by Van Jaarsveld et al. starch embedded in the protein matrix and aligned in the direction of
(2006) reported that the vitamin A status of school-aged children flow through the extruder barrel. This may help create the matrix that
increased from 78% to 87% when the white-fleshed potato was can potentially show similar properties like wheat-based food (Wang
substituted with OFSP in their diet. Its high levels of β-carotene make et al., 1999).

* Corresponding author. , Department of Consumer and Food Sciences, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, 0028, Pretoria, South Africa.
E-mail address: naushad.emmambux@up.ac.za (M.N. Emmambux).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113415
Received 13 September 2021; Received in revised form 22 March 2022; Accepted 29 March 2022
Available online 1 April 2022
0023-6438/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R.O. Baah et al. LWT 162 (2022) 113415

Extrusion processing is a technique that uses high-temperature short PerkinElmer, Waltham) and analyzed as described in section 2.3 below.
time regimes to produce foods, including breakfast cereals, snack Cooked samples were freeze-dried, milled, and analyzed.
products, and pasta products. Flours can be cold extruded (Arribas et al.,
2020; Chanu & Jena, 2015; Da Silva et al., 2016) or hot extruded
(Bouasla et al., 2016; Marti et al., 2013) to produce pasta. Cold extrusion 2.3. Analyses
involves using temperatures between 40 and 60 ◦ C, and hot extrusion
involves using temperatures of the order of about 100 ◦ C in mixing and 2.3.1. Proximate analysis of composite flours and uncooked gluten-free
shaping the pasta product (Bordoloi & Ganguly, 2014). pasta
Extrusion cooking is reported to improve the digestibility of proteins Composite flours and uncooked gluten-free pasta samples were
through the denaturation of proteins and the reduction of antinutrients analyzed for moisture (dry matter), ash, and crude fat according to the
(Nikmaram et al., 2017). Starch digestibility is also increased through Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2019) methods
the loss of structural integrity of the starch granules because of the high 925.10, 923.03, and 920.39, respectively. Protein (N × 6.25) was
shear and temperatures used, increasing their susceptibility towards determined according to the Dumas combustion method.
enzymatic attack (Singh et al., 2010) compared to conventional cooking. Solubles and insoluble dietary fibre was determined according to the
The key parameters in extrusion processing are temperature, pressure, Official Methods of Analysis 991.42 using the total dietary fibre Mega­
shear rate, and residence time (Stojceska, 2013). Raw food materials zyme kit (K-TDFR). The flour sample (1 g) was dissolved in 40 mL of
during extrusion processing are subjected to thermal energy and shear mes-tris buffer (0.05 M, pH 8.2) solution, and 50 μL of thermostable
forces causing structural, chemical, and nutritional transformations such α-amylase (3000 U/mL of ceralpha reagent at pH 6.5 and 40 ◦ C) was
as gelatinization and degradation of starch, denaturation of protein, added to hydrolyze starch to dextrin. Protease (100 μL) with an activity
oxidation of lipid, degradation of vitamins, antinutrients, and phyto­ of 350 tyrosine U/ml (E-BSPRT) was added to solubilize protein. Amy­
chemicals (Ilo & Berghofer, 2003; Singh, Sekhon, & Singh, 2007) for­ loglucosidase (AMG) (200 μL), with an activity of 3300 U/mL (E-
mation of flavours, an increase of mineral bioavailability and solubility BLAAM), was used to hydrolyze dextrin to glucose. The enzyme mixture
of dietary fibre which affects the physical, functional and nutritional and sample were filtered, and the residue was washed with acetone and
properties of the end product (Riaz et al., 2009). ethanol to obtain the insoluble dietary fibre (IDF) portion. Four volumes
The most existing research reports on conventional methods used in of ethanol heated at 60 ◦ C were added to the filtrate and left to stand for
the production of pasta. There has been limited work reported on using 60 min to form the soluble dietary fibre (SDF) precipitate, after which it
