Effect of Fibre Fortification of Low FODMAP Pasta: International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition

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International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 
Volume 75, 2024 - Issue 3
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Studies in humans
Effect of fibre fortification of low FODMAP

pasta
Jonas J. Atzler, Emily C. Crofton, Aylin W. Sahin, Lilit Ispiryan, Eimear Gallagher,
Emanuele Zannini & ... show all
Pages 293-305 | Received 01 Jun 2023, Accepted 03 Jan 2024, Published online: 15 Jan 2024
 Cite this article  https://doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2024.2303605
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Abstract
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Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a condition affecting the digestive system and can be
triggered by several different factors, including diet. To ease symptoms of IBS, a diet low
in fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) is often
recommended. Pasta, as a staple food in the Western World, is naturally high in
FODMAPs. This study investigates the impact of insoluble and soluble dietary fibre
ingredients in low-FODMAPs pasta. The assessment included physicochemical, sensory,
and nutritional quality. Soluble fibre strengthened gluten network, which caused a lower
cooking loss and a lower release of sugars during in vitro starch digestion. Insoluble fibre
In this article 
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09637486.2024.2303605?src=most-read-last-year 1/32
interfered with the gluten network development to a higher extent causing a higher
sugar release during digestion. This study reveals the most suitable fibre ingredients for
the development of pasta with elevated nutritional value and sensory characteristics
compared to commercial products on the market. This type of pasta has a high potential
of being suitable for IBS patients.
 Keywords: Dietary fibre FODMAPs starch digestions pasta quality food structure
Introduction
Fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) are a group of

carbohydrates which are associated with the onset of gastrointestinal symptoms in
individuals suffering from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). FODMAPs are small
osmotically active and rapidly fermentable carbohydrates, which cause an increase of
luminal gas and reabsorption of water. Therefore, symptoms, such as bloating,
abdominal pain or diarrhoea, are triggered (Staudacher et al. 2014). These compounds
and their importance for IBS patients have been the focus of research for the last 15
years. FODMAPs occur ubiquitously among food products (Gibson 2017; Varney et al.
2017; Gibson et al. 2020), including cereal-based products, such as bread, pasta and
cakes. The indigestible oligosaccharides fructans and α-galactooligosaccharides (GOS)
are the main FODMAP carbohydrates typically found in cereals and pulses (Muir et al.
2009; Biesiekierski et al. 2011). A diet with a reduced intake of FODMAPs (known as a low
FODMAP diet) has been reported to be efficient in improving IBS symptoms (Gibson
2017; Bellini et al. 2020). Therefore, functional foods which have a low FODMAP content
and support the gut health of IBS patients are needed.
Dietary fibres (DF) and FODMAPs share specific characteristics, such as indigestibility and
fermentability by gut bacteria (Eswaran et al. 2013; Atzler et al. 2021a). The term DF
describes indigestible carbohydrates which are linked with improving gut and general
health (Mann and Cummings 2009). Because of the similar characteristics between DF
and FODMAPs the low FODMAP diet has been criticised for the elimination of healthy
DF. The substitution of eliminated DF with beneficial and IBS suitable DF is crucial.
However, maintaining the recommended fibre intake of 25–30 g per day can be
challenging (Kendall et al. 2010). The enrichment of foods with DF, including pasta, has
been extensively investigated regarding in vitro starch digestibility (Brennan and
Tudorica 2008; Gelencsér et al. 2008; Li et al. 2014; Foschia et al. 2015). However, data
on the incorporation of “IBS-safe” fibres in food are scarce. Cereal-based fibres, such as
wheat bran, were the focus of previous studies investigating the fortification of pasta
with DFs (Tudorica et al. 2002 Li et al. 2014; Foschia et al. 2015). However, cereal-based
DFs are high in fructans, which are classified as FODMAPs, and therefore, are not
suitable for a low FODMAP diet (Ispiryan et al. 2020). Recent research identified DFs that
are not classified as FODMAPs and allow IBS patients to ingest fibre without suffering
from typical symptoms (De Roest et al. 2013; Whelan et al. 2018). These characteristics
include low fermentability, insolubility and increased viscosity of the DF (Atzler et al.
2021a). Also, tailored application of DFs with different characteristics to different IBS-
subtypes (e.g. predominantly diarrhoea or constipation) could be useful (So et al. 2021;
Atzler et al. 2021b).
This study investigates the effect of fibre enrichment on techno-functional, rheological,

sensory and predicted nutritional quality in a low FODMAP pasta (based on wheat starch
and gluten). Therefore, pasta dough characteristics (water absorption, gluten
aggregation) and cooked pasta quality (water optimal cooking time, cooking loss, colour,
hardness, stickiness, tensile strength) were evaluated. Furthermore, the predicted
nutritional quality (sugar release during in vitro starch digestion, total digestible starch
content, FODMAP content) and sensory properties were determined. Results were
compared to a low FODMAP control pasta (LFCP), not fortified with low-FODMAP fibre
ingredients, and a commercial control pasta (CCP) which fulfils the low FODMAP criteria.
The results of this study contribute significantly to future food design and can facilitate
progress in personalised nutrition.
Methods and materials
Raw materials and chemicals
Prototypes with a low FODMAP content were prepared by replacing semolina with a mix
of gluten-free wheat starch (Roquette, France) and vital gluten (Roquette, France) and by
incorporating either bamboo fibre VITACEL BAF 200, powdered cellulose VITACEL L 600-
30, psyllium VITACEL P95 (all supplied by J. Rettenmaier GmBH, Germany) and guar gum
(Cargill, France). The CCP was purchased from Tesco (Dublin, Ireland), consisted of rice
flour, white maize flour, yellow maize flour and an emulsifier (mono- and di-glycerides of
fatty acids) and had a fibre content of 3.1 g/100 g according to the supplier. All chemicals
were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich if not specified differently.
Compositional analysis
Products have been analysed regarding their composition including determination of

