Chapter 1

Intervals and Inequalities

Real Numbers:

1
2
3
Inequalities:

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Hyperbolic Functions

17
18
19
 Chapter 3
Limits and Continuity

20
21
22
23
24
25
Exercises:

26
Continuity:

27
28
Exercises:

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Chapter 9 222 Matrices and Determinants

Chapter 9
4
Matrices and Determinants
9.1 Introduction:
In many economic analysis, variables are assumed to be related by
sets of linear equations. Matrix algebra provides a clear and concise
notation for the formulation and solution of such problems, many of which
would be complicated in conventional algebraic notation. The concept of
determinant and is based on that of matrix. Hence we shall first explain a
matrix.
9.2 Matrix:
A set of mn numbers (real or complex), arranged in a rectangular
formation (array or table) having m rows and n columns and enclosed by a
square bracket [ ] is called mn matrix (read “m by n matrix”) .
An mn matrix is expressed as

 a11 a12     a1n 

a a22     a2n 
 21
A=               
 
             
 am1 am2     amn 
The letters aij stand for real numbers. Note that aij is the element in
the ith row and jth column of the matrix .Thus the matrix A is sometimes
denoted by simplified form as (aij) or by {aij} i.e., A = (aij)
Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C etc and its
elements by small letters a, b, c etc.
Order of a Matrix:
The order or dimension of a matrix is the ordered pair having as
first component the number of rows and as second component the number
of columns in the matrix. If there are 3 rows and 2 columns in a matrix,
then its order is written as (3, 2) or (3 x 2) read as three by two. In general
if m are rows and n are columns of a matrix, then its order is (m x n).
Examples:

31
Chapter 9 223 Matrices and Determinants

 a1 a 2 a3 a4 
1  
1 2 3  2  and  b1 b 2 b3 b 4 
4 5 6 ,    c1 c 2 c4 
   3 
c3
 
d1 d 2 d3 d4 
are matrices of orders (2 x 3), (3 x 1) and (4 x 4) respectively.
9.3 Some types of matrices:
1. Row Matrix and Column Matrix:
A matrix consisting of a single row is called a row matrix or a
row vector, whereas a matrix having single column is called a column
matrix or a column vector.

2. Null or Zero Matrix:

A matrix in which each element is „0‟ is called a Null or Zero
matrix. Zero matrices are generally denoted by the symbol O. This
distinguishes zero matrix from the real number 0.
0 0 0 0 
For example O =   is a zero matrix of order 2 x 4.
0 0 0 0 
The matrix Omxn has the property that for every matrix Amxn,
A+O=O+A=A

3. Square matrix:
A matrix A having same numbers of rows and columns is called a
square matrix. A matrix A of order m x n can be written as Amxn. If
m = n, then the matrix is said to be a square matrix. A square
matrix of order n x n, is simply written as An.

Thus and are square matrix of

order 2 and 3
Main or Principal (leading)Diagonal:
The principal diagonal of a square matrix is the ordered set of
elements aij, where i = j, extending from the upper left-hand corner to the
lower right-hand corner of the matrix. Thus, the principal diagonal
contains elements a11, a22, a33 etc.
For example, the principal diagonal of

32
Chapter 9 224 Matrices and Determinants

1 3 1
5 2 3 
 
6 4 0 
consists of elements 1, 2 and 0, in that order.
Particular cases of a square matrix:
(a)Diagonal matrix:
A square matrix in which all elements are zero except those in the
main or principal diagonal is called a diagonal matrix. Some elements of
the principal diagonal may be zero but not all.
1 0 0 
4 0  
For example  0 2 and 0 1 0 
  0 0 0 
are diagonal matrices.
 a11 a12    a1n 
 a a 22    a 2n 
 21
In general A =              = (a ij )nxn
 
           
 a n1 a n2    a nn 
is a diagonal matrix if and only if
aij = 0 for i  j
aij  0 for at least one i = j
(b) Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are same, is
called a scalar matrix i.e.
Thus
k 0 0 
and 0 k 0 are scalar matrices
 
 0 0 k 
(c) Identity Matrix or Unit matrix:
A scalar matrix in which each diagonal element is 1(unity) is
called a unit matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by In.

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Chapter 9 225 Matrices and Determinants

1 0 0 
1 0 
Thus I2 =   and I3 =  0 1 0 
0 1   
0 0 1 
are the identity matrices of order 2 and 3 .

 a11 a12     a1n 

a a22     a2n 
 21
In general, A=                = [aij]mxn
 
             
 am1 am2     amn 
is an identity matrix if and only if
aij = 0 for i ≠ j and aij = 1 for i = j
Note: If a matrix A and identity matrix I are comformable for
multiplication, then I has the property that
AI = IA = A i.e., I is the identity matrix for multiplication.

4. Equal Matrices:
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if they have
the same order and each element of matrix A is equal to the corresponding
element of matrix B i.e for each i, j, aij = bij

Thus A = and B =

then A = B because the order of matrices A and B is same

and aij = bij for every i , j.

Example 1: Find the values of x , y , z and a which satisfy the

matrix equation
=
Solution : By the definition of equality of matrices, we have

x + 3 = 0 ……………………………..(1)
2y + x = -7 ……………………………(2)
z – 1 = 3 ……………………………(3)
4a – 6 = 2a ……………………………(4)
From (1) x = -3

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Chapter 9 226 Matrices and Determinants

Put the value of x in (2) , we get y = -2

From (3) z=4
From (4) a=3

5. The Negative of a Matrix:

The negative of the matrix Amxn, denoted by –Amxn, is the matrix
formed by replacing each element in the matrix Amxn with its additive
inverse. For example,
 3 -1
If A3x2   2 -2
-4 5 
 3 1 
Then A3x2   2 2 
 4 5
for every matrix Amxn, the matrix –Amxn has the property that
A + (–A) = (–A) + A = 0
i.e., (–A) is the additive inverse of A.
The sum Bm-n + (–Amxn) is called the difference of Bmxn and Amxn
and is denoted by Bmxn – Amxn.