OFSP and extrusion processing technology to produce gluten-free pasta. was filtered. The soluble dietary fibre residues were washed with 78%
The study’s objective is to determine the effect of extrusion cooking on and 95% (v/v) ethanol and acetone, respectively. The IDF and SDF
the functional and nutritional properties of gluten-free pasta made from residues were dried overnight at 103 ◦ C. One part of the soluble dietary
maize: orange-fleshed sweet potato flour composites. fibre and insoluble dietary fibre residues were used to determine pro­
tein. The other part was used to determine ash content for the final
2. Materials and methodology calculations of soluble dietary fibre and insoluble dietary fibre values.
For uncooked pasta, samples were ground through a 0.5 mm screen
2.1. Materials and composites using a laboratory mill. All analyses were carried out in triplicate on
each pasta sample.
White maize flour and OFSP flour were used in the study. A Super-
fine white maize meal was purchased from RCL foods (Pretoria, South 2.3.2. Optimal cooking time
Africa), and OFSP flour was purchased from Exilite 499 CC in Tzaneen The optimal cooking time was determined according to Giménez
(Limpopo Province, South Africa). Both flours were below 250-μm sieve et al. (2013). Dried pasta (25 g) was boiled in 250 mL distilled water. At
size. Commercial pasta made from maize and rice was purchased from 30-s intervals, a small portion (3 to 4 strands) of the pasta was removed
the supermarket. All other chemicals were of analytical grade. from the boiling water and squeezed between two glass slides. The pasta
The maize and OFSP flours were composited in the ratios 100:0, was considered cooked when the white centre core disappeared.
80:20, 70:30, 50:50 (w/w) in an industrial bowl mixer (Talsa, Mix 90 ST,
Zatamo, Spain) for 10 min. The bowl mixer has a dual blade paddle 2.3.3. Cooking loss and water absorption capacity
system that rotates clockwise and anticlockwise to have a homogenous Water absorption capacity and cooking loss were determined ac­
mixture. The flour composites were then stored in airtight plastic cording to Giménez et al. (2013) with slight modifications. For cooking
buckets at – 4 ◦ C until further use. loss determination, a 25 g dried pasta sample was cooked in 250 mL
boiling water. The cooking water was collected in a tared and pre-dried
2.2. Methods beaker; the content was dried to constant weight in an air oven at
100 ◦ C. The residue was weighed, and the loss during cooking was
2.2.1. Extrusion processing calculated as a percentage of the starting material.
Extrusion processing was carried out with a TX 32 co-rotating twin- For water absorption capacity, 25 g dried pasta samples were
screw extruder (CFAM Technologies (Pty) Ltd, Potchefstroom, South weighed and boiled in 250 mL water. During the cooking time previ­
Africa). The pre-prepared formulations (100% maize flour, 80:20% ously determined, pasta was then removed and weighed; the weight
maize: OFSP, 70:30% maize: OFSP, 50:50% maize: OFSP) were sub­ difference before and after cooking was used to calculate the water
jected to extrusion processing. The barrel temperatures used were 60, absorption using the following equation:
70, 80, 80, and 80 ◦ C for zones 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The screw speed was set cpw − DPW
at 80 rpm with the raw material feed rate of 5 kg/h. Water flow into the WA ​ (%) ​ =
DPW
× 100
extruder was at a dose rate of 2.5 L/h.
The extrudates (100% maize, 80:20% maize: OFSP, 70:30% maize: Where CPW = cooked (wet) pasta weight (g) and DPW = dried pasta
OFSP, 50:50% maize: OFSP gluten-free pasta samples) were shaped in weight (g)
spaghetti form with a diameter of 1.4,1.6, 1.5, 1.1 mm respectively and
dried at an ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C overnight. The pasta samples 2.3.4. Texture analysis
were stored in an airtight bucket at room temperature for further Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) was done according to Curiel et al.
analysis. An analysis using milled samples, raw pasta samples were (2014) with slight modification. The firmness and stickiness of the
milled with a laboratory hammer mill (Perten Lab mill 3100, cooked pasta samples were determined using an EZ Test (Model: EZ-L,