protein content (based on a nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 5.7 for wheat-based
products), moisture content (based on AACC method 44-15.02 (AACC International,
2000a)), ash content (based on AOAC 923.03 (AOAC International, 2005)) and fat content
(utilising Soxhlet method and using SoxCap and SoxTec units (Foss UK Ltd., UK)) (AOAC
International, 2005). Contents of resistant starch and digestible starch have been
measured using the resistant starch assay kit (rapid) K-RAPRS supplied by Megazyme,
Ireland. Total starch was calculated as the sum of digestible and resistant starch.
Samples were freeze-dried and ground to a fine powder using a Tissue Lyser II (Hilden,
Germany) before the starch determination. FODMAP contents have been analysed
according to Ispiryan et al. (2019). For result based on the fresh weight of the pasta
samples, the moisture contents of the products were taken into consideration. For the
calculation of FODMAPs per serving, a serving size of 50 g of pasta was used.
Empirical dough analysis
LFCP (mixture of wheat starch and gluten in a ratio of 85% to 15%) and the low FODMAP
fibre-enriched pasta samples (LFFP) were analysed for their water adsorption and
gluten-aggregation properties. Mixtures of fibre-enriched pasta were prepared by

replacing starch in the starch-gluten-mix. Recipes were calculated to reach a fibre
content of 6 g/100 g in the cooked pasta aiming for a high in fibre claim according to EU
regulation (Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 2006). The addition levels of the single DF
ingredients are demonstrated in Table 1.
Table 1. Recipe of the low FODMAP control pasta (LFCP) and pasta
enriched with different dietary fibre ingredients. 
Download CSV Display Table
Farinograph
The water absorption was determined using the Farinograph-TS equipped with the
FarinoAdd-S300 attachment (Brabender GmbH & Co. KG., Germany). Since pasta dough
has a relatively low water addition level suitable for the extrusion process, the crumbly
nature of the dough led to inconsistent high values (>1200 BU). Thus, a water titration to
determine the water addition level in the recipes was not applicable. Instead, a linear
regression and an extrapolation, based on measurements of the torque at water
addition levels above 40%, were used for the calculation of the water absorption. The
total volume of dry ingredient was 200 g based on a moisture content of 14%. The
mixing chamber was tempered to 30 °C, and a constant mixing speed of 63 rpm was
chosen. The measurement started with 1 min premixing, followed by water addition
using the Aqua Inject (Brabender GmbH & Co. KG.), and the torque measurement time
was set to 10 min. The target consistency was identified by measuring the torques values
of the low FODMAP control recipe at four different concentrations (45%, 50%, 55% and
60%) and using a linear regression to calculate the torque at a water addition level of
30% (determined in pre-trials; data not shown). A target torque of 500 FU was
determined, and water addition levels of fibre-fortified pasta recipes were calculated
aiming for this torque value. Dough torques were measured at a range of 45–60% water
addition for insoluble fibres and a range of 60–70% for soluble/viscous fibres. Linear
regressions with a R2 of 0.98 were used to calculate the water addition level which was
given based on the starch and fibre ingredient.
Interaction with gluten network development
The GlutoPeak (Brabender GmbH & Co. KG., Germany) was used to investigate the
interactions of DF ingredients with the gluten network. The measurement parameters
were chosen as reported by Sahin et al. (2021), and the mixture of starch, vital gluten
and the DF ingredient in the ratio reported in Table 1 were evaluated. The LFC and
recipes including cellulose and bamboo fibre were conducted at a ratio of 56% dry
ingredients and 44% tempered deionised water (36 °C). Recipes including psyllium and
guar gum were measured at a ratio of 50/50 since the maximum torque (MT) exceeded
the limit of 110 BU. The weight of solid samples was based on a moisture of 14%, and a
total weight of 18 g was used. The impact of DF on gluten network development was
evaluated by comparing the MT and the peak maximum time (PMT).
Pasta-making process
Pasta was prepared by mixing the dry ingredients in a Kenwood mixer bowl using a
Titanium Major (KM020) mixer (Kenwood, Havant, UK) equipped with a K-beater for 2
min first to achieve a homogeneous mix. Table 1 illustrated the different recipes. Fibre-
fortified pasta recipes were designed to reach a total fibre content of 6 g/100 g in the
cooked pasta by replacing wheat starch by fibre ingredients. Concentrations were
calculated considering the water absorption during cooking determined in pre-trials
(data not shown). Following, tap water (30 °C) was added to the dry ingredients and
mixing at minimum speed was performed. A water addition level of 30% was used to
produce the LFCP. All other water amounts were adjusted using the Farinograph-TS. The
extrusion process was performed as reported by Sahin et al. (2021). Briefly, the dough
was placed in an PN 300 extruder (Häussler, Heiligkreuztal, Germany), fitted with a
spaghetti die (internal diameter 2 mm), and strands of 20 cm length were cut with
scissors. The fresh pasta was placed in a plastic food box to avoid moisture loss before
cooking. The pasta production procedure was the same for all types of pasta.
Techno-functional properties of pasta quality
Optimal cooking time, cooking loss, tensile strength, hardness, stickiness and colour
were determined to evaluate the quality of the pasta samples. The quality characteristics
of the fibre-fortified pasta were compared to the LFCP and the CCP.
Optimal cooking time
Each sample was analysed regarding its optimal cooking time according to the method
described by Hager et al. (2012). Samples were then cooked according to this time
before they were further analysed (Hager et al. 2012).
Cooking loss
The content of dry matter in the cooking water was measured to determine the cooking
loss. Measurements were carried out according to the method reported by Hager et al. (
2012), which is based on the approved AACC method 66-50 (AACC International 2000b).
Texture properties of cooked pasta
Textural parameters including hardness, stickiness and tensile strength were analysed
using a TA-XT2i texture analyser (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK) with a 5 kg load
cell, combined with the respective measuring probe. The measurements were
conducted as reported by Sahin et al. (2021).
Colour of cooked pasta
The colour of the samples was measured using a colourimeter CR-400/410 (Konica
Minolta Holdings Inc., Osaka, Japan). Before the measurement, the colourimeter was
calibrated and subsequently, the colour was measured at 30 different locations on the
surface of the pasta. After the measurement, the colour was evaluated using the L*-, a*-
and b*-value of the CIE colour scheme. However, only L*-values were used as a*- and
b*-values did not show significant differences (data not shown).
Microstructure
The microstructure of the cooked pasta samples was evaluated using Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM).
Images of the inner layer of the pasta were taken via SEM. The cooked pasta was cut into
cross-sections and subsequently freeze-dried. Freeze-dried samples were fixated on
stubs (G 306; 10 mm × 10 mm Diameter; Agar Scientific, UK) using carbon tape (G3357N;
Carbon Tabs 9 mm; Agar Scientific, UK). Afterwards, samples were coated in a gold-
palladium alloy (ratio of 80/20) using a Polaron E5150 sputter coating unit. Images were
taken using a JEOL Scanning Electron Microscope (JSM-5510, Jeol Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and
applying a 5 kV voltage, a 20 mm working distance and a magnification factor of 1000.
CLSM imaging of the protein-carbohydrate structure of the samples was conducted