9.4 Operations on matrices:

(a) Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar:

If A is a matrix and k is a scalar (constant), then kA is a matrix
whose elements are the elements of A , each multiplied by k
 4 3
For example, if A =  8 2 then for a scalar k,
 
 1 0 

kA =

35
Chapter 9 227 Matrices and Determinants

5 8 4  15 24 12 
Also, 3 0 3 5 =  0 9 15
  
3 1 4   9 3 12 

(b) Addition and subtraction of Matrices:

If A and B are two matrices of same order mn then their sum
A + B is defined as C, mn matrix such that each element of C is the sum
of the corresponding elements of A and B .
for example
If and B=

Then C=A+B = =

Similarly, the difference A – B of the two matrices A and B is a matrix

each element of which is obtained by subtracting the elements of B from
the corresponding elements of A
Thus if A= , B =

then A - B =  =

If A, B and C are the matrices of the same order mxn

then A+B = B+A
and (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) i.e., the addition of matrices is
commutative and Associative respectively.
Note: The sum or difference of two matrices of different order is not
defined.

(c) Product of Matrices:

Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for the product
AB if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
Then the product matrix AB has the same number of rows as A and the
same number of columns as B.
Thus the product of the matrices Amxp and Bpxn is the matrix
(AB)mxn. The elements of AB are determined as follows:

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Chapter 9 228 Matrices and Determinants

The element Cij in the ith row and jth column of (AB)mxn is found
by cij = ai1b1j  ai2b2j + ai3b3j + ……….+ ainbnj

for example, consider the matrices

 a11 a12   b11 b12 
A2x2 =   and B2x2 =  
a 21 a 22   b 21 b22 
Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B
,the product AB is defined and is given as
 a11b11  a12 b21 a11b12  a12 b22 
AB =  
a 21b11  a 22 b21 a 21b12  a 22 b22 
Thus c11 is obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row
of A i.e., a11 , a12 by the corresponding elements of the first column of B
i.e., b11 , b21 and adding the product.
Similarly , c12 is obtained by multiplying the elements of the first
row of A i.e., a11 , a12 by the corresponding elements of the second
column of B i.e., b12 , b22 and adding the product. Similarly for c21 , c22 .
Note :
1 . Multiplication of matrices is not commutative i.e., AB  BA in
general.
2 . For matrices A and B if AB = BA then A and B commute to
each other
3 . A matrix A can be multiplied by itself if and only if it is a square
matrix.The product A.A in such cases is written as A2.
Similarly we may define higher powers of a square matrix i.e.,
A . A2 = A3 , A2. A2 = A4
4. In the product AB, A is said to be pre multiple of B and B is said
to be post multiple of A.

1 2  2 1
Example 1: If A =   and B = 1 1 Find AB and BA.
 1 3   
Solution:
1 2   2 1  22 1 2 
AB =   =  
 1 3  1 1  2  3 1  3
4 3
= 
1 2 

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Chapter 9 229 Matrices and Determinants

 2 1  1 2  2  1 4  3
BA =    1 3  = 1  1
 1 1   2  3
1 7 
=  
0 5 
This example shows very clearly that multiplication of matrices in
general, is not commutative i.e., AB  BA.
Example 2: If
1 1
3 1 2   2 1  , find AB
Example 2: If A =   and B =
1 0 1   
3 1 
Solution:
Since A is a (2 x 3) matrix and B is a (3 x 2) matrix, they are
conformable for multiplication. We have
1 1
3 1 2  
AB =   = 3  2  6 3  1  2 
 2 1 1  0  3 1  0  1
1 0 1     
3 1 
11 0 
=  
 4 0
Remark:
If A, B and C are the matrices of order (m x p), (p x q) and (q x n)
respectively, then
i. (AB)C = A(BC) i.e., Associative law holds.
C(A+B) = CA + CB
ii. }i.e distributive laws holds.
and (A + B)C = AC + BC
Note: that if a matrix A and identity matrix I are conformable for
multiplication, then I has the property that
AI = IA = A i.e, I is the identity matrix for multiplication.

Exercise 9.1
Q.No. 1 Write the following matrices in tabular form:
i. A = [aij], where i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2, 3, 4
ii. B = [bij], where i = 1 and j = 1, 2, 3, 4
iii. C = [cjk], where j = 1, 2, 3 and k = 1

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Chapter 9 230 Matrices and Determinants

Q.No.2 Write each sum as a single matrix:

 2 1 4  6 3 0 
i. 3 -1 0  + -2 1 0 
   
ii. 1 3 5 6 + 0 -2 1 3
4 6
iii.  3  0 
   
 1  2
 2 3 4  0 0 0 
iv.  1 6 2  0 0 0
   
 1 0 3 0 0 0
6 1 4 2
v. 2  0 3  3  0 1 
 1 2   5 1
 b11  a11 b12  a12 
Q.3 Show that   is a solution of the matrix
 b 21  a 21 b 22  a 22 
 a11 a12   b11 b12 
equation X + A = B, where A =   and B =  .
a 21 a 22   b 21 b 22 
Q.4 Solve each of the following matrix equations:
 3 1  5 1
X+  
2   3 1
i.
2
 1 0   2 6  4 8
ii. X+    1 5   2 0 
 0 2     
1 0 2  2 3 1 
iii. 3X +  2 1 3   1 2 0
   
 4 1 5   0 1 5
3 1
X + 2I = 
2 
iv.
1

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Chapter 9 231 Matrices and Determinants

Q.5 Write each product as a single matrix:

1 1
3 1 1  
i. 0 1 2  0 2 
  1 0 
 
1
ii. [3 - 2 2]  2 
 
 2 
2 2 1  1 2 5 
iii. 1 1 2   1 1 3 

1 0 1  1 2 4 
 1 2 5   2 2 1
iv.  1 1 3 1 1 2 

 1 2 4 1 0 1
1 4   3 2 1 0  2
If A =  ,B=  4 0 
0 2  , find A + BC.
Q.6 ,C=
2 1   
 1 2   1 0
Q.7 Show that if A =   and B =   , then
 0 1   1 2 
(a) (A + B)(A + B)  A2 + 2AB + B2
(b) (A + B)(A – B)  A2 – B2
Q.8 Show that:
 1 2 3   a   a + 2b + 3c 
(i) 2 1 0   b    2a + b 

 3 5 1  c   3a + 5b  c 
0  sin θ   cos θ
 cos θ 0  sin θ  1 0 0 
(ii)  0
1 0   0 1 0   0 1 0

 +sin θ
0 cos θ   sin θ 0 cos θ  0 0 1 
 2 2 2   2 2 2
Q.9 If A =   and B =  
 2 2    2 2 
Show that A and B commute.

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Chapter 9 232 Matrices and Determinants

Answers 9.1

Q.1(i)

(ii)

(iii)

8 4 4
Q.2 (i) 1 0 0  (ii) 1 1 6 9
 
10   2 3 4
(iii) 3 (iv)  1 6 2
   
 3  1 0 3
 0 4 0
(v)  9 13 7 
 
2 2  1 2 
Q.4 (i)  5 1 (ii)  1 3 
   
 1
 1 1 
3
  1 1
(iii)  1 1 1  (iv) 1 0 
 4 2   
 0 
 3 3 
 2 1
Q.5 (i)  2 2  (ii) 1
 
1 0 0  1 0 0 
(iii) 0 1 0 (iv) 0 1 0
   
0 0 1  0 0 1 

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Chapter 9 233 Matrices and Determinants

6 17 
Q.6 8 9 
 

9.5 Determinants:
The Determinant of a Matrix:
The determinant of a matrix is a scalar (number), obtained from the
elements of a matrix by specified, operations, which is characteristic of the
matrix. The determinants are defined only for square matrices. It is
denoted by det A or |A| for a square matrix A.
The determinant of the (2 x 2) matrix
 a11 a12 
A=  
a 21 a 22 
a11 a12
is given by det A = |A| =
a 21 a 22
= a11 a22 – a12 a21
3 1
Example 3: If A =   find |A|
 2 3
Solution:
3 1
|A| = = 9 – (–2) = 9 + 2 = 11
2 3
The determinant of the (3 x 3) matrix
 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13
A = a 21 a 22 
a 23  , denoted by |A| = a 21 a 22 a 23

 a 31 a 32 a 33  a 31 a 32 a 33
is given as, det A = |A|
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
= a11 – a12 + a13
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
= a11(a22a33 – a23a32) – a12(a21a33 – a23a31) + a13(a21a32 – a22a31)
Note: Each determinant in the sum (In the R.H.S) is the determinant of a
submatrix of A obtained by deleting a particular row and column of A.

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Chapter 9 234 Matrices and Determinants

These determinants are called minors. We take the sign + or  , according

to (  1)i+j aij
Where i and j represent row and column.
9.6 Minor and Cofactor of Element:
The minor Mij of the element aij in a given determinant is the
determinant of order (n – 1 x n – 1) obtained by deleting the ith row and
jth column of Anxn.
For example in the determinant
a11 a12 a13
|A| = a 21 a 22 a 23 ………………… (1)
a 31 a 32 a 33
a 22 a 23
The minor of the element a11 is M11 =
a 32 a 33
a 21 a 23
The minor of the element a12 is M12 =
a 31 a 33
a 21 a 22
The minor of the element a13 is M13 = and so on.
a 31 a 32
The scalars Cij = (-1)i+j Mij are called the cofactor of the element aij
of the matrix A.
Note: The value of the determinant in equation (1) can also be found by
its minor elements or cofactors, as
a11M11 – a12M12 + a13M13 Or a11C11 + a12C12 + a13C13
Hence the det A is the sum of the elements of any row or column
multiplied by their corresponding cofactors.
The value of the determinant can be found by expanding it from
any row or column.
3 2 1 
Example 4: If A = 0 1 2
 
1 3 4 
find det A by expansion about (a) the first row (b) the first column.
Solution (a)
3 2 1
|A| = 0 1 2
1 3 4

43
Chapter 9 235 Matrices and Determinants

1 2 0 2 0 1
=3 –2 +1
3 4 1 4 1 3
= 3(4 + 6) – 2(0 + 2) + 1 (0 – 1)
= 30 – 4 – 1
|A| = 25
1 2 2 1 0 1
(b) |A| =3 –0 +1
3 4 3 4 1 3
= 3 (4 + 6) + 1 (–4 –1)
= 30 – 5
|A| = 25
9.7 Properties of the Determinant:
The following properties of determinants are frequently useful in
their evaluation:
1. Interchanging the corresponding rows and columns of a
determinant does not change its value (i.e., |A| = |A‟|). For
example, consider a determinant
a1 b1 c1
|A| = a2 b2 c2 ………………… (1)
a3 b3 c3
= a1(b2c3 – b3c2) – b1(a2c3 – a3c2)+ c1(a2b3 – a3b2) ... (2)
Now again consider
a1 a 2 a3
|B| = b1 b 2 b3
c1 c2 c3
Expand it by first column
|B| = a1(b2c3 – b3c2) – b1(a2c3 – a3c2) + c1(a2b3 – a3b2)
which is same as equation (2)
a1 b1 c1
so |B| = a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
or |B| = |A|
2. If two rows or two columns of a determinant are interchanged, the
sign of the determinant is changed but its absolute value is
unchanged.
For example if