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R.O. Baah et al. LWT 162 (2022) 113415

Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan) texture analyzer equipped with a mini-Kramer foil-wrapped bottle. Serial dilutions of Trolox standard were prepared by
shear cell with a square probe (3 mm × 3 mm). Pasta samples were diluting Trolox with PBS. The sample extract, Trolox standard and
cooked till the optimal cooking time. The texture analyzer was cali­ working solution were mixed in a 96-well microplate. The absorbance
brated for a load cell at 200 N. Cooked pasta (20 g) was compressed once was read at 570 nm (using Multiskan™ FC Microplate Photometer,
at a rate of 30 mm/min at a ratio of 50% with the compression probe. Thermo Scientific, Rastastie, Finland) after incubation for 30 min, and
Firmness was measured at the maximum force (N) during compression, the radical scavenging capacity was expressed as μmol Trolox equiva­
and stickiness (N) was measured as the minimum force of the curve lents per gram of samples on a dry basis.
obtained. The test was conducted at least in triplicate.
2.3.9. Bright field light microscopy
2.3.5. In vitro starch digestibility Milled extruded pasta and cooked pasta samples suspended in 30%
In vitro starch digestibility of the cooked pasta samples were done glycerol were visualized with a VS3 Series Biological Trinocular Light
using the Englyst method described by Englyst et al., 1992, Goñi et al., Microscope from Micromet Scientific with a Biowizard Image Analysis
1997 with slight modification as described by Mapengo and Emmambux Software (Delhi, India) equipped with a Polarising filter lens. To stain
(2020). starch, an iodine solution was added. Images were taken with 20 ×
magnification and evaluated with the ImageJ®software package.
2.3.6. Thermal properties
The thermal properties of raw and cooked milled pasta samples were 2.3.10. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
determined according to the method described by Wokadala et al. Scanning electron microscopy of raw and cooked pasta (wet) was
(2012) using a DSC system (HP DSC827e, Mettler Toledo, Greifensee, done by first freezing the pasta using liquid nitrogen, and a freeze-
Switzerland). Indium (Tp = 156.6, ΔH = 28.45 Jg-1) was used as a fracture of a small fraction was taken. The small fractions were moun­
standard. The samples were tested under a nitrogen flow of (60 mL/min) ted on aluminium stubs with the aid of double-sided carbon tape, fol­
and a pressure of 40 bars. Sample flour (10 mg) was mixed with 30 μL of lowed by coating with a carbon of about 20 nm in thickness. The coated
distilled water in a stainless-steel pan and hermetically sealed and pasta was viewed and photographed using the Zeiss Crossbeam 540 FE 6
equilibrated for a day at 25 ◦ C. Each sample was heated from 25 ◦ C to Scanning Electron Microscope (Carl Zeiss Microscopy, 6mbH, Germany)
120 ◦ C at a heating rate of 10 ◦ C/min. An empty hermetically sealed at an accelerating voltage of 5.0 kV.
aluminium tin was used as a reference. The results were analyzed using
STARe software (Mettler Toledo) to get onset temperature (To), endset 2.4. Statistical analysis
temperature (Tc) and peak temperature (Tp).
Multivariate analysis was used to analyze the interaction between
2.3.7. Determination of β-carotene content extrusion cooking and compositing maize flour with orange-fleshed
β-Carotene was extracted from about 2 g of raw flours and cooked sweet potato flour of the physical, functional, and nutritional charac­
milled extruded pasta samples with 10 mL tetrahydrofuran (THF) in a teristics. Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze
small beaker by magnetic stirring for 30 min. The mixture was centri­ the data using SPSS version 22. Means were compared at p ≤ 0.05 using
fuged using (NUVE NF 400 centrifuge, Henderson Biomedical Lower Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test. Experiments were con­
Sydenham, United Kingdom) at 1149×g for 10 min, and the supernatant ducted at least in triplicate.
was set aside. The extraction was repeated three times with a fresh 10
mL THF aliquot and separated the supernatant after centrifugation until 3. Results and discussion
the pasta flour residue was colourless. The THF was evaporated to
dryness using a rotary evaporator (IKA rotary evaporator, GmbH & Co. 3.1. Proximate composition
KG, Deutschland, Germany) at 27 ◦ C. The crude carotene extract was
dissolved in 10 ml toluene. In preparation for chromatography, the The proximate composition of raw flour samples and extruded pasta
carotene extract in toluene was filtered using 0.45 μm PTFE membrane samples is shown in Table 1. The moisture content of pasta samples
filters directly into amber vials. ranged from 6.29 to 9.21%. The protein content in 100% maize flour
Chromatographic analysis of β-carotene content was done using a was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that in 100% OFSP flour. The
Prominence Ultra-Fast Liquid Chromatography (UFLC) (Shimadzu, different composite flours and pasta samples showed similar protein
Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a SIL-20A Prominence auto-sampler, a content. Commercial pasta showed the highest protein content of 9.64%.
DGU-20A3 Prominence degasser, a CTO-10AS VP Shimadzu column A progressive increase in ash content was observed with the
oven, and an SPD-M20A Prominence diode array detector. UV/Vis increasing proportion of OFSP in maize: OFSP composite flours and
spectra of carotenoids were recorded between 200 and 600 nm with pasta samples, most likely because the ash content of OFSP was 10 times
detection of β-carotene at 450 nm. The separation of carotenoids was higher than that of maize. The higher ash content in OFSP suggests
performed at 30 ◦ C on a C18 Waters Nova-Pak carotenoid column (300 higher mineral content as the proportions of OFSP flour in the maize:
× 3.9 mm, 4 μm particle size) by isocratic elution with acetonitrile OFSP flour and pasta samples increased. This agrees with other re­
(58%), HPLC grade methanol (35%), and THF (7%) as mobile phase, at a searchers (Haile et al., 2015; Rodrigues et al., 2016), who reported a
flow rate of 1.0 mL/min for 30 min. The quantification of β-carotene was higher ash content in OFSP flour.
done using a calibration curve of β-carotene standard, and the vitamin A The insoluble and soluble dietary fibre content of the composited
content was approximated as retinol activity equivalents (RAE) using a flours increased with increasing proportions of OFSP flours. Insoluble
conversion factor of 12 μg β-carotene to 1 μg retinol (Van Jaarsveld dietary fibre decreased as soluble dietary fibre increased after extrusion
et al., 2006). cooking for all pasta samples. This suggests thermal and mechanical
decomposition of insoluble dietary fibre to soluble fibre. The mechanical
2.3.8. Determination of ABTS•+ radical scavenging capacity shear and high temperature during extrusion lead to the breakage of
A modification of the 2, 2′ -azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sul­ polysaccharide glycosidic linkages. This leads to redistributing insoluble
phonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging assay described by Awika et al. to soluble dietary fibre content (Oladiran & Emmambux, 2018).
(2003) was used. The mother solution was prepared by mixing equal Extrusion cooking decreased the crude fat content in the pasta
volumes of 8 mM ABTS and 3 mM potassium persulphate to 2 ml in an samples. The low-fat content of OFSP agrees with a previous report by
Eppendorf tube. The mother solution was incubated for a maximum of Alam et al., 2016, who showed low-fat content of different varieties of
12 h in the dark. A working solution was prepared in an aluminium OFSP ranging from 0.17 to 0.63%. Singh, Gamlath, and Wakeling (2007)

