UG Mining BEV GMG-WG-v02-r01

20180621_UG_Mining_BEV-GMG-WG-v02-r01
GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES
IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒
2nd Edition
SUBMITTED BY
Battery Electric Vehicles Underground Sub-Committee
of the Underground Mining Working Group
VERSION DATE
21 Jun 2018
APPROVED BY
Underground Mining Working Group
EDITED BY
Janice M. Burke and Nancy Serediak
24 Aug 2018
PUBLISHED
05 Nov 2018
DATE DOCUMENT TO BE REVIEWED

05 Nov 2020
PREPARED BY THE UNDERGROUND MINING WORKING GROUP

ELECTRIC MINE: BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES UNDERGROUND SUB-COMMITTEE
Partner Organization: Canada Mining Innovation Council
Global Mining Guidelines Group (GMG)

i ¦ GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition
ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN THE PREPARATION OF THESE GUIDELINES
ABB, Agnico Eagle, Amec Foster Wheeler, AngloGold Ashanti, Aramine, Artisan Vehicle Systems, Barrick Gold, BESTECH,
Breaker Technology, Cameco, Canada Mining Innovation Council (CMIC), CanmetMINING, Caterpillar, CSA Group, Deloitte,
Doppelmayr, Efacec, Electrovaya, Energetique, Energigo, Epiroc, Franklin Empire, FVT Research, GE Mining, Glencore, Gold-
corp, Government of Saskatchewan, Hatch, Hecla Mining, Heliox, Hydro-Quebec, Iamgold, IBM, Inverted Power, IPLC,
iVolve, Komatsu, Lake Shore Gold, Maclean Engineering, Manufacture Adria, Marcott, McEwen Mining, MedaTech, Meglab,
Micromine, Microvast, Miller Technology, Minecat, Mosaic, Normet, Noront Resources, North American Palladium (NAP),
Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines, Parker, Paus, Prairie Machine & Parts, Rail-Veyor, RDH Mining Equip-
ment, Sandvik, Schneider-Electric, Schunk, SDMT, Siemens, Silver Opp, Silver Standard, Staubli Electrical Connectors, SIPG,
Sunshine Silver Mining, Tembo 4x4, TM4, Transpower USA, University of Witwatersrand, Vale, Voltabox, Wainbee, and
Yamana Gold.

GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition ¦ ii
DISCLAIMER
Although these guidelines and other documents or information sources referenced at http://www.gmggroup.org are believed
to be reliable, we do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any of these other documents or information sources. Use
of these guidelines or the above documents or information sources is not intended to replace, contravene or otherwise alter the
requirements of any national, state, or local governmental statutes, laws, regulations, ordinances, or other requirements regarding
the matters included herein. Compliance with these guidelines is entirely voluntary.

iii ¦ GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition
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whole or in part, if used for commercial purposes.
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http://www.gmggroup.org
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GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition ¦ iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER ii
COPYRIGHT NOTICE iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
1. FOREWORD 1
2. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS, SYMBOLS, AND ABBREVIATIONS 1
3. KEYWORDS 1
4. SCOPE 1
5. GENERAL BACKGROUND 2
5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of BEVs vs. Traditional Diesel Equipment 2
5.2 Business Case 3

5.2.1 BEV Benefits to the Business Case 3
5.2.2 BEV Challenges to the Business Case 4
5.2.3 Capital Cost Considerations 4
6. MINE DESIGN 4
6.1 Introduction 4
6.2 Mine Layout and Infrastructure 5

6.2.1 Ore / Waste Handling System (OWHS) 5
6.2.1.1 Trolley assist systems 5
6.2.2 Regenerative Braking 6
6.2.2.1 Straight vs. curved ramps 6
6.2.2.2 Ramp grade 7
6.2.3 Vehicle Parking 7
6.3 Personnel Movement 8

6.3.1 Shaft Access 8
6.3.2 Ramp Access 8
6.4 Other Electric Equipment 8

6.4.1 Charge-While-Operating Equipment Group (Tethered) 8
6.4.2 Trucks 10
6.4.3 LHD Machines 10
6.4.4 Alternate Haulage Methods 10
6.4.5 Auxiliary Vehicles 10
6.5 Charging Infrastructure 10

6.5.1 Design Prerequisites 10
6.5.2 Charging Philosophy 10
6.5.2.1 Establishing the charging philosophy 11
6.5.3 Charger Diversity 12
6.5.4 Opportunity Charging 12
6.5.5 Charging Station Layout 12
6.5.5.1 Physical environment 13
6.5.5.2 Spacing and parking 13

v ¦ GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition
6.5.5.3 Battery swap-out station design 13

6.5.5.4 Remote battery swapping 13
6.5.5.5 Mine power distribution considerations 14
6.5.5.6 Fast charging considerations 14
6.6 Ventilation and Cooling 14

6.6.1 Determining Air Volume 14
6.6.2 Regulations 15
6.6.3 Equipment Fleet 15
6.6.4 Heat Load 15
6.6.4.1 Heat from mobile equipment 16
6.6.4.2 Heat from charging 16
6.6.5 Dust 16
6.6.6 Developing the Ventilation Design and Plan 16
6.6.6.1 Airway sizing 16
6.6.6.2 Heat 16
6.6.6.3 Blast gas clearing 17
6.6.6.4 Monitoring 17
6.6.6.5 Controlled recirculation 17
6.7 Safety 17
7. BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE DESIGN 18
7.1 Introduction 18
7.2 Operator Interface 18
7.3 Braking System 20
7.4 Electrical Systems 21

7.4.1 Electrical Interference with Blasting Caps 21
7.4.2 Extraneous Electricity 21
7.4.3 Minimum Distances from Radio Frequency Transmitters 21
7.4.4 Transportation of Electric Detonators 21
7.5 Shock and Vibration 21
7.6 Fire Suppression 21
7.7 Accessibility and Service 22
7.8 Emergency Stop 22
7.9 Master Disconnect 22
7.10 Hazardous Voltage Interlock 23
7.11 Insulation / Ground Fault Monitoring 24
7.12 Additional Safety Recommendations 24

7.12.1 BEV Design 24
7.12.2 BEV Firmware / Software Risk Assessment 24
7.12.3 BEV Operation 24
7.12.4 BEV Maintenance 25
7.12.5 Considerations for Remote Control 25

GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition ¦ vi
7.12.6 BEV Decommissioning 25
8. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS 25
8.1 Introduction 25
8.2 Functional Requirements 26

8.2.1 Accessibility and Service 26
8.2.2 Thermal Management and Testing 27
8.2.3 Cycle Performance and Battery Life 28
8.2.4 Fire Prevention and Suppression 28
8.2.5 Automatic Shutdown 28
8.2.6 System Enclosure 28
8.2.7 Extreme Temperature Considerations 28
8.2.8 Storage 28
8.2.9 End-of-Life 29
8.3 Safety Requirements 29

8.3.1 Hazard Conditions: Causes and Effects 29
8.3.2 Hazard Condition Monitoring, Prevention, and Mitigation 30
8.3.3 Transportation 31
9. CHARGING SYSTEMS 31
9.1 Introduction 31
9.2 Safety Considerations 32

9.2.1 Installation 32
9.2.2 Operation and Maintenance 33
9.3 Incoming Power System 33
9.4 Types of Charging and Connection Interfaces 34

9.4.1 On-Board Charging from Alternating Current (AC) Supply 34
9.4.1.1 Design considerations 34
9.4.1.2 Charging interface 34
9.4.1.3 Advantages of on-board charging 35
9.4.1.4 Disadvantages of on-board charging 35
9.4.2 Off-Board Charging of On-Board Batteries 35
9.4.2.2 Charging interface 36
9.4.2.2.1 Manually operated connection interface 36
9.4.2.2.1.1 Recommendation for standardization 37
9.4.2.2.1.2 Communication protocol 37
9.4.2.2.2 Automated coupler devices 38
9.4.2.2.2.1 Pantographs 38
9.4.2.2.2.2 Inductive and resonant charging 40
9.4.2.2.2.3 Automated enclosed pin and socket 40
9.4.2.3 Off-board proprietary chargers 40
9.4.2.4 Off-board standardized charging interface 41
9.4.2.5 Advantages of off-board charging of on-board batteries 41

vii ¦ GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition
9.4.2.6 Disadvantages of off-board charging of on-board batteries 41

9.4.3 Off-board Charging of Off-Board Batteries ( Swapping ) 41
9.4.3.2 Battery swapping and charging interface 41
9.4.3.3 Advantages of battery swapping 41
9.4.3.4 Disadvantages of battery swapping 42
9.4.4 Hybrid Charging Method 42
9.4.5 Overhead Catenary Systems or Trolley Assist 43
9.5 Operation and Controls 43