44
Chapter 9 236 Matrices and Determinants

a1 b1 c1
|A| = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
Consider the determinant,
a2 b2 c2
|B| = a1 b1 c1
a3 b3 c3
expand by second row,
|B| = –a1(b2c3 – b3c2) + b1(a2c3 – a3c2) – c1(a2b3 – a3b2)
= –(a1(b2c3 – b3c2) – b1(a2c3 – a3c2) + c1(a2b3 – a3b2))
The term in the bracket is same as the equation (2)
a1 b1 c1
So |B| = – a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
Or |B| = – |A|
3. If every element of a row or column of a determinant is zero, the
value of the determinant is zero. For example
0 0 0
|A| = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
= 0(b2c3 – b3c2) –0(a2c3 – a3c2) +0(a2b3 – a3b3)
|A| = 0
4. If two rows or columns of a determinant are identical, the value of
the determinant is zero. For example, if
a1 b1 c1
|A| = a1 b1 c1
a3 b 3 c3
= a1(b1c3 – b3c1) – b1(a1c3 – a3c1) + c1(a1b3 – a3b1)
= a1b1c3 – a1b3c1 – a1b1c3 + a3b1c1 + a1b3c1 – a3b1c1
|A| = 0
5. If every element of a row or column of a determinant is multiplied
by the same constant K, the value of the determinant is multiplied
by that constant. For example if,

45
Chapter 9 237 Matrices and Determinants

a1 b1 c1
|A| = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
ka1 kb1 kc1
Consider a determinant, |B| = a 2 b2 c2
a 3 b 3 c3
|B| = ka1(b2c3 – b3c3) – kb1(a2c3 – a3c2) + kc1(a2b3 – a3b2)
= k(a1(b2c3 – b3c3) – b1(a2c3 – a3c2) + c1(a2b3 – a3b2))
a1 b1 c1
So |B| = k a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
Or |B| = K|A|
6. The value of a determinant is not changed if each element of any
row or of any column is added to (or subtracted from) a constant
multiple of the corresponding element of another row or column.
For example, if
a1 b1 c1
|A| = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
Consider a matrix,
a1  ka 2 b1  kb2 c1 +kc2
|B| = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
= (a1+ka2)(b2c3–b3c2)–(b1+kb2)(a2c3–a3c2)+(c1+kc2)(a2b3–a3b2)
= [a1(b2c3 – b3c2) –b1(a2c3 – a3c2) +c1(a2b3 – a3b2)]
= [ka2(b2c3 – b3c2) –kb2(a2c3 – a3c2) +kc2(a2b3 – a3b2)]
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
= a2 b2 c2 + k a 2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

46
Chapter 9 238 Matrices and Determinants

a1 b1 c1
= a2 b2 c2 + k(0) because row 1st and 2nd are identical
a3 b3 c3
|B| = |A|
7. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of its
diagonal elements. For example, if
2 0 0
|A| = 0 5 0
0 0 3
= 2(–15 – 0) – (0 – 0) + 0(0 – 0)
= 30, which is the product of diagonal elements.
i.e., 2(–5)3 = –30
8. The determinant of the product of two matrices is equal to the
product of the determinants of the two matrices, that is |AB| =
|A||B|. for example, if
a11 a12 b11 b12
A= , B=
a 21 a 22 b 21 b 22
a11b11  a12b 21 a11b12  a12b 22
Then AB =
a 21b11 +a 22b 21 a 21b12 +a 22b 22
|AB| = (a11b11 + a12b21)(a21b12 + a22b22)
- (a11b12 + a12b22 – a11b22)(a21b11 + a22b21)
= a11b11 a21b12 + a11b11 a22b22 + a12b21a21b12
+ a12b21 a22b22 - a11b12 a21b11 - a11b12 a22b21
- a12b22 a21b11 - a12b22 a22b21
|AB| = a11b11 a22b22 + a12b21 a21b12 - a11b12 a22b21
- a12b22 a21b11 ………………….. (A)
and |A| = a11a22 - a12a21
|B| = b11b22 - b12b21
|A| |B| = a11b11 a22 b22 + a12b21 a21 b12 - a11b12 a22 b21
- a12b22 a21 b11 …………………. (B)
R.H.S of equations (A) and (B) are equal, so
|AB| = |A| |B|
9. The determinant in which each element in any row, or column,
consists of two terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the
sum of two other determinants

47
Chapter 9 239 Matrices and Determinants

a1  1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 1 b1 c1
a 2  2 b2 c2 = a 2 b2 c2 +  2 b2 c2
a 3  3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 3 b3 c3
Expand by first column.
Proof:
L.H.S = (a1+  1)(b2c3–b3c2)–(a2+  2)(b1c3–b3c1)+(a3+  3)(b1c2 – b2c1)
= [(a1(b2c3–b3c2)–a2(b1c3–b3c1)+a3(b1c2 – b2c1)]
+ [(  1(b2c3–b3c2)–  2(b1c2–b3c1)+  3(b1c2 – b2c1)]
a1 b1 c1 1 b1 c1
= a2 b2 c2 +  2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 3 b3 c3
= R.H.S
Similarly
1  a1 b1  β1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 β1 c1
 2  a 2 b2  β 2 c2 = a 2 b2 c2 + a 2 β 2 c2
 3  a 3 b 3  β 3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a 3 β3 c3
1 b1 c1 1 β1 c1
+ 2 b2 c2 +  2 β2 c2
3 b3 c3  3 β3 c3
a1  1 b1  β1 c1   1
And, a 2  2 b2  β2 c2   2
a 3  3 b3  β 3 c3   3
a1 b1 c1 1 β1  1
= a2 b2 c2 + sum of six determinant +  2 β 2  2
a3 b3 c3  3 β3  3
a1  1 b1  β1 c1   1 a1 b1 c1 1 β1  1
Also a 2 b2 c2 = a 2 b2 c2 + a 2 β2  2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a 3 β 3  3