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R.O. Baah et al. LWT 162 (2022) 113415

Table 1
Effect of compositing maize flour with orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) flour on the proximate composition (g/100g) of flour and extruded gluten-free pasta.
Sample Composite Moisturea Proteinb Ashb Fatb IDFb SDFb
h c b f c
Flour 100% Maize 12.0 ± 0.04 8.37 ± 0.08 0.44 ± 0.02 1.51 ± 0.07 1.27 ± 0.03 0.45 ± 0.05b
80% Maize: 20% OFSP 11.0 ± 0.06g 8.04 ± 0.10b 1.24 ± 0.00c 1.45 ± 0.13f 2.95 ± 0.13e 2.48 ± 0.03d
70% Maize: 30% OFSP 9.19 ± 0.16f 8.22 ± 0.02bc 1.74 ± 0.07e 1.15 ± 0.08e 2.83 ± 0.08e 2.46 ± 0.02d
50% Maize: 50% OFSP 7.64 ± 0.15e 8.11 ± 0.02b 2.54 ± 0.10g 1.24 ± 0.01e 6.03 ± 0.04g 4.10 ± 0.19f
Pasta 100% Maize 6.64 ± 0.12c 8.15 ± 0.10b 0.53 ± 0.01b 0.91 ± 0.03d 0.34 ± 0.06a 0.77 ± 0.03c
80% Maize: 20% OFSP 6.29 ± 0.05b 7.66 ± 0.01a 1.42 ± 0.09d 0.69 ± 0.02cb 1.92 ± 0.04d 2.86 ± 0.10e
70% Maize: 30% OFSP 6.63 ± 0.05c 7.67 ± 0.05a 1.97 ± 0.00f 0.80 ± 0.02cd 1.97 ± 0.07d 2.74 ± 0.02e
50% Maize: 50% OFSP 7.15 ± 0.05d 8.03 ± 0.17b 2.92 ± 0.05h 0.59 ± 0.04b 3.32 ± 0.08f 4.23 ± 0.13f
Commercial pasta 9.21 ± 0.20f 9.64 ± 0.06d 0.27 ± 0.03a 0.42 ± 0.01a 0.74 ± 0.07b 0.22 ± 0.02a
100% OFSP flour 4.05 ± 0.06a 7.77 ± 0.09a 4.36 ± 0.05I 1.15 ± 0.07e 10.5 ± 0.22h 5.04 ± 0.19g

Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation, means within a column with different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
IDF- Insoluble Dietary Fibre.
SDF- Soluble Dietary Fibre.
Commercial gluten-free pasta made from maize and rice.
a
In as-is basis.
b
In a dry matter basis.

reported that extrusion cooking decreases the extractable fat, possibly study was similar to other researchers who reported a minimal prepa­
due to thermal degradation and complexation. Free fatty acids can form ration time for extruded gluten-free pasta from yellow pea ranging from
complexes with amylose, therefore, resulting in difficulty in extracting 5.5 to 7.0 min (Wójtowicz & Mościcki, 2014), rice pasta composited
with organic solvent (Mercier et al., 1980). The formation of with lentil ranging from 8 to 9 min (Bouasla et al., 2017), rice pasta
amylose-lipid complexes in pasta samples will be discussed in detail in a composited with yellow pea ranging from 7 to 8 min (Bouasla et al.,
later part of this paper. 2016).