9.5.1 Operator Control Visibility and Lighting 43
9.5.2 Emergency Shutdown Terminals 43
9.6 Communications and Monitoring 43
10. OPERATIONS 43
10.1 Battery Safety 43

10.1.1 Emergency Response and Battery Chemistry 44
10.2 Operator Training 45
10.3 Maintenance Personnel Training 45
11. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 45
11.1 Introduction 45
11.2 Definitions 45
11.2.1 Duty Cycle 46
11.2.2 Idle / Queued Periods 46
11.2.3 Availability and Utilization 46
11.2.4 Battery Charge Time 48
11.3 Equipment Performance 48

11.3.1 General Requirements 48
11.3.2 Equipment Performance Assessment 49
11.3.3 Regenerative Braking Systems 49
11.3.4 Specifications 49
11.3.5 Impact of Tires on BEV Performance 50
11.3.6 Heat Generation 50
11.4 Battery Performance 52

11.4.1 Performance 52
11.5 Charger Performance 53

11.5.1 Performance 53
11.6 Machine Performance Requirements 53
12. RESOURCES, REFERENCES, AND RECOMMENDED READING 55

GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition ¦ 1
1. FOREWORD FLA Full Load Amperage

The Global Mining Guidelines (GMG) Group is a global, GF Ground Fault
multi-stakeholder community to advance the availability GHG Greenhouse Gas
and use of standards and guidelines for the international HV High-Voltage
mining industry. This GMG document was prepared by a HVIL Hazardous Voltage Interlock Loop
GMG working group. Draft documents are checked and LHD Load Haul Dump (machine)
approved by working group members, prior to approval by LIB Lithium-Ion Battery
the GMG Governing Council. OCPP Open Charge Point Protocol
Formed as part of the Canadian Institute of Mining, OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM), GMG is supported by CIM OWHS Ore / Waste Handling System
and three other Partner Organizations: the Australasian PE Protective Earth
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM), the Southern PLC Powerline Communication
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (SAIMM), and the RR Rolling Resistance
Surface Mining Association for Research and Technology SIL Safety Integrity Level
(SMART), as well as its Member Companies and participants. SOC State of Charge
Please note: if some of the elements of this document VAC Variable Alternating Current
are subject to patent rights, the GMG and CIM are not VDC Variable Direct Current
responsible for identifying such patent rights. XML Extensible Markup Language
This 2nd edition of the Recommended Practices for
* See International Electrotechnical Commission (2004)
Battery Electric Vehicles in Underground Mining replaces
the 1st edition, published April 28, 2017. This revised edi- 3. KEYWORDS
tion contains new material and the organization has been Battery electric vehicle, Charging, Connection inter-
improved. To eliminate redundancy, the Charging Philoso- face, Electric mine, Mine design
phy section has been removed, and the content has been
divided between the Mine Design section and the Charg- 4. SCOPE
ing Systems section. Additions were made to the Mine This guideline outlines the recommended practice for
Design, BEV Design, and Performance Standards sections use of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in the underground
based on experience gained since the 1st edition was pub- mining environment. It is structured as a specification and
lished. Additions to the Energy Storage Systems and Charg- can be included by mining companies in tender docu-
ing Systems sections are based on new technologies that ments to mining vehicle original equipment manufacturers
have been implemented. Finally, an Operations section was (OEMs). This guideline can serve as a blueprint / path for-
added to give direct advice to companies implementing ward for OEM research and development efforts.
BEV technologies in their mines. The BEV guideline aims to strike an appropriate bal-
ance between standardization and innovation. It should
2. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS, SYMBOLS, AND allow miners to operate a fleet of BEVs without concerns
ABBREVIATIONS about proprietary equipment and interfaces. It leverages
Instructed person* BEV or charger operator and references existing standards and guidelines, including
Skilled person* BEV and charger maintenance person from applicable automotive, electrical, automation, and
AC Alternating Current other industries. At the same time, the BEV guideline
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle should not be an impediment to innovation for OEMs.
BMS Battery Management System The BEV guideline is structured around seven key com-
CAN Controller Area Network ponents, arranged in a logical sequence for an under-
CCS Combined Charging System ground operation considering going electric . At the
CP Control Pilot conceptual stage, it is necessary to understand the basics of
CWO Charge While Operating BEVs and how to build a business case for them. Work can
DC Direct Current then proceed from mine design, through to BEV design,
DOD Depth of Discharge energy storage systems (batteries), charging systems, oper-
DPM Diesel Particulate Matter ations considerations, and performance standards. Finally,
EM Electromagnetic because it is global in scope, mining companies and OEMs
E-Stop Emergency Stop throughout the world should be able to use this guideline.

2 ¦ GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ‒ 2nd Edition
However, they should acknowledge that regional differ- However, BEVs also present new challenges for mine
ences exist in terms of local regulatory frameworks. operators in terms of infrastructure requirements and
maintenance and operating constraints. Charging infras-
5. GENERAL BACKGROUND tructure will become a key requirement for a mine. One
Most underground mining operations use diesel-pow- intent of this document is to provide guidance and act as a
ered trackless mobile machines (vehicles), defined by Mine discussion document regarding required charging infras-
Health and Safety Inspectorate (2015) of South Africa as tructure. Within this guideline, lithium ion batteries (LIBs)
any self-propelled mobile machine that is used for the pur- are the reference technology for BEVs in mines.
pose of performing mining, transport or associated opera-
tions underground or on surface at a mine and is mobile by 5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of BEVs vs.
virtue of its movement on wheels, skids, tracks, mechanical Traditional Diesel Equipment
shoes or any device fitted to the machine . As battery tech- The benefits of employing BEVs are arguably greater for
nology advances, benefits will accrue for replacing diesel- mining than any other industry. The noise, heat, and odour
powered trackless vehicles with BEVs in underground generated from diesel engines negatively affect the under-
mining operations. ground work environment. Diesel emissions (carbon monox-
In commercial truck fleets, battery technology was ide and dioxide, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons,
shown to be economically viable if the benefits of lower and particulates) pose a health hazard and have recently
greenhouse gas (GHG) and other emissions and lower been classified as Group 1: carcinogenic to humans by the
operating and maintenance costs matched or outweighed World Health Organization (International Agency for
the costs, namely high procurement cost and limited range Research on Cancer, 2012). At the same time, the American
(Feng & Figliozzi, 2012). Electric buses completely powered Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (2012) has
by on-board batteries offer similar benefits over diesel- reduced the NO2 threshold limit value from diesel engines
powered buses, and eliminate the need for infrastructure from 3 to 0.2 mL/m3. Protecting workers underground from
to obtain power from powerlines above or below the bus, diesel emissions requires expensive (capital, operating, and
unlike trolleys and gapbuses, respectively. Battery electric maintenance costs) and electricity-consuming ventilation
cars are more expensive than gasoline- or diesel-powered and cooling infrastructure and other measures, such as DPM
cars and require fixed charging infrastructure. Battery elec- filters and diesel oxidization catalysts (e.g., Stachulak, Allen, &
tric commercial trucks, buses, cars, and trains are generally Hensel, 2015; Stachulak, Gangal, & Allen, 2016).
far more efficient than their internal combustion engine Relative to diesel-powered vehicles, BEVs are quiet,
counterparts. As an additional benefit, they can further more responsive, have fewer moving parts, require less
increase efficiency by using regenerative braking (a type of maintenance, emit fewer GHG and other gaseous and liq-
dynamic braking) to convert kinetic energy into potential uid pollutants (e.g., oil, transmission and radiator fluid), and
energy, which can then be re-used when accelerating later emit no DPM. Thus, the work environment is cleaner, even
(for more details, see Sections 6.2.2, 7.3, and 11.3.3). along haulage routes. Several technical papers have been
The underground mining industry faces challenges published describing the efficiency benefits of battery elec-
associated with ventilation of emissions from diesel mobile tric drives over internal combustion engines. For example,
equipment. Depending on the specifics of a mine, BEVs depending on the application, the portion of energy trans-
offer many benefits, including: ferred to the wheels can be up to five times greater (Center
• Potential to dramatically reduce required air volumes for Energy, Transportation and the Environment, 2018).
compared to diesel equipment fleets Unlike diesel engines, BEV engines do not idle when the
• Potential to reduce refrigeration loads associated with vehicle is parked, which means energy consumption and
a reduced ventilation in deep hot mines heat output are lower. Since virgin rock temperatures can
• Improved working environment in mine headings (i.e., reach 80° C (Fiscor, 2014), BEVs may be the preferred choice
no diesel particulate matter [DPM] and combustion for mines that must exploit deeper resources, where cool-
gas emissions, reduced noise levels, less heat) ing and ventilation costs would otherwise make the project
• Decrease in GHG emissions and operating costs infeasible. Further, BEVs are broadly perceived as socially
• Significant reduction in heat generation acceptable (Hanke, Hülsmann, & Fornahl, 2014).
• Potential to increase production with simultaneous High energy content is the greatest benefit of fossil
BEV usage in mines with ventilation-constrained areas fuels over electric. The specific energy density (energy per
• Strong low-speed torque that is favourable to operators unit mass) refers to the capacity to store energy, thus it

GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING ¦ 3
determines a vehicle s range and capacity to do useful • Earlier revenue profile due to faster regulatory
work. The specific energy of diesel is nearly 50 MJ/kg̶ approval for BEVs
more than 55 times higher than the most energy-dense LIB • Potential to mine traditionally uneconomic orebod-
(0.900 MJ/kg). The volumetric energy density of diesel is ies
approximately 35 MJ/L̶nearly six times higher than the 2. Capital cost impacts
most energy-dense LIB (6.2 MJ/L). New anode and cathode • Additional capital expenditures required for bat-
materials could double the energy of density of LIBs, but tery-related infrastructure such as charging areas
other avenues need to be explored to improve battery per- and accompanying infrastructure to control charg-
formance (Thackeray, Wolverton, & Isaacs, 2012). ing related heat
The higher energy content of diesel is somewhat offset • Reduced cost associated with the diesel fuel han-
by lower efficiency of use: a large portion of the energy dling system
content is lost as heat during diesel combustion. By com- • Additional capital expenditures for BEVs and associ-
parison, the loss of energy to heat by LIBs (via activation, ated batteries
concentration, and ohmic losses) is negligible (Chen, Cong, • Reduced ventilation-related capital due to reduc-
Yang, Tan, Li, & Ding, 2009; Bandhauer, Garimella, & Fuller, tion in overall volume requirements in both the
2011). In addition, BEVs are able to implement regenerative main system and the auxiliary system
braking, do not idle at rest, and there are reduced losses • If applicable, a reduced cooling-related capital due
associated with mechanical components such as torque to the reduction in heat generated
converters. Despite these compensations, the net energy • All other mine design related changes impacted by
content is still substantially higher in diesel than LIBs. the introduction of BEVs, such as quantity and size
Standardized fuel is a key advantage of diesel-based of drifts and shafts
equipment. Refineries handle the complexities of convert- • Potential for government subsidies or grants for
ing raw petroleum products into a portable fuel. Thus, refu- using green technologies
eling is the simple act of pouring liquid into a vehicle fuel 3. Operating cost impacts:
tank. BEVs do not share this convenience: the battery pack • Reduction in energy requirements and costs of
is a more complex energy storage medium and the battery diesel and electricity due to the higher efficiency of
recharging process is more complicated. In addition, the BEVs relative to diesel counterparts
BEV market is still in its infancy and methods to deliver a • Reduction in ventilation-related operating costs
charge are not yet standardized across the industry. due to smaller overall systems
• Elimination of diesel fuel transportation systems
5.2 Business Case and the related logistics costs
All-electric mines offer distinct advantages compared • Reduction in mobile equipment maintenance costs
to conventional mines, especially in reducing diesel emis-
sions and associated negative impacts on worker health 5.2.1 BEV Benefits to the Business Case
(see Section 5.1). Development and mining of some ore- 1. Health, Safety and Environment: An important benefit
bodies may never be profitable unless zero-emission BEV of BEV use in underground mines is general improvement in
use is permitted, due to the ventilation requirements of the working environment (i.e., less noise and vibration from
diesel vehicles. However, compared to conventional mines, electric drives) and worker productivity (see Section 5.1).
all-electric mines offer a host of challenges that must be Health risks to underground workers from diesel emissions
considered when evaluating a project. These challenges are totally eliminated by electric drive machines. Reduced
may impact the business case from revenue, capital cost, heat, particularly in warm climates and in deep mines, can
and operating cost perspectives. When reviewing these lower the need to implement work / rest regimes.
categories, the following factors should be considered as 2. Energy: One litre of diesel fuel converts to approxi-
they will vary between mines and are applicable to both mately 3 kWh of useful energy, a ratio of 1 kWh of electrical
greenfield or brownfield implementation: power to 1/3 diesel price per litre, excluding ventilation
1. Revenue increase costs. The energy potential of diesel is greatly reduced once
• Productivity gains due to improved air quality internal combustion engine losses are factored in (e.g.,
• Productivity gains due to cooler work environment idling time, transmission losses, other auxiliary system
(particularly related to work / rest regimes in hot losses). With BEVs, a far greater percentage of the energy
work environments) purchased is converted to power at the BEV wheels.

3. Ventilation: Eliminating harmful diesel emissions sub- diesel equipment will need to be trained to operate and
stantially reduces mine ventilation requirements. From a cap- maintain BEVs.
ital expenditure point of view, this means smaller and 4. Disposal of old batteries: Battery disposal is an issue
potentially fewer ventilation shafts, smaller access drifts, and that must be addressed (see Section 8.2.9). When batteries
smaller fans. Savings are substantial when combined with are no longer suitable for use in BEVs, they can find a new
operational savings in electricity costs, given the affinity life as energy storage for utilities or for the mine; however,
curves of ventilation fans. Depending on the local climate, a they will ultimately need to be recycled. One option to
lower air flow rate could yield savings in winter heating costs. address this challenge is to rent batteries from the BEV OEM.
4. Heat Generation: Less heat is generated from the
ventilation system (autocompression and fan input power) 5.2.3 Capital Cost Considerations
and from electric engines. Overall, this translates into 1. Vehicles: The cost of a BEV is currently higher than a
smaller (or even no) refrigeration equipment and lower diesel equivalent, largely driven by battery costs.
electrical operating costs. 2. Electrical infrastructure: Battery chargers can be a
5. Maintenance: Maintenance costs are generally less 100% duty cycle load while charging and nearly 0% while
for electric than diesel engines, primarily because of the not charging. These step loads can create demand peaks
high reliability of the electric motor and the static nature of on the electrical system that must be reviewed and
the electric drive and controllers for the motor. Further- assessed hourly to properly size the electrical system. The
more, a well-designed electrical drive system incorporates cost implications could be significant, depending on the
a vast array of interconnected sensors to monitor and warn charging philosophy adopted (Section 6.5.2). In addition to
the operator of faults, as well as provide trending data for the electrical distribution system, a complete system of
the predictive maintenance system. chargers needs to be implemented within the mine, which
6. Equipment Performance: The power rating of diesel comes at a significant cost. The mine may have one charger
haulage equipment is limited by ventilation constraints. associated with each piece of equipment, or one charger
This constraint doesn t exist for BEVs. Thus, for units with for multiple pieces of equipment. These chargers become
similar payload capacity, larger electric drives can be localized heat sources that require additional ventilation.
applied, resulting in improved equipment performance
(i.e., breakout / lifting capacity, acceleration, and speed). 6. MINE DESIGN
However, performance enhancement may be somewhat
offset by the time lost to recharge or swap batteries and a 6.1 Introduction
possible loss in overall productivity if charge time is not Lower ventilation requirements are the primary drivers
accounted for in the operation. for changes to the mine design to accommodate mine
electrification̶whether the application is for a greenfield
5.2.2 BEV Challenges to the Business Case or brownfield site. Performance parameters of each piece
1. Modelling energy consumption: BEV performance of equipment require consideration as changes to fleet and
affects the entire cost model and must be measured accu- mining methods are defined (Section 11). When designing
rately. From the quality of the paving, to the capital cost per a layout for an all-electric (battery and / or tethered) or
BEV, to the quantity of chargers, performance-related fac- hybrid mine (mixture of diesel vehicles and BEVs), addi-
tors are interconnected in various ways that present multi- tional infrastructure will be required throughout the mine
ple trade-offs. to maintain and operate the BEV fleet.
2. Energy density: To improve operational efficiencies The first considerations relate to charging method (see
and lower production costs, mines need to move ore as Section 6.5.2):
quickly as possible with the lowest interruption rate. The 1. Appropriate infrastructure (e.g., excavations and elec-
low energy density of a battery relative to diesel (see Sec- trical systems) for on-board charging, off-board charg-
tion 5.1) must be modelled in advance to ensure the charging, or battery swapping
ing philosophy (Section 6.5.2) will work in unison with the 2. Mining cycle and schedules for charge time vs. oper-
mine plan. ating time
3. Operational changes: The need to swap or charge 3. Power regeneration opportunities
batteries multiple times per day may affect BEV availability; 4. Cost implications of charging methods
this challenge should be reduced by development of new Depending on the charging method selected, addi-
technologies. In addition, workers who currently work with tional infrastructure design options include:

1. Charging stations at dedicated locations 6.2.1 Ore / Waste Handling System (OWHS)
• Shared chargers Whereas ventilation / cooling systems will benefit the
• One size fits all most by the implementation of an electric fleet (e.g., air
• Specific chargers match specific equipment quality, humidity, noise, and maintenance), the OWHS has
• Footprint of the power source for the charger and the greatest chance of being affected. It consumes large
charger itself, room to park a BEV and leave it aside amounts of energy and thus requires the most considera-
to charge tion because it places the highest demand on electric
2. Battery maintenance shop / facilities / equipment equipment. During OWHS design, various trade-offs will
• Effective communication between underground likely occur before use of electric equipment is confirmed.
and OEM Thus, this section focuses on the impact of electrification,
• Dedicated maintenance battery charger(s) not OWHS design or current methods (e.g., diesel equip-
• Spare batteries and chargers ment, conveyors, or train cars). Understanding BEV opera-
3. Swap-out station(s) if battery swapping will occur dur- tion is crucial to optimizing OWHS capability.
ing shifts With the advent of BEVs, new optimization methods
• Significant excavations that require special atten- are sure to follow. For example, if it is possible to haul ore
tion downhill, regenerative braking (Sections 6.2.2, 7.3,
• Anticipated procedures for swapping batteries and 11.3.3) can optimize the use of gravity to capture some
• Adequate rigging and lifting capabilities of the kinetic energy as follows̶depending on OEM,
4. Mechanical / electrical garage and spare parts storage grade, site conditions, and other factors:
• If the mine is all-electric, the layout needs to be 1. BEV leaves a charging station fully charged (X%) at the
reconfigured, since diesel engine maintenance and start of shift
repairs will no longer be required. 2. BEV travels up to the mining face and is loaded with
• A garage is still required for rebuilding scoop buck- ore (discharged to X% losses)
ets, changing tires, drive train work (if applicable), 3. BEV travels down ramp to destination prior to enter-
hydraulic system maintenance and electric mainte- ing the loading pocket (based on the elevation in the
nance (motor, battery, computer, and charger), and mine, the battery management system (BMS) deter-
additional service on secondary equipment mines the ratio of regenerative and actual braking to
• BEVs have few moving parts, thus require less use to recharge to some level less than X%)
equipment storage 4. Cycle is repeated until charging is required
• BEVs have specific requirements for spare parts, Regeneration of energy should be simulated to match the
which should be reviewed with the OEM to ensure equipment performance to specific applications.
sufficient real-estate is reserved If downhill ore / waste movement is not feasible, min-
ing methods could be selected to minimize the withdrawal
6.2 Mine Layout and Infrastructure of ore at elevations lower than the OWHS destination. Top-
Mining companies and engineering firms are accus- down mining methods or electric / battery haulage to a
tomed to developing the layout and infrastructure of a centralized point with a conveyor uphill are options to
mine to accommodate diesel mobile equipment. When reduce the uphill travel of ore in terms of tonnes and dis-
transitioning to mining BEVs, it is essential to reconsider the tance. With BEV use, ore passes may no longer be the pre-
traditional methods of mine development. The many ferred method of moving ore.
advantages of transitioning to mining BEVs are described in Figure 1 shows the OWHS options that affect the bat-
Section 5.1. Nonetheless, BEVs have several limitations rela- tery size and energy requirements of a BEV. Ultimately, the
tive to traditional diesel equipment, the most important haulage system design will influence the duty cycle (i.e., the
being the limited range and the time needed to charge. time taken by the cycle of operation relative to the avail-
The key to a successful BEV-based mining development will able time) required from the battery and charging system
be ensuring the mine is well planned and equipped to (Sections 6.4.1 and 11.2.1).
accommodate the BEVs, while fully harnessing the benefits
that come with the technology. 6.2.1.1 Trolley assist systems Trolley assist systems collect
The sections below provide a brief discussion around electricity from overhead conductors for use by electric
some of the major areas to be considered when tailoring a motors. Adoption is limited by:
mine for BEVs. • High capital and maintenance costs

neered roadbeds and the associated electric trolley sys-

tems. A typical roadbed consists of 0.5 m depth of aggre-
gate material topped with granular A with a liquid asphalt
emulsion. The capital cost of these high quality roadbeds
can be high, but they allow trucks to travel at speeds in
excess of 20 km/h. Regular maintenance consists of remov-
ing fallen ore chunks using a grader and load haul dump
(LHD) machine, removing road dust using a sweeper / vac-
uum mobile vehicle, and applying asphalt emulsion to the
walls to combat accumulating dust. The trolleys also
require regular maintenance, typically to combat metal
fatigue.
6.2.2 Regenerative Braking

Compared to diesel, the energy density of batteries is
by far the greatest limitation to be overcome for
widespread BEV adoption (Section 5.1). However, the
regenerative capabilities of electric motors can potentially
lessen the magnitude of this problem (Sections 7.3
and 11.3.3). With a diesel vehicle, friction braking converts
kinetic energy into heat. When braking a BEV, the motors
push most of the kinetic energy into the on-board batter-
ies, with the following advantages:
1. Longer BEV range
2. Lower energy consumption (higher efficiency)
3. Batteries may be sized smaller
4. Less heat is introduced into the mine environment
It is important to lay out the mine to maximize the ben-
Figure 1. Impact of Ore / Waste Handling System on Battery efits of regenerative braking. Ore / waste haulage is one
Sizing area where careful planning can pay big dividends (Sec-
tion 6.2.1). An electric truck that hauls material primarily
• Tight tolerance roadbeds uphill and returns empty downhill will require very large
• Tight constraints of the overhead electric conductor batteries, and is not likely to last an entire shift (Figure 1).
system Reversing this pattern̶hauling the material downhill̶
• The need to keep roadbeds cleared to maintain con- can drastically improve the range. In some cases, it may be
tact with the overhead power bar possible to run for several shifts without needing to charge
Trolley assist trucks are currently fitted with small diesel the battery. This strategy takes advantage of the gravita-
engines that allow for short horizontal movements while dis- tional energy contained within the ore and waste, and
connected from the trolley. There is potential to design a using it to recharge the batteries on board the BEV.
hybrid trolley‒battery truck with battery-powered motors Regenerative braking can be a double-edged sword. A
that would allow longer trams while disconnected. With the fully charged BEV that needs to make a long downhill jour-
move toward electrification of the mining fleet, the recharg- ney may not be able to store the braking energy, and would
ing opportunity in ramps or drifts using an overhead power rely on friction braking or braking resistors. It is best to
bar system becomes more attractive. Further work is required avoid this situation altogether through careful planning, for
by industry and vendors to develop trolley assist systems example by positioning charging locations at the bottom
applicable to mines that address the adoption challenges of a ramp, or limiting the amount of charge taken on if a
noted above. Open pit mining, urban transit, and recent downhill trip is anticipated.
highway trials in Sweden can be referenced for mine design.
Existing trolley truck systems require high upfront cap- 6.2.2.1 Straight vs. curved ramps Mine developments tar-
ital, not only for the trucks themselves, but for the engi- geted for BEV use could follow one of two design principles

to keep the net overall ramp within prescribed geographic and drivelines, losses will be more friction based; it is likely
bounds: that higher speeds of travel will be more efficient up to the
1. Series of long straight inclines with a nominal 180°or point that the resistance of conductors in the system
less return curve become a large component in the total losses. Often these
2. Traditional constant radius spiral ramp design losses are the basis of the power limits of the motors, drives
Both designs achieve the same vertical travel displacement and batteries. If the equipment is traveling too slowly, more
and travel distance and utilize the same grade; therefore, energy goes to steady state losses but less energy goes to
they excavate similar volumes of material. viscous losses.
However, differences could arise in terms of drive effi- For a BEV, traveling too quickly increases friction and
ciency. When vehicles drive through corners, the forces viscous losses. There are also limitations on the amount of
imparted through the tires to maintain the intended path power a machine is capable of producing and accepting.
(i.e., to overcome centrifugal force) cause several related These limitations limit the speed of travel.
force events to occur. Foremost is the force required to Mathematical models that take into account all losses
move the vehicle forward. Added to this is the force and accurately predict the effects of speed and power draw
required to move the vehicle in the direction of the turn are necessary to determine the optimal operating case. The
and the associated drag from the tires now attempting to models should be tested and proven in the field and the
slip (vs. free roll) on the roadbed. The force of the tires information included in BEV specifications. A curve derived
attempting to slip can be visualized by the displacement of from one such model is demonstrated in Figure 2, which
roadbed material towards the outer radius of the corner. shows the trade-off between increased steady state losses
These additional forces in the machine mechanism due to a longer haulage distance for the same elevation
increase internal friction and wear. The action of turning gain and diminishing return in energy savings as ramp
the corner activates differentials and causes related angle increases. Increased ramp angle shortens the
changes in motor speeds, all factors that affect efficiency. haulage distance and decreases the travel time, but
These factors may be minimal in some cases and significant increases the torque and power load on the machine, thus
in others. Testing should be conducted to confirm the mag- increasing the losses with the square of the ramp angle
nitude of these forces and determine which design princi- increase. Note that the model used for this curve did not
ple should be employed. account for loss of traction at higher ramp grades.
6.2.2.2 Ramp grade Stored energy on a machine is used to