48
Chapter 9 240 Matrices and Determinants

2
1 a bc 1 a a
Example 5: Verify that 1 b ca  1 b b 2
1 c ab 1 c c 2
Solution:
Multiply row first, second and third by a, b and c respectively, in
the L.H.S., then
a a2 abc
1
L.H.S = b b2 abc
abc
c c2 abc
Take abc common from 3rd column
a a2 1
abc
= b b2 1
abc
c c2 1
Interchange column first and third
1 a2 a
=  1 b2 b
1 c2 c
Again interchange column second and third
1 a a2
= 1 b b2
1 c c2
= R.H.S
Example 6: Show that
1 a a2
1 b b 2 = (b – c) (c – a) (a – b)
1 c c2

49
Chapter 9 241 Matrices and Determinants

Solution:
1 a a2
L.H.S = 1 b b2
1 c c2
subtracting row first from second and third row
1 a a2
= 0 b  a b2  a 2
0 ca c2  a 2
from row second and third taking (b – a) and (c – a) common.
1 a a2
= (b – a)(c – a) 0 1 b+a
0 1 c+a
expand from first column
= (b – a)(c – a)(c + a – b – a)
= (b – a)(c – a)(c – b)
Or L.H.S = (b – c)(c – a)(a – b)(–1)(–1)
= (b – c)(c – a)(a – b) = R.H.S
Example 7: Without expansion, show that
6 1 3 2
2 0 1 4
=0
3 6 1 2
4 0 2 8
Solution:
In the L.H.S Taking 2 common from fourth row, so
6 1 3 2
2 0 1 4
L.H.S = 2
3 6 1 2
2 0 1 4
Since rows 2nd and 3rd are identical, so
= 2(0) = 0
L.H.S = R.H.S

50
Chapter 9 242 Matrices and Determinants

9.8 Solution of Linear Equations by Determinants:

(Cramer’s Rule)
Consider a system of linear equations in two variables x and y,
a1x + b1y = c1 (1)
a2x + b2y = c2 (2)
Multiply equation (1) by b2 and equation (2) by b1 and subtracting,
we get
x(a1b2 – a2b1) = b2c1 – b1c2
b2c1  b1c2
x= (3)
a1b2  a 2b1
Again multiply eq. (1) by a2 and eq. (2) by a1 and subtracting, we
get
y(a2b1 – a1b2) = a2c1 – a1c2
a 2c1  a1c2
y=
a 2b1  a1b2
a c  a 2c1
y= 1 2 (4)
a1b2  a 2b1
Note that x and y from equations (3) and (4) has the same
denominator a1b2 – a2b1. So the system of equations (1) and (2) has
solution only when a1b2 – a2b1  0.
The solutions for x and y of the system of equations (1) and (2) can
be written directly in terms of determinants without any algebraic
operations, as
c1 b1 a1 c1
c b2 a 2 c2
x= 2 and y =
a1 b1 a1 b1
a2 b2 a 2 b2
This result is called Cramer‟s Rule.
a1 b1
Here = |A| is the determinant of the coefficient of x and y
a2 b2
in equations (1) and (2)
c1 b1
If = |A|
c2 b2

51
Chapter 9 243 Matrices and Determinants

a1 c1
and = |A|
a2 c2
Ax Ay
Then x = and y =
A A
Solution for a system of Linear Equations in Three Variables:

Consider the linear equations:

a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
Hence the determinant of coefficients is
a1 b1 c1
|A| = a 2 b2 c2 , if |A|  0
a3 b3 c3
Then by Cramer‟s Rule the value of variables is:
d1 b1 c1
d2 b2 c2
d3 b3 c3 Ax
x= 
A A
a1 d1 c1
a2 d2 c2
a3 d3 c3 Ay
y= 
A A
a1 b1 d1
a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 d3 Az
and z= 
A A
Example 8: Use Cramer‟s rule to solve the system
– 4x + 2y – 9z = 2
3x + 4y + z = 5
x – 3y + 2z = 8
Solution:

52
Chapter 9 244 Matrices and Determinants

Here the determinant of the coefficients is:

4 2 9
|A| = 3 4 1
1 3 2
= –4(8 + 3) – 2(6 – 1) – 9(– 9 – 4)
= – 44 – 10 + 117
|A| = 63
for |Ax|, replacing the first column of |A| with the corresponding
constants 2, 5 and 8, we have
2 2 9
|Ax| = 5 4 1
8 3 2
= 2(11) – 2(2) – 9(- 47) = 22 – 4 + 423

|Ax| = 441

Similarly,
4 2 9
|Ay| = 3 5 1
1 8 2
= – 4 (2) – 2(5) – 9(19)
= – 8 – 10 – 171

|Ay| = –189
and
4 2 2
|Az| = 3 4 5
1 3 8
= –4(47) – 2(19) + 2(–13)
= – 188 – 38 – 26

|Az| = – 252

53
Chapter 9 245 Matrices and Determinants

A x 441
Hence x= = =7
A 63

Ay 189
y= = = –3
A 63

A z -252
z= = = –4
A 63
So the solution set of the system is {(7, –3, –4)}
Exercise 9.2
Q.1 Expand the determinants
1 2 0 a b 1
(i) 3 -1 4 (ii) a b 1
-2 1 3 1 1 1
x 0 0
(iii) 0 x 0
0 0 x
Q.2 Without expansion, verify that
-2 1 0 1 2 1 1 2 1
(i) 3 4 1 =0 (ii) 0 2 3 = 0 2 3
-4 2 0 2 -1 2 0 -5 0

a-b b-c c-a bc ca ab

(iii) b-c c-a a-b = 0 (iv) a3 b3 c3 = 0
c-a a-b b-c 1 1 1
a b c
x+1 x+2 x+3
(v) x+4 x+5 x+6 =0
x+7 x+8 x+9