using a confocal laser scanning microscope (Fluoview FV1000 incorporating an IX81
inverted microscope, Olympus, Hamburg, Germany) at 20x magnification. Both, a He-Ne
laser (excitation wavelength 633 nm) and an Argon laser (excitation wavelength 488 nm),
were used as samples, which were dyed with a combination of Nile blue A perchlorate
and FITC. Samples were prepared for analysis as follows. Frozen samples were cut into
cross-sections using a scalpel and subsequently incubated in the dark in chamber dishes
for 30 min in 1-mL Nile blue A perchlorate (1% w/v solution in deionised water). After
thorough rinsing with deionised water, the sample was dyed again for 10 s using a FITC
solution (0.3% w/v in deionised water). Samples were again thoroughly rinsed with
deionised water. For imaging, the dyed pasta cross-sections were placed in a chamber
dish and weighted down with a cover slip to ensure contact of the sample surface and
the surface of the well.
In vitro starch digestibility
In vitro starch digestibility was determined based on the degradation of digestible starch
by α-amylase and the subsequent release of reducing sugars. An enzyme assay was
carried out as previously described by Brennan and Tudorica (2008). The amount of
reducing sugars released (RSR; expressed in % of digestible starch content (DSC)) was
calculated using the following equation:
𝐴Sample*500*0.95
RSR ( % ) = *100
𝐴Maltose*DSC
where Asample represents the absorbance measured in the sample at 546 nm, AMaltose
represents the absorbance measured for a maltose solution (1 mg/mL; w/v) at 546 nm,
DSC represents the digestible starch content (in mg), 500 mL is the total volume of buffer
used and 0.95 is the conversion factor from maltose to starch.
Sensory analysis
Sensory evaluation of the pasta samples was conducted using quantitative descriptive
analysis (QDA™). All panellists (n = 8; all female) had a minimum of 4 years sensory
testing experience and additionally attended four 2-h training sessions on the
assessment of pasta. The panel identified and agreed on a list of nine attributes
(adapted from previous research) which discriminated across the samples (Table 2).
Pasta samples were cooked for the determined optimal cooking time. Following cooking,
nine strands of pasta were placed in a closed plastic container labelled with a random
three-digit code and served to panellists according to a balanced design. Panellists
evaluated the samples in triplicate over three 1-h sessions. Attributes were rated on a
10-cm line scale with appropriate end anchors. The overall quality of the appearance,
flavour and texture of each sample was rated on a five-point scale where 1 = poor, 2 =
fair, 3 = good, 4 = very good and 5 = excellent. Sensory testing was conducted under
white light in a sensory testing facility (ISO 8589:2007) using Compusense Cloud
Software (Compusense Inc., Ontario, Canada). Unsalted crackers and filtered water were
used as palate cleansers.
Table 2. List of sensory attributes with agreed definitions and scale