change the energy state of the machine or the environ-
ment. In a BEV, chemical energy in the battery produces
voltage and current, which is used to rotate a motor, which
in turn drives wheels to move the machine. On flat ground,
the mechanical power from the wheels puts energy into
the kinetic energy of the machine. On a ramp, there is a
change in the potential energy of the machine and load.
When going down ramp, the potential energy is driving the
wheels and the system is able to recoup some portion of
the energy and return it to the battery. When driving up
ramp, battery energy is used to raise the potential energy
Figure 2. Energy Required for Fixed Elevation Gain at Fixed
state of the vehicle and load. Ramp angle affects the power Speeds
going to and from potential energy.
To find the most efficient speed and ramp angle, three 6.2.3 Vehicle Parking
types of losses must be considered: When planning a mine development, engineering
1. Continuous (steady state) firms generally do not emphasize establishing parking loca-
2. First order or speed dependent (friction) tions for all the vehicles in the fleet. With diesel equipment,
3. Second order or viscous this approach is generally acceptable since empty cutouts
Vehicle speed affects friction loss in a linear fashion, or old stope accesses / drawpoints can generally provide
and the viscous losses increase with the square of the suitable parking locations. The most significant problems
velocity. For slow moving equipment with low rpm motors might be logistical issues or conflicts among crews over

vehicle parking. However, in a BEV-based mine, it is essen- charged near the station between shifts, and picked
tial that a parking and charging strategy is carefully laid out. up by the workers as they exit the station at shift
If a BEV is parked in an arbitrary location, it cannot be change
charged and will likely be unavailable for the next shift. It • Slow movers or equipment typically dedicated to
will also be important to change the culture of the work- the mining zone (e.g., bolters and jumbos) are left in
force to suit a BEV fleet. At the end of every shift, it will be or near headings; workers are transported to them
essential for every operator to park their BEV in its desig- via personnel carriers
nated location and connect it to a charger.
Effective BEV and charger status updates will be essen- 6.3.2 Ramp Access
tial. The mine monitoring system should track the status of In a ramp-accessible mine, group travelling is strongly
every BEV during and at the end of the shift. This will facili- encouraged because long uphill travel at end-of-shift could
tate effective planning by giving advance notice as to the deplete BEV batteries. It might be cost-effective to trans-
state of the fleet, thereby reducing the chance of arriving at port personnel in and out of the mine in dedicated group
a BEV to discover it is not charged and ready to use. transportation BEVs; these are charged during shift. For
downhill travel, a key consideration is regenerative braking:
6.3 Personnel Movement to prevent over-charging the battery or over-using the
Standard methods for personnel transport from sur- mechanical braking system, BEVs need to enter the ramp
face to various mine locations are via a service cage for with a partially depleted battery to absorb all regenerative
shaft access mines, a vehicle for ramp access mines, or a braking energy. Figure 3 illustrates the personnel transport
combination of both methods. options that affect battery size requirements of a BEV.
6.3.1 Shaft Access 6.4 Other Electric Equipment

In a shaft-accessible mine, recharging and parking Each type of electric equipment has a different charg-
must be considered in the design. Typically, minimal con- ing configuration, as illustrated and summarized in Figure 4.
sideration is given to parking locations at the end of shift
because in general, diesel vehicles refuel during the shift 6.4.1 Charge-While-Operating Equipment Group (Tethered)
and do not have specific parking requirements. Sec- Charge-while-operating equipment is typically
tion 6.5.4 examines the trade-off between end-of-shift plugged into AC power while performing work, and travels
charging and battery swapping. under diesel or battery power when moving between work
Assuming end-of-shift charging, movement between locations. This group typically includes:
the shaft station and BEV needs to be considered. Three key • Bolters / cable bolters
personnel transport methods are: • Scalers
1. Walking • Jumbos
• BEVs are parked close enough to shaft stations for • Production drills
personnel to walk to / from a BEV • Mobile raisebore units
• Requires sufficient parking locations and charger • Explosive loaders
for all BEVs and sufficient power to supply chargers • Shotcrete sprayers
• Likely not feasible for certain pieces of mining Because it operates under AC power most of the time,
equipment (e.g., bolters and jumbos) charge-while-operating equipment requires a smaller
2. Personnel carriers capacity battery for travel periods only. In addition, the
• Located near the shaft station to transport person- trailing cable presents an opportunity to install batteries
nel to locations in the mine that charge while the equipment is plugged in to AC
• Can bring workers to parking locations power. If all charging is accomplished via an on-board
• Can bring workers to mining levels to reach mining charging system, no external chargers are required. If an
equipment on-board charger is lacking, additional portable chargers
• Consider charging personnel carriers near work are required close to the face because the cable length is
areas once all personnel are delivered limited between the charger and the equipment.
3. Combination The duty cycle of the battery on each piece of equip-
• Flexible equipment (e.g., LHD machines, trucks, ment must be reviewed to calculate the charge frequency,
graders, and personnel carriers) is parked and which can then be used to determine the number of charg-

Figure 3. Simplified Personnel Management Impact on Battery Sizing
Figure 4. Electric Fleet Design Considerations

ers required on each mining level (Section 11.2.1). This 6.5.1 Design Prerequisites
exercise makes it apparent that off-board charging is a very The required excavation footprint and support services
expensive option that also increases the complexity and depend on the following:
decreases the efficiency of the mining cycle. Therefore, • Number and duration of underground shifts, typically
efforts should be made to ensure on-board charging with in hours per day
charge-while-operating equipment. • Expected running time for the equipment̶with
input from equipment vendors̶based on size and
6.4.2 Trucks required duty per shift (accounting for personnel
The following options currently exist for ore / waste travel time, breaks, set-up, and other battery down-
movement by truck: time)
• Regenerative braking • Equipment duty cycle
• Swap-out battery vs. in-shift charging vs. end-of-shift • Based on the equipment fleet, number of charging
charging stations and types of chargers required throughout
• Inductive and trolley-assist charging the mine and their locations
• Hybrid-powered options • Whether opportunity charging will be employed (Sec-
tion 6.5.4)
6.4.3 LHD Machines • Preference for each piece of equipment: battery
Mine design considerations that affect LHD machine charging in-shift, at end-of-shift, or through battery
performance include: swapping
• Mine-level grades relative to energy consumption • Whether the auxiliary fleet will be able to complete a
• Swap-out battery vs. in-shift charging vs. end-of-shift shift cycle without requiring a charge. Some equip-
charging ment may have small batteries or require specific
• Inductive and trolley-assist charging chargers, for example, a grader that cannot reach all
• Hybrid-powered options areas of the mine from its parking / charger location
• Fully tethered electric options and uses a specific charger will need a second charger
placed strategically in the mine. These situations
6.4.4 Alternate Haulage Methods should be avoided if possible.
Alternate haulage methods include conveyors, elec-
tric-powered trains, trolleys, and monorails, railed con- 6.5.2 Charging Philosophy
veyor, and continuous haulage systems. A successful electric mine design begins with under-
standing and harnessing the benefits of BEVs, while
6.4.5 Auxiliary Vehicles accounting for the shortcomings. In a mine with diesel-
Support or service vehicles include scissor-lifts, trans- based mobile equipment, thought is seldom given to the
mixers, forklifts, boom trucks, mechanic trucks, and graders, parking arrangement for vehicles, and minimal planning is
which are well-suited to battery conversion. However, con- needed to provide for diesel fuel distribution. In contrast,
siderations for parking and charging requirements must be in a mine based around BEVs, these considerations are cru-
addressed. cial to success. Without careful design, it would be very
easy to end up with an array of incompatible charging sta-
6.5 Charging Infrastructure tions throughout the mine. The ultimate objective is to
Once personnel transport needs are determined, the make recharging and operating BEVs as simple, conve-
equipment is chosen, and the mine is generally laid out, the nient, and safe as refuelling and operating diesel vehicles.
charging infrastructure can be defined. A BEV charging sys- The starting point should be the mine layout and the
tem typically consists of a step-down and isolation trans- operational map of the vehicles. Since electrical infras-
former, a rectification system / variable direct current (DC) tructure is spread throughout the mine, chargers can be
supply, and a charge rate controller. Mine operations will easily added as needed. When laying out the mine main
depend on the availability of fully charged batteries; there- power cables, junction boxes can be included in advance
fore, sufficient design in the charging system is crucial. The if the potential need for future charging stations is recog-
charging philosophy (Section 6.5.2) and factors depicted in nized. Junction boxes add some upfront costs, but will
Figure 5 will influence the mine layout and must be consid- make it much easier to add charging stations in the
ered. future.