54
Chapter 9 246 Matrices and Determinants

a b c e b h
(vi) d e f = d a g
g h k f c k
Q.3 Show that
a1 a2 a3 a1 a 2 a3 a1 a 2 a3
b1 b2 b3 = x b1 b2 b3 + b1 b2 b3
c1x+d1 c2 x+d 2 c3x+d3 c1 c2 c3 d1 d 2 d3

Q.4 Show that

0 a b a b c
(i) a 0 c = 0 (ii) a a+b a+b+c = a 3
b c 0 a 2a+b 3a+2b+c
a-b-c 2a 2a
(iii) 2b b-c-a 2b = (a + b + c)3
2c 2c c-a-b
1 1 1
(iv) bc ca ab = (b  c)(c  a)(a  b)
b+c c+a a+b
Q.5 Show that:
a a
(i) a a = (2a + )(  a) 2
a a
a+ a a
2
(ii) a a+ a = (3a + )
a a a+
Q.6 prove that:

= a + b + c  3 abc
3 3 3
(i)

55
Chapter 9 247 Matrices and Determinants

2
(ii) = λ (a + b + c + λ)

Sin  Cos  0
(iii) Sin  Cos  Sin  = Sin (     )
Cos  Sin  Cos 
Q.7 Find values of x if

(i) (ii) 0

Q.8 Use Cramer‟s rule to solve the following system of equations.

(i) x–y=2 (ii) 3x – 4y = –2
x + 4y = 5 x+y=6
(iii) x – 2y + z = –1 (iv) 2x + 2y + z = 1
3x + y – 2z = 4 x – y + 6z = 21
y–z=1 3x + 2y – z = –4
(v) x+y+z=0 (vi) x – 2y – 2z = 3
2x – y – 4z = 15 2x – 4y + 4z = 1
x – 2y – z = 7 3x – 3y – 3z = 4

Answers 9.2
Q.1 (i) –41 (ii) 0 (iii) x3

Q.7 (i) x = -2 , 3 (ii) x = 3,4

 13 3    22 20  
Q.8 (i)  ,   (ii)  ,  
 5 5    7 7  
(iii) {(1, 1, 0)} (iv) {(1, –2, 3)}

(v) {(3, –1, –2) (vi)

56
Chapter 9 248 Matrices and Determinants

9.9 Special Matrices:

1. Transpose of a Matrix
If A = [aij] is mxn matrix, then the matrix of order n x m obtained
by interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A.
It is denoted At or A.
1 2 3 1 4 7 
Example if A =  4 5 6  , then At =  2 5 8 
   
7 8 9   3 6 9 

2. Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = At
for example if
a b c  a b c 
A = b d e  , then A = b d e  = A
t
   
 c e f   c e f 
Thus A is symmetric
3. Skew Symmetric:
A square matrix A is called skew symmetric if A = At

for example if B= ,then

Bt = = (1)

Bt =  B

Thus matrix B is skew symmetric.

4. Singular and Non-singular Matrices:

A square matrix A is called singular if |A| = 0 and is non-singular
if |A|  0, for example if
3 2 
A= 
6 
, then |A| = 0, Hence A is singular
9

57
Chapter 9 249 Matrices and Determinants

 3 1 6
and if A =  1 3 2 , then |A|  0,
 
 1 0 0 
Hence A is non-singular.
Example: Find k If A= is singular
k-2 1
Solution: Since A is singular so 5 k+2 = 0
(k – 2)( k + 2) – 5 = 0
k2 – 4 – 5 = 0
k2 – 9 = 0 ⇨ K=+3

5. Adjoint of a Matrix:
Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n x n and (cij) is a matrix
obtained by replacing each element aij by its corresponding cofactor cij
then (cij)t is called the adjoint of A. It is written as adj. A.

For example , if
1 0 1
A = 1 3 1 
 
0 1 2 
Cofactor of A are:
A11 = 5, A12 = - 2, A13 = +1
A21 = -1, A22 = 2, A23 = -1
A31 = 3, A32 = -2, A33 = 3
Matrix of cofactors is
5 2 1
C =  1 2 1

 3 2 3 
5 1 3 
Ct =  2 2 2 

 1 1 3 

58
Chapter 9 250 Matrices and Determinants

 5 1 3 
Hence adj A = C t
=  2 2 2 
 
 1 1 3 
Note: Adjoint of a 22 Matrix:
The adjoint of matrix A = is denoted by adjA is defined as

adjA =
6. Inverse of a Matrix:
adj A
If A is a non-singular square matrix , then A-1 =
|A|
3 4
For example if matrix A = 1 2
2 -4
Then adj A = -1 3

|A| = =6–4=2

adj A 12 -4

Hence A-1 = =
|A| 2 -1 3

Alternately:

For a non singular matrix A of order (n x n) if there exist another

matrix B of order (n x n) Such that their product is the identity matrix I of
order (n x n) i.e., AB = BA = I
Then B is said to be the inverse (or reciprocal) of A and is written
as B = A-1
1 3  7 3
Example 9: If A =   and B =  2 1 then show that
 2 7   
AB = BA = I and therefore, B = A-1
Solution:
1 3  7 3  1 0 
AB = 
 2 7   2 1 = 0 1 
   

59
Chapter 9 251 Matrices and Determinants

 7 3  1 3 1 0 
BA =    7  0 1 
and =
 2 1  2
Hence AB = BA = I
 7 3
and therefore B = A-1 =  
 2 1

Example 10: Find the inverse, if it exists, of the matrix.