end anchors properties. 
Statistical analysis
All measurements were performed in triplicate and as described. Statistical analysis was
performed using SPSS version 28.01 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) and Microsoft Excel version
2207 (Microsoft Redmond, WA) with the criterion for statistical significance set at α ≤
0.05. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for the statistical evaluation and
determination of significant differences among the physicochemical, technological and
nutritional properties. For the sensory data, a two-way ANOVA was applied, considering
samples, assessors and their interaction. Significant differences were determined using
Tukey’s post hoc test, and the alpha value of 0.05 was used. Furthermore, a Pearson
correlation analysis was carried out to correlate the technological data with the sensory
data.
Results
Properties of dough and cooked pasta
Properties of pasta dough
The impact of DF ingredients on water absorption of the dough and gluten network
development is illustrated in Table 3. The addition of insoluble (bamboo, cellulose) and
soluble fibres (psyllium, guar gum) led to an increase in water absorption compared to
the LFCP. However, soluble fibres caused a higher increase as absorption values above
80% were determined. Semolina-based pasta, as a comparison, has a water absorption
value of 30% based on flour (Neylon et al. 2021; Sahin et al. 2021).
Table 3. Technological properties of dough formulations/cooked

pasta and the compositional/nutritional properties (presented on an
“as is” basis) of commercial control (CCP), low FODMAP control

(LFCP) and the fibre-fortified products.
The incorporation of DF significantly increased the MT compared to the LFCP. The

addition of the soluble DF psyllium and guar gum resulted in MTs above 100 BU, while
the insoluble fibres bamboo and cellulose caused MTs between 70 and 100 BU.
However, a significant increase in the PMT was only observed for pasta recipes
containing bamboo fibre or cellulose. Cellulose incorporation resulted in the highest
PMT. The gluten network development characteristics of semolina pasta determined in
previous studies showed a MT of 45 BU which is significantly lower than the fibre-rich
pasta doughs, and a significantly longer development time (PMT = 91 s) (Neylon et al.
2021).
Properties of cooked pasta
The results for the technological properties of cooked pasta are shown in Table 3.
Significant differences between LFCP and fibre-fortified low FODMAP pasta were
determined for all parameters. The moisture content of cooked pasta reflects the water
absorption during cooking. The levels ranged from 46% to 71%. The fortification with
soluble DFs (psyllium, guar gum) resulted in significantly increased moisture contents
around 70%, while the inclusion of cellulose caused the least water uptake during
cooking (48%).
CCP showed the highest OCT amongst all pasta samples evaluated. The OCT of the LFCP
and pasta containing bamboo fibre or cellulose was between 5.5 and 6.0 min. The
fortification with guar gum led to a significantly higher OCT (>10 min). In contrast, the
addition of psyllium significantly lowered the OCT to 2 min. As comparison, semolina
pasta analysed in previous studies showed an OCT of 5.5 min, very similar to low
FODMAP pasta fortified with insoluble fibre (Sahin et al. 2021).
The cooking loss of the different pasta samples ranged from 2% to 8%. CCP had a
cooking loss similar to the pasta fortified with bamboo, cellulose and psyllium. The
incorporation of bamboo, cellulose and psyllium significantly increased the cooking loss
(7.79%, 5.47%, 6.99%, respectively) compared to the LFCP (2.92%). On the contrary, the
fortification with guar gum caused a decreased in cooking loss (2.08%). Semolina pasta
analysed in previous studies had a cooking loss of 5–6% (Neylon et al. 2021; Sahin et al.
2021).
The lightness of the samples was also found to be depending on DF used. As

comparison, semolina pasta was showed to have a L*-value of about 70 (Sahin et al.
2021). The CCP had lightness values below 80, and only the guar gum containing pasta
was measured to have a similar lightness value. The LFCP and pasta containing bamboo
fibre or cellulose led to L*-values above 80. No significant differences between LFCP and
the pasta fortified with insoluble DFs occurred, however, the addition of soluble DF
decreased the lightness with psyllium causing the lowest L*-value of 52.
The effects of DF on texture were evaluated using the texture analyser and included
measurements of hardness, stickiness and tensile strength of the pasta. The texture
properties of psyllium containing pasta could not be determined due to the occurrence
of strong gelling and an accelerated rate of breaking of pasta strands. Pasta-containing
bamboo fibre, cellulose and guar gum had a significantly lower hardness (1.05 N, 1.32 N,
0.61 N, respectively) compared to the LFCP (2.17 N). The hardness of the CCP was
comparable to the LFCP and significantly higher compared to pasta fortified with DF.
Semolina pasta previously showed a hardness value of 2.2 N, which is not significantly
different from LFCP (Sahin et al. 2021).
The incorporation of guar gum resulted in no significant change in stickiness compared

to LFCP, while cellulose addition slightly reduced stickiness. CCP and low FODMAP pasta
with bamboo fibre had significantly lower stickiness values (1.9–2.2 N).
The incorporation of all four DF reduced tensile strength, compared to the LCFP.
Semolina pasta was previously measured and had a tensile strength of 0.3 N (Neylon
et al. 2021). The tensile strength of the pasta fortified with bamboo fibre and psyllium
was not measurable as the values were below the minimum detectable force of the
measurement system. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in the tensile