Figure 5. Charging System Design
6.5.2.1 Establishing the charging philosophy When design- Considerations for charging philosophy include the fol-
ing a BEV-based mine, a key to success is to establish the lowing:
battery charging philosophy. The choice of charging 1. Standardize the entire mine with one type of
arrangement from among the four approaches described charger̶to the extent possible.
in Section 9.4 must be tailored to a given mine based upon • If only small BEVs will be deployed and / or if charge
many factors, including the following: time is not a significant concern, on-board charging
• The energy consumption model is an important first may be the easiest option.
step: it will determine the operational plan and charg- • If one OEM will supply all (or most) of the BEVs, a
ing philosophy proprietary off-board charger developed by that
• Whether the mine will be fully electric, or some diesel OEM may be appropriate.
vehicles will be employed • If multiple OEMs will be supplying BEVs, a standard
• Greenfield development or brownfield mine charging protocol such as combined charging sys-
• Size and capacity of vehicles and / or mine workings tem (CCS) Type 2 may be appropriate. In this case,
• Available battery capacity for given vehicle class the mine must specify the charge port type on all
• Haulage routing: uphill, downhill or at grade BEVs to be procured.
• Available and desired ventilation 2. Consider hybrid charging (Section 9.4.4) for BEVs
• Shift schedule relative to when charging will take place equipped with a trailing cable (e.g., drills, bolters,
The decision to deploy mining BEVs will also affect loaders). These can be equipped with both a DC fast
many of the factors above. For example, an existing mine charge port and a small on-board charger to permit
with ramp access to depth may be forced to employ some slower charging while operating.
diesel haulage vehicles because a large BEV battery would 3. Carefully plan the parking arrangement, with a desig-
prohibit uphill haulage. By contrast, a greenfield mine may nated parking spot for each BEV (Section 6.3.1).
choose to sink a deeper shaft to enable downhill haulage to 4. For substantial deployment of BEVs of all sizes, consider
take advantage of BEV regenerative braking (Sec- equipping the mine with two capacities of standard-
tions 6.2.2, 7.3, and 11.3.3). ized off-board charger with universal charge interfaces.

• For large BEVs (LHD machines and haulage trucks), duration, and amount of energy transferred to the battery
install high-capacity chargers. These should be as will ensure economic viability before full-scale redundant
powerful as possible (e.g., 150 kW or higher). chargers are installed. The scenarios below̶based on the
• For small BEVs (man carriers, utility vehicles), charg- assumption that the mine is running two shifts̶can facili-
ers in the 20‒50 kW range are sufficient. tate determining the feasibility of implementing opportu-
• If a large BEV is connected to a low-power charger, nity charging.
the charge proceeds but takes longer.
Charging time scenario 1: Basic scenario
• If a small BEV is connected to a high-power charger,
Opportunity: 2 × 30 min. lunch break + 6 × 10 min. bio
the charger limits output power to what the BEV is
break = 2 h/day
able to accept.
Typical shift-change: 2 × 2 h/day = 4 h/day
5. For many locations in the mine, very long charging
Therefore, an opportunity charger provides half the
cables (> 200 m between charger and BEV) may be
charger utilization of a shift-change charger.
beneficial.
6. If long uphill haulage is required, a battery swapping Charging time scenario 2: Stagger lunch breaks, use end-of-
arrangement may be considered. This requires some shift charger
infrastructure for battery removal, and likely involves Opportunity: 4 × 30 min. lunch break + 6 × 10 min. bio
co-operation with a BEV OEM. break + 4 h end-of-shift = 7 h/day
7. Chargers should have a wide output voltage range Typical shift-change: 4 h/day
(e.g., 200‒1,000 VDC). Therefore, an opportunity charger could provide greater
The following points regarding battery running time charger utilization than a shift-change charger, with suffi-
should also be considered: cient coordination.
1. If the battery running time is longer than the shift
Energy transfer to battery scenario 1: 50 kW charger and
length at the design duty, then shift-change charging
100 kWh battery
is simple to implement.
Opportunity: 30 min. lunch break = 25 kWh energy (approx.
2. If the battery running time is marginally shorter or
25% charge)
longer than the shift length at the design duty, then
Typical shift-change: 2 h between shifts = 100 kWh energy
shift-change charging with opportunity charging or
(approx. 100% charge)
battery swapping could be implemented.
Good option for BEVs that are expected to run out of power
3. If the battery running time is substantially shorter than
before end-of-shift
the shift length, then alternate methods would likely be a
necessity, such as battery swapping or in-shift charging. Energy transfer to battery scenario 2: 100 kW charger and
As technology advances, other methods of charging 100 kWh battery
such as trolley-assisted, inductive, or other advancing tech- Opportunity: 30 min. lunch break = 50 kWh energy (approx.
nologies may become more prevalent. 50% charge)
Typical shift-change: 2 h between shifts = 200 kWh energy
6.5.3 Charger Diversity (approx. 100% charge)
Multiple charging philosophies are currently in use; Good option to decrease battery size, power requirements
selecting the appropriate one for a given application will be at shift change, and range anxiety for workers
a key parameter for successful implementation of a fully Among design considerations for charger locations,
electrified mine. Efforts to standardize should be pursued. the highest priority should be given to accessibility and
The simplicity found in diesel fuel made implementation maximizing charging time. BEVs that are not operating
effortless, any piece of equipment sent underground simply should be charging. If two chargers are located near a lunch
needed to be filled with fuel and away it goes (Section 5.1). room, only two BEVs can be charged; other BEVs will not
benefit from opportunity charging.
6.5.4 Opportunity Charging
The use of opportunity charging to top up batteries in- 6.5.5 Charging Station Layout
shift (i.e., during downtimes such as breaks) may not be a Because BEVs are not common underground, not all
good business decision. If both end-of-shift and opportu- individuals are familiar with the concept. For non-electrical
nity chargers are installed, project costs would significantly designers, chargers can be compared to typical variable fre-
increase. Calculating the cost per charger, opportunity quency drives (VFDs) in ventilation systems.
Global Mining Guidelines (GMG) Group

6.5.5.1 Physical environment The physical environment 6.5.5.3 Battery swap-out station design Similar to a typical
considerations described below are illustrated in Figure 6. diesel refuelling station, a battery swap-out station should
Chargers contain sensitive electronics; therefore, they allow a BEV to enter, be recharged by an instructed person
must be treated with care to survive for sustained amounts (International Electrotechnical Commission, 2004), and
of time in harsh mining environments, which contain: leave in a short period of time with a charged battery. The
• Dust logistical plan for scheduling battery swap-out should be
• Humidity an input to the design. Additional particularities of a bat-
• Heat (see Section 6.6.4 for ventilation design to tery swap-out station include:
remove excessive heat) • Crane system (compatible with all BEV types that will
• Vibration use this system) to remove and install batteries on
• Percussion blast equipment and move batteries within the station
• Falling objects • Charger in proximity that has sufficient charging capa-
• Water via failed pipes, dripping from the back, or par- bilities based on the quantity of spare batteries
tial flooding in the area • Sufficient spare batteries that are charged, charging,
• Physical barriers to prevent vehicle collisions such as or depleted
bollards and walls • Significant excavation requirements that may pose a
For further details on the physical environment risk to rockmass quality and hydro-geotechnical con-
requirements for charging refer to Section 9. ditions
6.5.5.2 Spacing and parking Equipment spacing should fol- 6.5.5.4 Remote battery swapping Instead of swapping bat-
low OEM recommendations and local regulations. Charg- teries at a charging station, it may be advantageous to
ing cable manoeuverability is a key consideration: swap batteries where the BEVs are working. This would
depending on the chosen technology, the cable length require a second means of battery transportation from the
between chargers and connection points on BEVs could be charging / storage area to the unit in need of a replacement
restricted by cable size (i.e., voltage drop) or communica- and the tooling required to perform the battery swap at the
tion protocols (e.g., RS-232, Ethernet). Larger cables or dif- BEV. This solution may add complexity and cost for procur-
ferent protocols could remove these restrictions, but at a ing, maintaining, and operating the additional equipment,
cost that could outweigh the benefits. but it may be advantageous if the distance from the work
Figure 6. Charging Station Design Considerations