3.3. Firmness and stickiness

3.2. Cooking time
The starch, protein, and fibre content present in the composite flours
Pasta made with 100% maize, 70% maize: 30% OFSP and 80% influenced the firmness and the stickiness of the pasta (Table 2). The
maize: 20% OFSP pasta showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in stickiness of pasta is caused by the surface structure of the strand and the
cooking time (Table 2). Extruded pasta samples statistically (p > 0.05) leach out of starch onto the surface of the strand during cooking (Sus­
showed a lower cooking time as compared to the commercial pasta. This anna & Prabhasankar, 2013). It was observed that the firmer the pasta,
could have been due to the lower diameter of the extruded pasta strands the less sticky it was. The decrease in proportions of maize flour in
(1.1 to 1.5 mm) compared to the commercial pasta (1.8 mm), resulting maize: OFSP composites decreased the pasta firmness and increased its
in faster water penetration to the core during cooking. The dietary fibre stickiness. The increase in stickiness may be due to higher cooking loss.
component in OFSP flour tends to disrupt the physical structure of the This will further be discussed under the cooking loss section.
pasta and limit its ability to expand (Wang et al., 2019) compared to the
100% maize and commercial pasta. 3.4. Cooking loss
The light microscopy (Fig. 1) showed indistinct starch granules and a
lack of birefringence in the extruded pasta samples compared to the There was a progressive increase in cooking loss with an increase in
commercial pasta that shows ungelatinized starch. This could be due to the proportion of OFSP in maize: OFSP composite pasta samples
the pre-gelatinization process that occurs during the extrusion process (Table 2). Cooking loss is due to the loosening of the compact structure
leading to rapid hydration of starch during cooking, resulting in lower of the pasta and the leach out of soluble materials (Petitot, Boyer, et al.,
cooking time. The minimal preparation time for the pasta samples in this 2010). The cooking loss of the extruded pasta samples ranged from 4.36
to 12.5%. A high cooking loss is undesirable as it represents the high
Table 2 solubility of starch, resulting in turbid cooking water and pasta having a
Effect of compositing maize flour with orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) flour sticky mouthfeel. According to Khan et al. (2013), the acceptable
on the cooking properties of their extruded pasta. cooking loss of pasta considered desirable for good quality pasta should
Pasta samples Cooking Cooking WAC Firmness Stickiness be less than or equal to 8%, thereby making pasta samples in this current
time (min) loss (%) (%) (N) (N) study acceptable except for 50% maize: 50% OFSP pasta.
100% Maize 4.53 ± 4.36 ± 111 ± 21.1 ± − 0.43 ± This increase in cooking loss with pasta samples composited with
0.40b 0.43a 0.93b 0.43bc 0.09bc OFSP flour could result from the fibre content in OFSP. The extrusion
80% Maize: 4.20 ± 5.43 ± 93.2 22.1 ± − 0.54 ± process and dietary fibre may disrupt the compact protein-starch matrix
20% OFSP 0.17b 0.08b 1.95c 0.04bc
causing weakness in its structure, leading to loss of solids during cooking
±
0.15a
70% Maize: 4.00 ± 8.13 ± 97.9 11.6 ± − 0.46 ± (Muneer et al., 2018). During high-temperature processing, the glyco­
30% OFSP 0.00b 0.51c ± 0.41a 0.07bc sidic linkages in dietary fibre polysaccharides may be broken. A
0.61a decreased association between fibre molecules and depolymerization of
50% Maize: 2.17 ± 12.5 ± 96.0 8.69 ± − 0.37 ±
the fibre results in solubilization (Chindapan et al., 2015). The scanning
50% OFSP 0.29a 0.59d ± 1.99a 0.03c
0.73a electron microscopy (SEM) (Fig. 2) for the composited pasta with OFSP
Commercial 10.0 ± 7.70 ± 121 ± 17.9 ± − 0.58 ± showed what could be a discontinuity of protein matrix and damage of
pasta 0.00c 0.20c 0.23c 0.73b 0.08a starch granules, further exposing it to leaching during cooking in water.
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation, means within a column with In a study on the inclusion of high fibre legume flour to rice in a
different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05). gluten-free pasta using a high-temperature single screw extrusion pro­
Commercial gluten-free pasta made from maize and rice. cess, Bouasla et al. (2017) showed similar results to those in our study.
WAC – Water absorption capacity. They attributed the higher cooking loss to the fact that cooking loss was

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R.O. Baah et al. LWT 162 (2022) 113415