strength of the cellulose containing LFFP and the CCP (1.7 − 1.8 N).
Chemical and nutritional properties of the cooked pasta
A summary of the chemical and nutritional analysis is depicted in Table 3. Ash and fat
contents were determined to be below 1 g/100 g and only small differences were
observed. The protein contents ranged from 2.45% to 4.09%. Pasta fortified with guar
gum and the CCP showed significant differences in protein content compared to the
LFCP. The most significant differences in the composition of the samples were observed
for the digestible starch. The digestible starch content in CCP (40 g/100 g) was similar to
the LFCP (36 g/100 g). On the contrary, the DF fortification of the low FODMAP pasta led
to a significant decrease in digestible starch due to wheat starch replacement. However,
the degree to which the starch amount is lowered depends on whether insoluble or
soluble DF were used. For insoluble DF (bamboo fibre, cellulose), digestible starch
contents between 26 and 29 g/100 g were measured. Soluble-viscous DF (psyllium, guar
gum) decreased the amounts of digestible starch values to 12% and 15%, respectively.
Microstructure
Both the analysis with CLSM and SEM (Figure 1) revealed significant differences in the
microstructure. SEM images show that LFCP, and low FODMAP pasta containing bamboo
fibre or cellulose contain gelatinised starch granules embedded in a protein network.
However, the microstructure of the CCP and pasta fortified with psyllium or guar gum
significantly varied. Both psyllium and guar gum containing pasta were found to have
lower amounts of starch granules and a more compact structure illustrated by the
limited number of holes. For psyllium, a very homogenous structure, which does not
allow for differentiation between proteins and carbohydrates, was observed. The CCP
has a microstructure consisting of a homogenous network with a very low number of
starch granules and a high amount of larger holes.
Figure 1. Photographs [.1], CLSM [.2] and SEM [.3] images of commercial control pasta
(CCP) [A], low FODMAP control pasta (LFCP) [B] and low FODMAP pasta fortified with
bamboo fibre [C], cellulose [D], psyllium [E] and guar gum [F].
Display full size
The microstructure observed in the CLSM images is in line with the microstructure seen
in the SEM images. This technique additionally allowed to distinguish between starch
(green), proteins (red) and fibres (red). All products except the CCP and the LFFP
containing psyllium showed distinguished starch granules and a protein network (light
red colour). CLSM pictures of pasta containing bamboo fibre, cellulose or guar gum
showed the presence of fibres (more fibrous, edgy shapes of red structures). However,
the fibre particles differed in shape and size. Micrographs of pasta fortified with bamboo
fibre or guar gum showed longer and thin fibre particles with a length above 100 µm and
an angular shape. Fibre particles with a higher diameter and a shorter length below 100
µm were observed in cellulose containing pasta. Furthermore, guar gum caused links
between the various particles. CLSM images of the pasta enriched with psyllium showed
no clear structure as neither starch granules nor protein clusters were identified. The
CCP, in turn, showed a structure strongly disrupted by holes that were not dyed and,
therefore, appeared black.
In vitro starch digestibility
The release curves of reducing sugars (RSR) over a period of 5 h from a simulated in vitro
starch digestion are presented in Figure 2. It was found that the in vitro starch
digestibility of the pasta enriched with bamboo fibre, psyllium and guar gum was lower
compared to the LFCP. Fortification with psyllium led to a reduction of the final RSR
content to 12%. The addition of bamboo fibre and guar gum resulted in final RSR
contents of 8% and 9%. No significant differences were seen in the starch digestibility of
cellulose containing pasta compared to the LFCP (final RSR > 15%). The CCP showed a
final RSR content of 10%.
Figure 2. Release of reducing sugars (RSR) in percent during in vitro starch digestion
based on the digestible starch content of commercial control pasta (CCP), low FODMAP
control pasta (LFCP) and low FODMAP pasta fortified with bamboo fibre, cellulose,
psyllium and guar gum.
Display full size
Sensory analysis
Sensory characteristics
The sensory profiles of the different pastas were determined by a trained panel, which
established and evaluated nine attributes describing the pastas’ appearance, texture,
flavour and the overall quality of appearance, texture and flavour. The results of sensory
analysis are summarised in Table 4.
Table 4. QDA mean panel data and post hoc test groupings for the
sensory properties of commercial control pasta (CCP), low FODMAP
control (LFCP) and the fibre-fortified samples.