area or work cycle to the charge location is significant charger. As batteries approach their theoretical limits and
and / or the BEV has a slow tramming speed, ultimately fast charging chemistry becomes readily available, the high
resulting in increased charge related downtime. kilowatt demand for short time periods becomes consider-
able. Since a charger load is a 100% duty cycle, special
6.5.5.5 Mine power distribution considerations Because most attention must be paid to the timing at which the fast
chargers operate with an incoming voltage of 400‒1,000 V in charging of different BEVs occurs and the location of the
three phases, the distribution equipment must be located charging station. A charging schedule or automated
within an acceptable distance (i.e., 75 m for 600 V) of the method would prevent overloading the mine electrical sys-
chargers to ensure system strength. Chargers are harmonic tem. Close attention must also be paid to the amount of
producing devices (Section 9.3). Therefore, a stiff system̶ heat generated during this process, either inside the
with high available fault power and good voltage regula- machine or at the charging site.
tion̶is ideal for the operation of multiple devices without
interference. As a rule of thumb, such systems should be able 6.6 Ventilation and Cooling
to provide a fault current that is approximately 20 times the A ventilation study must address and deliver solutions
full load amperage (FLA) of the charger. For example, for a for safety and technical aspects, as well as fit the mining
50 kW charger with 5% losses, the FLA would be approxi- methods and OWHS options. An iterative approach between
mately 50.5 A on a 600 V system and should be connected the mine and ventilation designers will produce a design
on a network able to provide 1 kA of fault current. If two that is robust and economical. A set of design criteria pro-
400 kW chargers are to be connected on a common bus, the vides a structured approach to achieving a good engineer-
combined FLA is 808 A and requires a system capable of ing design. The design criteria for an electric mine will be the
delivering 16 kA at 600 V. This may seem to be a high value, same as a diesel mine (e.g., temperature, dust, and air veloc-
but it is typical for a 1 MVA transformer, as long as the imped- ity targets), but some aspects of the criteria will differ (e.g., an
ance between the transformer and the chargers is not high. electric mine need not comply with DPM regulations).
Transformer size selection is generally based on the Designs are based on battery limits and constraints
mining equipment expected to operate simultaneously in such as mine life, capital, geology, OWHS, production pro-
an area and other loads (e.g., ventilation fans, dewatering file, type and level of automation, mining method, environ-
pumps, and lights) that are required to support the mental considerations, and jurisdictional legislative
advancement. Sizing a transformer in an all-electric mine requirements. Deliverables from a design would include
needs to consider the operation of chargers. It is imperative determining the air volumes and air distribution system
to keep in mind the charging philosophy (Section 6.5.2) to with all required infrastructure and controls (Tables 1 and 2).
prevent over-sizing transformers.
6.6.1 Determining Air Volume
6.5.5.6 Fast charging considerations Due to the large size of The process for determining air volume for battery-
mining equipment, as well as the duty cycle required by powered mobile equipment is based on heat, dust, and air
operations, most equipment would likely require a fast velocity (Figure 7), whereas for diesel-powered equipment,
Table 1. Air volume design data needs, sources, and applications for electric equipment
Need Source Application
Jurisdictional air quality regulations Federal, local, and company Drive final air volume and distribution calculations to dilute
standard threshold limit values dust, emissions, and heat generated by mobile fleet
Equipment fleet required throughout Based on production profile Mine heat load and dust calculations
affected area or mine and equipment capacity Size and number of BEVs may differ from diesel fleet
Motor power and expected duty Basic data on equipment data Mine heat load calculations
cycles of equipment sheet from equipment vendors
May need more specific
information for a given application
Area heat loads from equipment based Load / power profile curves from Air volume calculations to dilute heat
on motor output, efficiency, and duty equipment vendors based on a
profile variety of operating scenarios
Heat loads from charging stations / areas Equipment vendors Air volume calculations to dilute heat
Heat from charging + heat from equipment = total heat load
Dust loads from mining activities Monitoring database at sites Air volume and / or minimum velocity calculations to dilute dust
Use in conjunction with historic dust concentrations at the site

Table 2. Ventilation design data considerations, sources and applications for electric equipment
Need Source Application
Required air way opening dimensions Federal, local, or Design infrastructure based on air volume required to dilute
company guidance heat or dust (whichever higher)
Ensure air velocities from airway opening Federal, local, or Low velocities affect blast clearing times
and air volumes within limits company guidance High velocities can create dust hazards
Does heat require maximum ventilation rates? Federal, local, or Are workplace temperatures too high?
company guidance
Can additional air volume dilute the heat? Study on cost of larger An economic analysis to determine if a refrigeration plant required
infrastructure or
refrigeration plant
Fixed monitoring for dust, gas and / or heat Federal, local, and / Depends on mine operator preference and air distribution system type
or company guidance and maintenance needs
Mandatory if controlled recirculation is part of the ventilation system
Will air be recirculated? Jurisdictional regulations With zero-emission electric equipment, controlled recirculation
or company standards may be a solution to reduce total mine volumes as long as
contaminant concentration levels are met
Determine hazards that could affect the Risk assessment Address high risks with redesign of mine layouts,
ventilation infrastructure, rescuability of infrastructure, and air path, and direction
personnel, and high risk zones for fire
Figure 7. Air Volume Sizing Process for Battery-Powered Mobile Equipment
it is based on DPM, heat, and gas dilution (often dictated by vendor(s) to optimize the fleet and equipment size for the
government regulations). The sections below describe proposed mine layout and production schedule.
parameters specific to an electric mine, with some refer-
ence to diesel-powered equipment. 6.6.4 Heat Load
The mine heat load is determined by summing̶for
6.6.2 Regulations each mine level̶the contribution of heat from major
Federal and local (applicable to the mine site jurisdic- sources such as fixed electrical equipment (e.g., mine load
tion) air quality regulations and standards will influence air centres, fans, pumps, and chargers), mobile equipment
volume requirements. Internal mining company standards (diesel vehicles and BEVs), auto compression, and wall rock.
must be determined before beginning mine design. Mobile Auto compression and wall rock temperatures increase
equipment activities create dust and heat that significantly with depth; therefore, ventilation rates in mines with hot
influence the air volume and the associated distribution. conditions increase on each deeper level.
Once the heat load is determined, the air volume
6.6.3 Equipment Fleet required to dilute the heat can be calculated. Because BEVs
The equipment fleet is based on the production profile are considered to have zero emissions, the air volumes can
and is a key parameter for determining mine heat loads. be lowered, which may result in elevated temperatures. An
The mine plan designer must work with the equipment analysis may be required to determine the optimum venti-
lation volumes with or without introducing refrigeration.

Several software packages can assist in the calculation of visibility. Drift size, air volume, and / or recirculation of air
mine total heat loads, typically in kW. Care must be taken to should be re-examined. Target design air velocities must be
control the quality of information entered into the solvers. established within the design criteria for different infra-
structure and work areas (e.g., working face, conveyor
6.6.4.1 Heat from mobile equipment The heat load from drifts, and haulage routes).
mobile equipment is determined from the motor power Baseline dust loads can be determined from historical
output considering different work duties. The first step is to data from the mine site occupational exposure monitoring
list the equipment power for both diesel and electric program. It should be noted that BEVs don t have exhaust
mobile equipment that may be typically active on the level pipes and therefore do not stir up as much dust as diesel
at the same time. Then, factors are applied to account for equipment. These data can be used to determine dust
efficiency, usage, work rates, and gradient. For diesel equip- sources and concentrations from mining processes and
ment, the thermal efficiency of the engine is approximately mineralization. Once the air volumes are determined from
30%: a significant portion of the power becomes heat established target velocities, dilution calculations can
whether the engine is loaded or idling. An electric motor is determine if the volumes dilute dust concentrations to
very efficient: heat generation equals the energy con- acceptable levels.
sumed minus the net work done (Section 11.3.6).
Load / power profile curves obtained from the BEV vendor 6.6.6 Developing the Ventilation Design and Plan
would facilitate determining the equipment kW ratings for Unlike a greenfield site, conversion to electric equip-
the heat load determinations. ment at a brownfield mine means that air velocities may
become problematic and the opportunity for alterations to
6.6.4.2 Heat from charging Typical heat losses from charg- existing infrastructure may be limited. The positive impact
ing equipment are 5‒10%, but equipment vendors must of the electric mine will emerge during ventilation design
provide estimates of heat generated when chargers are development (Figure 8), evidenced by little ventilation
operating for a given rate and method. Depending on the infrastructure relative to a diesel mine. Primary ventilation
charging philosophy and placement of chargers, special system components such as fans, raises, and transfer drifts
attention should be paid to the exhaust path of this heat will be reduced, as well as auxiliary system fans and duct-
and placement of infrastructure. ing. Placement of infrastructure such as intake and return
One 50 kW charger operating with 5% losses for 1 h paths must accommodate parking and charging areas. The
would generate 2.5 kW of heat in the charging area, which air heated from chargers may be considered used from a
can be considered marginal. Four 400 kW chargers operat- temperature perspective, but it will be very clean and dry.
ing in the same area with 10% losses for 1 h during a shift In the scenario of shift-change charging, heated air could
change would generate up to 160 kW of heat in the charg- easily be re-used for blast clearing and / or to warm cold
ing area. Therefore, it is important to consider the impact of mine air.
chargers on heat loads, keeping in mind that chargers do
not operate 24 h/day. It is crucial to ensure chargers are 6.6.6.1 Airway sizing The air volume requirements for heat
provided with a reasonable means of cooling, so that air and dust dilution must be compared and airways sized to
temperatures in the charging area remain below the man- economically accommodate the larger of the flow require-
ufacturer's specified limits, to prevent electronic failures ments. Facilities such as garages and leakage paths
(Section 9.3). throughout the mine from various control devices should
be included in final air volumes. Airway sizing proceeds
6.6.5 Dust iteratively until needs such as refrigeration are determined
Dust is a key criterion to establish air volumes in an elec- (Section 6.6.6.2). Airway placement needs to consider con-
tric mine. Dust contaminant removal depends on the air ditions unique to an electric mine layout, such as number
velocity, but air speeds that are too high can create hazards: and size of substations and charging stations.
• Large dust particles become airborne and cause eye
injuries 6.6.6.2 Heat If the heat load generated in the mine will
• Extended exposure to moving air causes eye irritation approach or exceed any design criteria temperature limits
• Moving air increases worker physical exertion (i.e., workplace, intake, or reject), a study must be com-
Air velocities that are too low do not remove and dilute pleted to determine if additional air volume can dilute the
heat or small respirable dust particles, and can also reduce heat, or if mine air cooling is required. Study results will be