 0 -2 -3
A = 1 3 3 
 
-1 -2 -2
Solution:
|A| = 0 +2 (–2 +3) – 3(–2 + 3) = 2 – 3
|A| = –1, Hence solution exists.
Cofactor of A are:
A11 = 0, A12 = 1, A13 = 1
A21 = 2, A22 = –3, A23 = 2
A31 = 3, A32 = –3, A33 = 2
Matrix of transpose of the cofactors is
0 2 3
adj A = C΄ = -1 -3 -3
 
 1 2 2 
So
0 2 3
1 
-3 -3
–1 1
A = adj A = -1
|A| 1 
 1 2 2 
0 -2 -3
A = 1
-1
3 3 

-1 -2 -2 

60
Chapter 9 252 Matrices and Determinants

9.11 Solution of Linear Equations by Matrices:

Consider the linear system:
a11x1 + a12x2 + ------ + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ------ + a2nxn = b2 …………….. (1)

an1x1 + an2x2 + ------ + annxn = bn

It can be written as the matrix equation

 a11 a12 ------ a1n   x1   b1 
a a ------ a   x   b 
 21 22 2n   2 
  2
 | | |  |   | 
    
a n1 a n2 ------ a nn   x n   b n 
 a11 a12 ------ a1n   x1 
a a ------ a  x 
Let A=  21 22 2n 
, X   2
 | | |   | 
   
a n1 a n2 ------ a nn  x n 
 b1 
b 
B=  
2
 |
 
bn 
Then latter equation can be written as,
AX = B
If B  0, then (1) is called non-homogenous system of linear
equations and if B = 0, it is called a system of homogenous linear
equations.
If now B  0 and A is non-singular then A-1 exists.
Multiply both sides of AX = B on the left by A-1, we get
A-1 (AX) = A-1B
(A-1 A)X = A-1 B
1X = A-1 B
Or X = A-1 B
Where A-1 B is an n x 1 column matrix. Since X and A-1 B are
equal, each element in X is equal to the corresponding element in A-1 B.
These elements of X constitute the solution of the given linear equations.

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Chapter 9 253 Matrices and Determinants

If A is a singular matrix, then of course it has no inverse, and either

the system has no solution or the solution is not unique.

Example 11: Use matrices to find the solution set of

x + y – 2z = 3
3x – y + z = 5
3x + 3y – 6z = 9

Solution:
1 1 2
Let A = 3 1 1 
 
3 3 6
Since |A| = 3 + 21 – 24 = 0
Hence the solution of the given linear equations does not exists.
Example 12: Use matrices to find the solution set of
4x + 8y + z = –6
2x – 3y + 2z = 0
x + 7y – 3z = –8
Solution:
4 8 1 
Let A =  2 3 2 
 
1 7 3
Since |A| = –32 + 48 + 17 = 61
So A-1 exists.
1
A-1 = adj A
|A|
 5 31 19 
1 
=
 8 13 16 
61
17 20 28
Now since,
X = A-1 B, we have
x   5 31 19   6
 y    8 13 16
1 0
  61    
 z  17 20 28  8

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Chapter 9 254 Matrices and Determinants

 30  152   2
  48  48    0 
1 
61
 102  224  2 
Hence Solution set: {(x, y, z)} = {(–2, 0, 2)}

Exercise 9.3
Q.1 Which of the following matrices are singular or non-singular.
1 2 1   1 2 1 1 1 2
(i) 3 1 2 (ii)  3 4 5  (iii) 3 1 1 
     
0 1 1  4 2 6  3 3 6

Q.2 Which of the following matrices are symmetric and skew-

symmetric
2 6 7  0 3 5 a b c 
(i) 6 2 3 (ii)  3 0 6  (iii)  b d e 
     
7 3 0   5 6 0   c e f 

Q.3 Find K such that the following matrices are singular

1 2 -1 1 1 -2
K 6
(i) (ii) -3 4 K (iii) 3 -1 1
4 3
-4 2 6 k 3 -6

Q.4 Find the inverse if it exists, of the following matrices

0 -2 -3
1 3  1
(i)  2 -1 (ii)
 3 3 
  -1 -2 -2
 1 2 3 1 2 -1
(iii) -1 0 4  (iv)  -3 4 5 
  
 0 2 2 -4 2 6 

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Chapter 9 255 Matrices and Determinants

Q.5 Find the solution set of the following system by means of matrices:

(i) 2x – 3y = –1 (ii) x+y=2 (iii) x – 2y + z = –1

x + 4y = 5 2x – z = 1 3x + y – 2z = 4
2y – 3z = –1 y–z =1

(iv) –4x + 2y – 9z = 2 (v) x + y – 2z = 3

3x + 4y + z = 5 3x – y + z = 0
x – 3y + 2z = 8 3x + 3y – 6z = 8

Answers 9.3
Q.1 (i) Non-singular (ii) Singular
(iii) Singular

Q.2 (i) Symmetric (ii) Skew-symmetric

(iii) Symmetric
Q.3 (i) 8 (ii) 5 (iii) 3

 4 1 4
 5   
1 3  5 5
7  
7 
(iii)  
1 1 7 
Q.4 (i)   (ii) 
2 1   5 5 10 
 7  1 1
7   1
 
 5 5 5 
(iv) A-1 does not exist.
Q.5 (i) {(1, 1)} (ii) {(1, 1, 1)} (iii) {(1, 1, 0)}
(iv) {(7, -3, -4)} (v) no solution

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Chapter 9 256 Matrices and Determinants

Summary
1. If A = [aij], A = [bij] of order m x n. Then A + B = [aij + bij] is also
m x n order.
2. The product AB of two matrices A and B is conformable for
multiplication if No of columns in A = No. of rows in B.
3. If A = [aij] is m x n matrix, then the n x m matrix obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of
A. It is denoted by At.
4. Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix A is symmetric if At = A.
 a11 a12 a13 
5. If A = a 21 a 22 a 23  Then,
 
 a 31 a 32 a 33 
 c11 c21 c31 
(i) adj A = c12 c22 c32  , aij are the co-factor elements.
 
c13 c23 c33 
And inverse of A is:
adj A
(ii) A-1 =
|A|
6. A square matrix A is singular if |A| = 0.