Fig. 1. Light micrographs of milled extruded pasta: viewed under a light microscope, polarized lens, and stained with iodine.
Starch was stained blue\violet. Bar 20 μm. Arrow indicates birefringence of un-gelatinized starch. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

due to the weakening of the starch network by fibre. Foschia et al. oxidation (Syamila et al., 2019).
(2015) also reported a similar study on the effect of dietary fibre on the During cis-trans isomerization, the trans forms of β–carotene are
physicochemical characteristics of conventionally made pasta. They converted to cis forms. The cis isomers have significantly reduced
proposed that the increased cooking loss may be related to the presence vitamin A activity (Gul et al., 2015), and they are susceptible to further
of water-soluble components and the disruption of the protein-starch degradation. The temperatures used during extrusion cooking to pro­
matrix, and the uneven distribution of water within the pasta matrix duce the pasta samples could lead to the fragmentation of trans
due to the competitive hydration tendencies of fibre. β–carotene, resulting in aromatic compounds such as toluene, m-xylene,
and 2,6-dimethylnaphthalene (Rios et al., 2008). A significant amount of
trans β–carotene could be lost through this mechanism.
3.5. Water absorption capacity (WAC)

The water absorption capacity (WAC) ranged from 96 to 121%. 3.7. Antioxidant activity
Commercial pasta exhibited higher water absorption capacity than the
composited pasta samples with OFSP flour. OFSP has a lower content of The observed progressive increase in antioxidant activity of the raw
biopolymers such as starch and protein compared to maize flour. The flours with increasing levels of incorporation of OFSP flour suggests that
higher cooking time (Table 2) and WAC for the commercial pasta could β-carotene was a significant contributor to the antioxidant properties of
probably be due to its compact starch-protein network due to the low the flours. However, that was not the case with the extruded pasta
temperature used in conventional pasta production. The SEM micro­ sample. There was a significant increase in the antioxidant activity of
scopy (Fig. 2) for commercial pasta showed visible starch granules composite pasta samples relative to their flours, and the different pasta
embedded in the protein matrix, which indicated less gelatinization of samples had similar antioxidant activity. This suggests that for the pasta
starch and protein damage resulting in more extended hydration, samples, in addition to β-carotene, other compounds could have
increasing the cooking time and resulting in higher uptake of water contributed to the antioxidant activity. These compounds are likely to be
during cooking. products of the Maillard reaction and caramelization of sugars. The
high-temperature conditions of the extrusion process can promote the
Maillard reaction (between amino groups of proteins and reducing
3.6. β-Carotene content
sugars) and the caramelization of sugars. The products of these reactions
are well-known to have reducing properties and, therefore, could
There was a significant decrease in β–carotene content of the pasta
contribute to the observed antioxidant activity of the pasta samples
samples after extrusion cooking, as shown in Table 3. Similar observa­
(Benjakul et al., 2005; Chawla et al., 2009).
tions have been reported by Shih et al. (2009), who recorded a decrease
in the β-carotene content in OFSP after extrusion cooking with barrel
temperatures ranging from 100 to 115 ◦ C. During extrusion cooking, the 3.8. In-vitro starch digestibility
pasta samples are exposed to light, oxygen, and high-temperature con­
ditions. Under these conditions, β–carotene is labile and could be lost In-vitro starch digestibility allowed for the determination of starch
through mechanisms such as cis-trans isomerization, fragmentation, and fractions in the cooked pasta samples (Fig. 3, Table 4), that is, slowly

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R.O. Baah et al. LWT 162 (2022) 113415

Fig. 2. Scanning electron microscopy images of raw pasta. Surface images showing a cross-section of pasta.
Bar: 10 μm, 100 μm. Arrows pointing on starch protein network.

Table 3
Effect of extrusion cooking and compositing with orange-fleshed sweet potato
(OFSP) flour on the β-carotene and antioxidant activity (ABTS radical scav­
enging) of maize flour pasta.
Treatment Composites β-carotene Antioxidant activity
(μg/g) (μmol TE/g)

Raw flour 100% Maize ND 3.38 ± 0.18a

100% OFSP 611 ± 37.0g 23.5 ± 1.98e
80% Maize: 20% 126 ± 13.9d 9.91 ± 0.52b
OFSP
70% Maize: 30% 167 ± 10.0e 13.3 ± 0.92c
OFSP
50% Maize: 50% 339 ± 38.5f 16.7 ± 0.05d
OFSP
Extrusion 100% Maize ND 1.42 ± 1.22a
cooked pasta
80% Maize: 20% 7.88 ± 1.79a 51.4 ± 0.82f
OFSP
70% Maize: 30% 27.7 ± 4.72b 52.2 ± 0.78f
Fig. 3. Effects of compositing maize flour with orange-fleshed sweet potato
OFSP
50% Maize: 50% 43.4 ± 7.26c 52.0 ± 0.94f
(OFSP) flour and extrusion cooking on in-vitro starch hydrolysis of extruded
OFSP cooked pasta. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation, means within a column with
different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
ABTS- 2, 2′ -Azinobis-3-Ethylbenzothiazoline-6-Sulphonic acid.
digested for the commercial pasta was significantly higher than the
TE- Trolox Equivalent. extruded pasta samples. The lower total digestible starch in the extruded
ND- Not detected. pasta could have been due to the formation of amylose-lipid complexes.
The DSC results indicated that commercial pasta showed lower peak
digestible starch (SDS), rapidly digestible starch (RDS) and resistant temperature (Table 5) than the extruded pasta samples, which could
starch (RS). The kinetics of in-vitro starch digestibility was monitored partly explain the formation of lower amounts of amylose-lipid
from 0 to 180 min for the various pasta samples. The total starch complexes.