Addition of guar gum significantly lowered the colour intensity of pasta in comparison to
all other samples assessed. The psyllium pasta also resulted in significantly lower colour
intensity ratings in comparison to CCP, LFCP and bamboo pasta samples. The surface
smoothness of the fibre-fortified pasta was lower compared to LFCP and CCP, while guar
gum and psyllium pastas were rated to have the least smooth surface.
The firmness and chewiness of the fibre-enriched pasta with bamboo fibre, cellulose or
psyllium compared well to the LFCP, while the pasta with guar gum addition and the CCP
were perceived as firmer and chewier. Pasta fortified with bamboo fibre, cellulose or
psyllium were perceived to have the same adhesiveness as the LFCP; the guar gum
containing pasta was rated to be the most adhesive, and the CCP, in turn, the least. All
fibre-enriched pasta samples had a slight trend towards more grainy perception of the
texture compared to the LFCP, although only the ratings for cellulose and guar gum
pasta were significantly higher. The graininess of the CCP was similar to fibre-fortified
pasta. Overall, pasta containing bamboo fibre, cellulose or psyllium were rated to have a
similar texture and pasta with guar gum was perceived as firmer and chewier. The
flavour characteristics of all pasta samples were very similar. No significant differences
in sweetness, bitterness and aftertaste were found across the pasta samples. The overall
quality of appearance, texture and flavour of the low FODMAP pasta samples fortified
with DF were rated to be similar to the LFCP; the appearance of the fibre-enriched pasta
received slightly lower ratings, the texture of the guar gum pasta was perceived to be
more pleasant and the flavour of the psyllium pasta received slightly lower ratings. No
other significant differences were seen in the overall quality of the fibre-enriched pastas
and the LFCP. The CCP received was rated the highest in the overall quality.
Correlation of sensory and technological characteristics
A Pearson correlation was executed to assess interactions and correlations between the
technological parameters and sensory properties describing the appearance and
texture. The results are illustrated in Table 5. Only strong positive or negative
correlations, which were significant (p < 0.05; r > 0.5) were relevant.
Table 5. Results of the Pearson correlation analysis for the

technological quality parameters (hardness, stickiness, tensile
strength and colour) and the sensory properties (firmness,

chewiness, adhesiveness, graininess, quality of appearance and
quality of texture).
It was found that only the hardness of the pasta correlated with the sensory attributes.
Hardness had a positive correlation with the quality of appearance (r = 0.626) and the
quality of texture (r = 0.517).
Several correlations between the sensory attributes as well as texture characteristics

were found. The firmness of the pasta positively correlated with the tensile strength. For
the quality of appearance, a positive correlation with the quality of texture (r = 0.813)
occurred. Furthermore, the quality of texture also negatively correlated with the
adhesiveness (r = −0.515).
Discussion
The incorporation of the different fibre ingredients in low FODMAP pasta resulted in
different technological characteristics of the doughs and the cooked pastas and sensory
attributes. These differences can be substantially attributed to the water holding
capacity of the DF and the increase in viscosity caused by the incorporation of the fibre
ingredients (Neylon et al. 2021; Sahin et al. 2021).
The results of the farinograph highlight the significance of the water holding capacity of
the various DF ingredients since an increase in the water absorption level was observed.
The increase of water absorption levels by DF is a commonly reported effect. However,
soluble dietary fibre showed a higher water absorption compared to insoluble fibre.
Indeed, this discrepancy can be explained with the different water holding capacities of
these DF. Both psyllium and guar gum were previously reported to have significantly
higher water holding capacities (20.0 g and 21.5 g H2O/g solid, respectively) than bamboo
fibre and cellulose (8.3 g and 4.0 g H2O/g solid, respectively) (Atzler et al. 2021b), which
led to the necessary adjustment of solid/liquid ration in the GlutoPeak measurement.
Furthermore, the competition for water between the fibre and protein, mainly
glutenin/gliadin, putatively caused the increase in MT and PMT (Sahin et al. 2021).
Moreover, the increase of the MT by bamboo fibre and cellulose can be explained by the
ability of these DF to act as plasticisers (Nawrocka et al. 2017).
Although the water holding capacity can be seen as the main factor for these effects, two
other parameters impacting the dough properties were identified. Firstly, the particle
size of insoluble DF, can have a significant influence on technological dough and product
characteristics. The bamboo fibre had a significantly larger particle size than cellulose
(350 μm versus 30 µm; as specified by the supplier). Therefore, disruption of
homogeneity by fibre particles, dependent on particle size, can be seen as a possible
cause for the differences in gluten network development time and strength (Zhang and
Moore, 1997; Tudorica et al. 2002; Sangnark and Noomhorm 2003; Brennan and
Tudorica 2007). Additionally, considering an increase in viscosity caused by the
formation of a gel network is characteristic for soluble, viscous DF. The gel network
formation could have caused the high MT and the low PMT values. This can be explained
as a rise in viscosity increases the force needed for the kneading of the dough (Atzler
et al. 2021b).
Differences in the water holding capacities of the different fibre ingredients were
decisive for the results of the moisture after cooking, the hardness, the stickiness and
the tensile strength. A much higher moisture after cooking was observed for both
psyllium and guar gum, which is related to their high water holding capacities
(Horstmann et al. 2018). On the other hand, the reduced pasta hardness and stickiness
caused by the addition of bamboo fibre, cellulose or guar gum was putatively caused by
the competition for water between the DFs and the starch-protein network (Tudorica
et al. 2002; Brennan and Tudorica 2007). The reduction of freely available water results
in lower levels of starch gelatinisation and gluten network development. Bamboo fibre
and cellulose also reduced stickiness caused by the same effects (Tudorica et al. 2002;
Brennan and Tudorica 2007). The significance of the effects of the different water
holding capacities is further highlighted by the fact that the rate at which hardness,
stickiness and tensile strength are reduced aligns with the increased water holding
capacity specified by the supplier for these DFs.
Furthermore, difference in the pasta characteristics can also be attributed to differences