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Chapter 9 257 Matrices and Determinants

Short Questions
Write the short answers of the following:
Q.1: Define row and column vectors.
Q.2: Define identity matrix.
Q.3: Define symmetric matrix.
Q.4: Define diagonal matrix.
Q.5: Define scalar matrix.
Q.6: Define rectangular matrix.

2 3 -1
Q.7: Show that A = 1 1 0  is singular matrix

2 -3 5
1 2 3
Q.8: Show that A =2 4 -3 is symmetric

3 -3 6
b -1 a
Q.9: Show that a b 0  = b3 +a3
 
1 a b 

1 2 -2 
Q.10: Evaluate -1 1 -3
2 4 -1 
1 2 3
Q.11: Without expansion show that 4 5 6 = 0
7 8 9 

Q.12: Find x and y if

Q.13: Find x and y if

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Chapter 9 258 Matrices and Determinants

1 -1 2 2 1 -1
Q.14: If A =3 2 5  and 1 3 4  ,
  find A – B
-1 0 4 -1 2 1

Q.15: Find inverse of

Q.16: If A is non-singular, then show that (A-1)-1 = A

Q.17: If A is any square matrix then show that AAt is symmetric.
4 k 3 
Q.18: Find K if A = 7 3 6 is singular matrix
2 3 1

Q.19: Define the minor of an element of a matrix.

Q.20: Define a co-factor of an element of a matrix.
α β +  1 
Q.21: Without expansion verify that  β  + α 1 = 0
 
  α + β 1
Q.22: What are the minor and cofactor of 3 in matrix.

3 1 -4
2 5 6
1 4 8

Q.23: What are the minor and cofactor of 4 in matrix.

3 1 -4
2 5 6
1 4 8

k-2 1
Q.24: If 5 k+2 = 0 , Then find k.

Q.25: If A = , B= , Then find A + B

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Chapter 9 259 Matrices and Determinants

Q.26: If A = , B= , Then find A – B

Q.27: If A = , B= , Then find AB

2 3
Q.28: If 4 k is singular , Then find k.

5 3
Q.29: Find A-1 if A = 1 1

Answers

Q10. 9 Q12. x = –1 , y = 2 Q13. x = – 5, y = – 2

-1 -2 3
Q14. 2 -1 1  Q15. D-1 does not exist Q18. k = 3
 
0 -2 3 
Q22. M11= 16 , C11 = 16 Q23. M 32 = 26 , C32 = – 26

Q24. K=+3 Q25. Q26

11 -3
Q27. Q28. k=6 Q29. 2 -1 5
,

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Chapter 9 260 Matrices and Determinants

Objective type Exercise

Q.1 Each questions has four possible answers. Choose the correct
answer and encircle it.
2
___1. The order of the matrix  3  is
 
 4 
(a) 2 x 1 (b) 2 x 2 (c) 3 x 1 (d) 1 x 3
___2. The order of the matrix [1 2 3] is
(a) 1 x 3 (b) 3 x 1 (c) 3 x 3 (d) 2 x 3
0 0 
___3. The matrix   is called
0 0 
(a) Identity (b) scalar (c) diagonal (d) Null
___4. Two matrices A and B are conformable for multiplication if
(a) No of columns in A = No of rows in B
(b) No of columns in A = No of columns in B
(c) No of rows in A = No of rows in B
(d) None of these
___5. If the order of the matrix A is pxq and order of B is qxr, then order
of AB will be:
(a) pxq (b) qxp (c) pxr (d) rxp
___6. In an identity matrix all the diagonal elements are:
(a) zero (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) none of these
2 0
___7. The value of determinant   is:
 1 3 
(a) 6 (b) – 6 (c) 1 (d) 0
___8. If two rows of a determinant are identical then its value is
(a) 1 (b) zero (c) – 1 (d) None of these
2 3 4 
___9. If A =  0 1 -1 is a matrix, then Cofactor of 4 is
 
 2 0 1 
(a) – 2 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
___10. If all the elements of a row or a column are zero, then value of the
determinant is:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) zero (d) None of these

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Chapter 9 261 Matrices and Determinants

2 3
___11. Value of m for which matrix   is singular.
 6 m 
(a) 6 (b) 3 (c) 8 (d) 9
___12. If [aij] and [bij] are of the same order and aij = bij then the matrix
will be
(a) Singular (b) Null (c) unequal (d) equal
13. Matrix [aij]mxn is a row matrix if:
(a) i = 1 (b) j = 1 (c) m = 1 (d) n = 1
14. Matrix [cij]mxn is a rectangular if:
(a) i j (b) i = j (c) m = n (d) m–n0
15. If A = [aij]mxn is a scalar matrix if :
(a) aij = 0  i  j (b) aij = k  i = j
(c) aij = k  i  j (d) (a) and (b)
16. Matrix A = [aij]mxn is an edentity matrix if :
(a)  i = j , aij = 0 (b)  i = j , aij = 1
(c)  i  j , aij = 0 (d) both (b) and (c)
17. Which matrix can be tectangular mayrix ?
(a) Diagonal (b) Identity (c) Scalar (d) None
18. If A = [aij]mxn then order kA is:
(a) m x n (b) km x kn (c) km x n (d) m x kn
19. ( A – B )2 = A2 – 2AB + B2 , if and only if :

(a) A + B = 0 (b) AB – BA = 0 (c) A2 + B2 = 0 (d) (a) and c

20. If A and B ARE symmetric , then AB =

(a) BA (b) At Bt (c) Bt At (d) (a) and (c)

Answers
Q.1 (1) c (2) a (3) d (4) a (5) c (6) c
(7) a (8) b (9) a (10) c (11) d (12) d
(13) c (14) d (15) d (16) d (17) d (18) a
(19) b (20) d

70