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R.O. Baah et al. LWT 162 (2022) 113415

Table 4 there is gelatinization of starch and the formation of complexes between

Effect of compositing maize flour with orange-fleshed sweet potato flour (OFSP) starch and lipids (De Pilli et al., 2008). The formation of complexes
and extrusion cooking on the percent starch hydrolysed after 180 min, hydro­ between starches and lipids is due to the ability of the amylose to bind
lysis constant, RDS, SDS, and estimated glycaemic index of cooked pasta. lipids such as fatty acids (Panyoo & Emmambux, 2017). The strong,
Pasta sample 1
C∞ 1
K 1
EGIa HI RDS SDS RS stable complex limits cross-linking and double-helical structure forma­
(%) (min)ab (%) (%) (%) tion between amylose molecules. Amylose lipid complex can then
100% Maize 83.2 0.25 ± 87.5 87.1 75.1 4.17 23.4 inhibit starch hydrolysis due to reduced accessibility of the glycosidic
± 0.03a ± ± ± ± ± bonds by α-amylase enzyme (Fig. 4) (Ye et al., 2018b).
0.97b 0.49b 0.88b 2.54a 0.78a 1.29d
80% 76.6 0.89 ± 85.3 83.1 72.0 4.65 22.3
Maize:20% ± 0.12b ± ± ± ± ±
3.9. Thermal properties
OFSP 1.87a 0.37a 0.67a 1.06a 0.17a 1.92d
70% 87.8 0.28 ± 90.9 93.2 82.3 8.86 8.98 The thermal properties of the raw extruded pasta samples did not
Maize:30% ± 0.03a ± ± ± ± ± exhibit any first endotherm except for raw commercial pasta, which
OFSP 3.56b 1.89c 3.45c 1.12b 0.69b 0.56b
showed the first endotherm with a temperature range of 69.1 to 80.2 ◦ C,
50% 88.5 1.26 ± 92.8 96.7 82.4 15.6 9.32
Maize:50% ± 0.06c ± ± ± ± ± indicating starch gelatinization temperature. This confirms the non-
OFSP 1.17b 1.32c 2.41ef 1.90b 1.85c 0.20b occurrence of birefringence under polarized light for the extruded
Commercial 88.4 12.1 ± 91.7 94.7 83.6 4.03 13.1 pasta samples (Fig. 1). Generally, the absence of the first endotherm
pasta ± 0.17d ± ± ± ± ± indicates the mechanical disruption of the molecular bond and a com­
5.43b 0.88c 1.59d 1.50b 0.29a 0.96c
Bread 96.8 0.12 ± 94.9 99.7 84.4 16.3 0.38
plete gelatinization of starch by extrusion process (Warren et al., 2016).
± 0.00a ± ± ± ± ± Comparing the extruded pasta samples with the commercial pasta,
0.29c 0.44d 0.58f 2.96b 1.08c 0.09a which was made using the conventional method, extrusion cooking
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation, means within a column with brings about starch damage and gelatinization of starch granules which
different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05). required less energy to melt (Petitot, Barron, et al., 2010), which could
a
EGI (estimated glycaemic) was calculated using equation (39.71 + 0.549HI) explain the results. The incomplete gelatinization of the commercial
according to Goni et al., 1997. pasta could have also resulted in the longer cooking time of the pasta.
ab
C∞ (percentage of starch hydrolysed after 180 min) and K (Kinetic hydrolysis) The raw extruded pasta samples (Fig. 4) showed a single endotherm
were calculated using equation C= C∞ (1-e-kt). with a temperature ranging from 90.0 to 103 ◦ C, higher than the com­
White wheat bread was used as the reference to calculate the EGI. Commercial mercial raw pasta, which showed a second endotherm with tempera­
gluten-free pasta was made from maize and rice. tures ranging from 88.7 to 102 ◦ C, indicating the formation of type I
RSD-rapidly digested starch.
amylose lipid-complex. During extrusion, the high temperature could
SDS- slowly digested starch.
have resulted in more amylose-lipid complexes formed, which slowly
RS- resistant starch.
inhibit the starch digestibility. Many researchers have confirmed the
formation of amylose-lipid complexes with a twin-screw extruder. The
Table 5 formation of complexes could probably be due to the amylose content
Effect of compositing maize flour with orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) flour present in the flours used. According to Panyoo and Emmambux (2017),
on the thermal properties of raw and cooked pasta sample. the degree of lipid-binding depends on amylose content. Merayo et al.
Sample Composite To (◦ C) Tp (◦ C) Tc (◦ C) ΔH (J/g)
(2011) stated that, during extrusion cooking, the native structure of
amylose is partially destroyed, and new crystalline ones, corresponding
Raw 100% Maize 90.2 ± 96.0 ± 102 ± 1.28 ±