in particle size and gel-network strength of the different fibre ingredients. Cooking loss
and the OCT are primarily influenced by these two DF properties. The disruption of the
outer protein layer, which is responsible for the retention of organic material, was
observed in the pasta with bamboo fibre addition; incorporating bamboo fibre led to a
significant increase in cooking loss. This could be explained by the elongated shape of
fibre particles, which were also visualised in the CLSM images of the bamboo fibre
containing pasta (Gelencsér et al. 2008; Krishnan and Prabhasankar 2012; Li et al. 2014).
The incorporation of psyllium resulted in a significantly reduced cooking time and

increased cooking loss due to the lack of formation of either a defined protein-starch
network or a gel network. However, guar gum had the opposite effect due to the
formation of a stronger gel network reflected by high MT values. Visual evaluation of the
microstructure seen in the SEM and CLSM images supports these findings. In the CLSM
images, no distinct starch granules embedded in a protein network, but instead, diffuse
and undefined starch-, fibre- and protein structures were visible. The absence of any
defined network allows water to quickly enter the system and amylose to leach into the
cooking water. It was frequently reported that the amount of cooking loss is related to
the strength of the protein network on the outer layer of the pasta (Gelencsér et al.
2008). The effects of psyllium regarding network formation caused a general decrease in
pasta quality reflected by the technological quality parameters (hardness, stickiness and
tensile strength) being not measurable. Guar gum was the only DF ingredient that
reduced the cooking loss and increased the OCT, which can be explained by the gel
network encapsulating the starch and the protein (Brennan and Tudorica 2007; Atzler
et al. 2021b). This also aligns with the findings obtained for the microstructure using SEM
and CLSM since the formation of a continuous network was observed in both types of
micrographs. Furthermore, the higher MT values measured suggest a stronger gel
network than the pasta containing psyllium. Although an increase in OCT compared to
the LFCP was observed, the OCT of guar gum containing pasta was still in a reasonable
range and compared well to the CCP.
Overall, all pasta except psyllium had an acceptable technological quality compared to
the CCP. The values for moisture after cooking, cooking loss and lightness of fibre-
fortified pasta samples were not significantly different from those determined for the
CCP. Moreover, the selected DF ingredients did not impact sensory characteristic. This
highlights the potential of these fibres to produce a pasta which is high in fibre and has a
desirable quality. The results of the sensory trial support the findings made for the
technological quality parameters of the pasta. This is especially seen in the fact that the
hardness was found to have a significant correlation with the sensory quality.
A beneficial effect on the nutritional composition of the fibre-enriched pasta samples