to the amylose-lipid complex are formed. De Pilli et al. (2008) further
0.48b 0.15ab 0.23abc 0.22e
80% Maize: 20% 90.0 ± 96.0 ± 101 ± 0.97 ± explained that the higher temperature and high moisture content used
OFSP 0.62ab 0.21ab 0.37a 0.09cd during extrusion processing promotes the gelatinization of starch to
70% Maize: 30% 91.9 ± 97.4 ± 104 ± 1.12 ± increase the amylose availability for complexation. After cooking, all
OFSP 0.06c 0.75cd 1.16cde 0.03de
pasta samples stilled the second endotherm, as shown in Fig. 5.
50% Maize: 50% 91.9 ± 97.6 ± 103 ± 1.13 ±
OFSP 0.26c 0.95cd 1.19bcd 0.17de
Commercial 88.7 ± 95.4 ± 102 ± 1.40 ± 4. Conclusions
pasta 0.36a 0.29a 0.05ab 0.17e
Cooked 100% Maize 93.0 ± 97.6 ± 103 ± 0.79 ± The progressive increase in the proportion of OFSP flour affects the
0.51c 0.80cd 0.74abcd 0.06bc
cooking quality and the nutritional properties of the pasta. The pre-
80% Maize: 20% 92.3 ± 98.2 ± 104 ± 0.48 ±
OFSP 0.17c 0.28cd 1.05de 0.03a gelatinized starch of the extruded pasta resulted in faster water ab­
70% Maize: 30% 94.7 ± 99.0 ± 104 ± 0.42 ± sorption and heat dissemination during cooking resulting in lower
OFSP 0.58d 0.72de 0.36de 0.16a cooking time. Extrusion promotes the conversion of insoluble fibre to
50% Maize: 50% 95.2 ± 100 ± 105 ± 0.63 ±
soluble fibre in the OFSP flour. The fibre in the OFSP could disrupt the
OFSP 1.33d 1.51e 0.86e 0.03ab
Commercial 91.8 ± 96.9 ± 101 ± 0.64 ± compact starch-protein networks in the pasta samples and increase the
pasta 0.30c 0.78abc 0.14a 0.00ab leach out of materials resulting in stickiness. Although there was a
decrease in the β-carotene content after extrusion, pasta samples had
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation, means within a column with
some radical scavenging properties, indicating some potential health
different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
Commercial gluten-free pasta made from maize and rice. benefits. This study demonstrates that pasta can be produced from OFSP
To is onset temperature, Tc is conclusion temperature and Tp is peak tempera­ using extrusion, which might appeal to consumers as it has appreciable
ture. antioxidant properties and has quick cooking time.
ΔH is heat flow.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
According to De Pilli et al. (2008), lower starch digestibility in
extruded starchy foods could be attributed to the formation of R.O. Baah: Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Investigation,
amylose-lipid complexation, which prolongs starch digestibility during Data curation, Writing – original draft. K.G. Duodu: Conceptualization,
enzymatic hydrolysis. During extrusion processing of starchy foods, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. M.N. Emmam­
bux: Conceptualization, Resources, Validation, Funding acquisition,

7
R.O. Baah et al. LWT 162 (2022) 113415

Fig. 4. Effect of compositing maize flour with orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) flour on the thermal properties of raw pasta samples 100% maize
80% Maize: 20% OFSP 70% Maize: 30% OFSP 50% maize: 50% OFSP commercial pasta Commercial gluten-free pasta made from maize and
rice a Endotherm for type 1 amylose-lipid complex b Endotherm for type 1 amylose-lipid complex. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 5. Effect of compositing maize flour with

orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) flour on the
thermal properties of cooked pasta samples
100% maize 80% Maize: 20% OFSP
70% Maize: 30% OFSP 50% maize:
50% OFSP commercial pasta Commercial
gluten-free pasta made from maize and rice a Endo­
therm for gelatinization temperature. (For interpre­
tation of the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the Web version of this
article.)

Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing, Project Appendix A. Supplementary data
administration.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113415.
Declaration of competing interest

References
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Acknowledgement composition, total carotenoids and total polyphenol content of nine orange-fleshed
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The DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in food security (South Africa) is
acknowledged for funding the research.

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