can be predicted based on the results of the in vitro starch digestibility. Generally, the
replacement of wheat starch by DF caused a decrease in sugar release over time. The
only exception was the pasta fortified with cellulose, as no significant differences were
determined compared to the LFCP. Also, the CCP showed a lower RSR during digestion
compared to the LFCP. The CCP was specified to have a dietary fibre content of 3 g/100
g. which explains RSR values and starch digestibility, similar to the fibre-fortified pasta
(Foschia et al. 2015). The lower RSR during digestion can be explained by the partial
replacement of easily digestible wheat starch with indigestible fibre ingredients
(Tudorica et al. 2002; Brennan and Tudorica 2007; Foschia et al. 2015). Moreover, the
different inclusion levels need to be considered. For psyllium and guar gum, higher
addition levels were necessary as they significantly increased water absorption and
adjustments were needed to reach 6 g fibre per 100 g cooked pasta (Sahin et al. 2021). A
decreased RSR can also be attributed to the fibres’ water holding capacities or their
abilities to increase viscosity (Tudorica et al. 2002; Brennan and Tudorica 2007; Foschia
et al. 2015). An impairment of the starch digestibility following the addition of DFs is a
well-known fact and has been observed for various food products, including bread and
pasta (Tudorica et al. 2002; Brennan and Tudorica 2007; Sasaki and Kohyama 2012;
Foschia et al. 2015). The addition of DF often leads to a decrease in starch digestibility by
restricting the gelatinisation of starch. Gelatinisation of starch improves and allows
starch digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract (Chung et al. 2006). The level at
which starch digestibility was affected depended on the water holding capacity and the
increase in viscosity. In fact, cellulose with the lowest water holding capacity (4 g H2O/g
solid in contrast to 8–20 g H2O/g solid; specified by the suppliers) did not significantly
impact starch digestibility. Similar to the effects on technological properties, this is
caused by differences in the water holding capacity and particle size. The higher water
holding capacity of bamboo fibre (8.3 g H2O/g solid) leads to higher competition for
water and, therefore, a decrease in starch gelatinisation. The decrease in gelatinised
starch was also observed during SEM. The two soluble, viscous DFs had even higher
water holding capacities (∼20 g H2O/g solid) and possess the ability to form gel
networks. This would explain that guar gum addition resulted in the highest impairment
of starch digestibility. An increase in viscosity causes a decline in starch digestibility by
reducing the accessibility of starch granules for hydrolysis via α-amylase (Cameron-Smith
et al. 1994). Additionally, food structure has a significant impact on accessibility of
enzymes for their specific substrate, in this case starch (Sahin et al. 2021). The more
compact pasta containing guar gum or psyllium and the gel network formed covering
the starch granules embedded in the protein matrix restricted the amylase to cleave the
alpha (1–4) glycosidic bonds releasing reducing sugars.
Ultimately, only low FODMAP ingredients were selected for the formulations (Ispiryan
et al. 2020); this could be analytically confirmed with no FODMAPs detected in any of the
pasta samples. Conventional pasta with a higher fibre content is usually made from
wholemeal flour or cereal-based fibres, such as wheat bran and is, therefore, found to
be high in FODMAPs (Biesiekierski et al. 2011; Varney et al. 2017). Hence, the fibre-
enriched pasta samples in this study are not only suitable for the low FODMAP diet given
their low FODMAP contents but could also positively assist the diet being a good source
of DF (Varney et al. 2017).
Conclusion
In summary, this study shows the impact of different low FODMAP dietary fibre
ingredients on a low FODMAP pasta model system based on wheat starch and vital
gluten. The results are impactful for further product development providing consumers
suffering from IBS symptoms adequate nutrition. Reaching an adequate fibre supply in a
low FODMAP diet can be challenging. All DF ingredients used in this study, except for
psyllium, had an acceptable quality regarding their technological properties.
Additionally, the fibre-enriched pasta performed similarly to the LFCP regarding the
sensory qualities, suggesting that the fortification with DF does not negatively impact
these properties. Moreover, three main properties – which can be used for predicting
the impact of the DF on pasta quality – were identified. These three properties are the
water holding capacity of both soluble and insoluble DF, the insoluble fibres’ particle size
and the soluble fibres’ viscosity. This knowledge can be used for further research,
studying the synergistic effect of the selected fibre ingredients in coexistence. The
suggested DF ingredient, based on the outcome of this study, are the insoluble DF
cellulose and the soluble DF guar gum.
Ethical approval
Sensory evaluation of pasta was conducted in accordance with the Institute of Food
Science and Technology (IFST) Guidelines for Ethical and Professional Practices for the
Sensory Analysis of Foods (IFST 2020)and informed consent was obtained from all
sensory panellists prior to commencing the study.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Tom Hannon for technical support and Dr. Andrea
Hoehnel for her support and the inspiring discussions.
Disclosure statement
No financial or non-financial competing interests.
Additional information
Funding
This work was funded by the Irish Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine.
Project Acronym: TALENTFOOD – 15F602.
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5/21/24, 3:09 PM Full article: Effect of fibre fortification of low FODMAP pasta

Effect of fibre fortification of low FODMAP

 Cite this article  https://doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2024.2303605

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Fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) are a group of

This study investigates the effect of fibre enrichment on techno-functional, rheological,

Methods and materials

Raw materials and chemicals

Products have been analysed regarding their composition including determination of

Empirical dough analysis

gluten-aggregation properties. Mixtures of fibre-enriched pasta were prepared by

Techno-functional properties of pasta quality

Optimal cooking time

Texture properties of cooked pasta

Colour of cooked pasta

CLSM imaging of the protein-carbohydrate structure of the samples was conducted

In vitro starch digestibility

Table 2. List of sensory attributes with agreed definitions and scale

Properties of dough and cooked pasta

Properties of pasta dough

Table 3. Technological properties of dough formulations/cooked

Download CSV Display Table

The incorporation of DF significantly increased the MT compared to the LFCP. The

The lightness of the samples was also found to be depending on DF used. As

The incorporation of guar gum resulted in no significant change in stickiness compared

measurement system. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in the tensile

Chemical and nutritional properties of the cooked pasta

Display full size

In vitro starch digestibility

Display full size

Table 5. Results of the Pearson correlation analysis for the

Download CSV Display Table

Several correlations between the sensory attributes as well as texture characteristics

Furthermore, difference in the pasta characteristics can also be attributed to differences

The incorporation of psyllium resulted in a significantly reduced cooking time and

A beneficial effect on the nutritional composition of the fibre-enriched pasta samples

No financial or non-financial competing interests.

1. AACC International. 2000a. Method 44-15 A Moisture-Air Oven Method. AACC

3. AOAC International. 2005. Method 923.03 Ash of Flour (direct method).

6. Bellini M, Tonarelli S, Nagy AG, Pancetti A, Costa F, Ricchiuti A, de Bortoli N, Mosca M,

903. doi: 10.1111/ijcp.12128.

22. Ispiryan L, Zannini E, Arendt EK. 2020. Characterization of the FODMAP-profile in

28. Nawrocka A, Szymańska-Chargot M, Miś A, Wilczewska AZ, Markiewicz KH. 2017.

32. Sangnark A, Noomhorm A. 2003. Effect of particle sizes on functional properties of

33. Sasaki T, Kohyama K. 2012. Influence of non-starch polysaccharides on the in vitro

Francisco J. Salar et al.

Robert A. Bonakdar et al.

Nutrient profile of packaged foods according to the degree of processing 

Catarina Vale et al.

Information for Open access

R&D professionals Open journals

Editors Open Select

Librarians Dove Medical Press

Opportunities Help and information

Reprints and e-prints Help and contact

Advertising solutions Newsroom

Accelerated publication All journals