Figure 8. High-Level Ventilation Design Process
based on the mine schedule impact and economics of icant factor in the decision for fixed monitoring is the ability
larger ventilation infrastructure to meet the design temper- to calibrate and maintain the system.
ature criteria vs. the cost of a refrigeration system. If a refrig- Fixed monitoring systems are generally installed
eration system is the selected option, air volumes will be underground for detecting heat and gases that commonly
reduced throughout the system. Therefore, air velocities occur and for which reliable sensors exist (e.g., carbon
throughout the mine will need to be verified to remain monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides). Additional
within the design criteria limits. monitoring may also be required based on battery chem-
istry. Carbon monoxide is a good surrogate indicator for
6.6.6.3 Blast gas clearing The time required to clear blasting potential environmental issues. Heat monitoring instru-
fumes from the face through the path to exhaust depends mentation commonly measures dry-bulb temperature and
upon the air speed. In an electric mine, the opportunity to relative humidity; wet-bulb temperature is calculated from
reduce air volume may create a low air velocity condition, these values and the barometric pressure. Currently, dust is
which would protract the blast clearing time and delay per- not commonly measured in real-time.
sonnel reaching the workplace. Once a preliminary ventila-
tion design is complete, a review of the clearing time 6.6.6.5 Controlled recirculation Although it has been stud-
should be conducted to highlight any problem areas. Con- ied for many years, application of controlled full or partial
sideration should be given to include controls in the design recirculation is limited in a ventilation system design
to allow the air velocity to be increased after a blast in because of safety and health implications from typical min-
affected areas. Options could include variable speed drives ing methods and hazards. Electric mine design presents an
on fans and automated ventilation control systems. opportunity to use controlled recirculation because electric
equipment produces little dust, heat, and gas. If controlled
6.6.6.4 Monitoring A mine site must determine if real-time recirculation was part of the design, fixed monitoring
monitoring of the underground environment or ventilation would be required to ensure regulatory compliance of air
controls will be part of the mine design. This decision, as quality.
well as what will be monitored and why, will influence the
placement, resolution, and type of monitoring instrumen- 6.7 Safety
tation. If underground fixed monitors are installed, it is rec- A high-level risk assessment is recommended to evalu-
ommended to communicate the signal to a surface ate the total mine risk from converting diesel to electric and
human-machine interface and set up for trending. A signif- highlight potential hazards specific to the ventilation

design. Safety training (operator, maintenance) is an essen- and ISO 6405-2:2017 (Table 3). The BEV operator interface is
tial component. Other safety considerations include: the site of human-machine interaction, and thus is critical
• Noise to correct and safe BEV operation. The operator interface
• Power and voltage should visually display information about the battery state
• Air quality (DPM, dust, and moisture) of charge (SOC) to the operator at all times, since the SOC
• Heat determines the remaining distance before recharge is
• Fire required. Visible and audible signals are also part of the
• Geotechnical aspects operator interface, for example, a manual alarm to alert
An electric mine has different energy sources than tra- personnel that the BEV is underway (e.g., FMVSS 141,
ditional mines and areas where large numbers of equip- Table 3) or an automatic alarm to alert the operator that the
ment are concentrated for parking or charging. It is SOC is at a critical level or the insulation resistance is low.
necessary to understand the potential for fire and the ease The SOC is also strongly linked to the regenerative
or difficulty to reach personnel if they require rescue. The braking system that returns energy to the battery when the
adoption of BEVs can reduce the potential for fire by mini- BEV is braking, coasting, or going downhill. If battery or
mizing or removing diesel fuel and hot engine sources of drivetrain parameters (e.g., temperature, current, voltage,
ignition from the underground environment. However, or SOC) reach a critical level, the system must be capable of
there are unique issues associated with fighting a fire on a initiating visual and audio alarms to the operator. If the SOC
BEV, which should be identified (i.e., special labelling) to or temperature prevents the battery from absorbing the
protect mine rescue personnel from harm. Depending on regenerative energy, the operator must be warned if the
battery chemistry, uncommon gases could be released into vehicle braking performance will be impacted. This is par-
the ambient atmosphere during normal operation, charg- ticularly important if service brakes use only regenerative
ing, and fire. These gases must be
considered in the mine design (Sec-
tion 8.3).
7. BATTERY ELECTRIC
VEHICLE DESIGN
7.1 Introduction
In addition to electric traction
motor(s), BEVs comprise an opera-
tor interface, braking system, elec-
trical system (including the battery
and BMS), and in some cases, an on-
board charging system (Sec-
tion 9.4.1). Depending upon the
design, a given BEV may use: a
transmission; a clutch, gearbox, dif-
ferential, and fixed gearing; and bat-
tery packs and motors (Figure 9).
Overall, BEV design must integrate
the strong relationship between the
design of the electric motor and
other BEV components.
7.2 Operator Interface

The symbols for operator con-
trols and displays should be
designed in accordance with cur- Figure 9. Representative BEV Block Diagram. Some functions are not indicated for
rent versions of ISO 6405-1:2017 simplicity.

Table 3. Names, topics, and jurisdictions of standards related to BEV design, listed in the order they are cited in this section. Full standard citations are
listed in Section 12.
Recommended Topic Jurisdiction Citation
Industry Standard
ISO 6405-1:2017 Standardizes symbols on operator controls and other International International Organization
displays on multiple types of earth-moving machines for Standardization, 2017a
as defined in ISO 6165:2012
ISO 6405-2:2017 Standardizes symbols on operator controls and other International International Organization
displays on specific machines, equipment, and accessories for Standardization, 2017b
ISO 6165:2012 Terms and definitions and identification structure to International International Organization
classify earth-moving machines for Standardization, 2012a
FMVSS 141 Minimum sound requirements for BEVs to warn persons USA United States National Highway
that BEV is underway Traffic Safety Administration, 2013
ISO 3450:2011 Minimum performance requirements and test procedures International International Organization for
for service, secondary, and parking brake systems of wheeled Standardization, 2011a
and high-speed, rubber-tracked earth moving machines
CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90 Minimum performance criteria for the service braking, Canada CSA Group, 2016a
(R2016) secondary braking, and parking systems for rubber-tired,
self-propelled underground mining machines
ISO 13849-1:2015 Safety requirements and guidance on design and integration International International Organization for
of safety-related parts of control systems, including software Standardization, 2015b
ISO 13849-2:2012 Procedures and conditions to validate̶by analysis and
testing̶specified safety functions, the category achieved, International International Organization for
and the performance level achieved by the safety-related Standardization, 2012b
parts of a control system designed in accordance with
ISO 13849-1:2015
ISO 14990-1:2016 General safety requirements for electrical equipment International International Organization for
and components incorporated into earth-moving machines Standardization, 2016a
ISO 14990-2:2016 Safety requirements for electrical equipment and International International Organization for
components incorporated in externally-powered (mains- Standardization, 2016b
connected or dedicated generators), electrically-driven earth
moving machines
ISO 14990-3:2016 Safety requirements for electrical equipment and components International International Organization for
incorporated in self-powered (utilizing on-board electric power Standardization, 2016c
sources) electrically-driven earth moving machines
ISO 13766-1:2018 Test methods and acceptance criteria for evaluating the International International Organization for
electromagnetic compatibility of earth moving machines Standardization, 2018a
ISO 13766-2:2018 Test methods and acceptance criteria for evaluating the International International Organization for
electromagnetic compatibility of earth moving machines as Standardization, 2018b
defined in ISO 6165:2012
ISO 15998:2008 Performance criteria and tests for functional safety International International Organization for
of safety-related machine-control systems using electronic Standardization, 2008
components in earth moving machines and equipment as
IEC 60068-2-6:2007 Standard procedure to determine the ability of components, International International Electrotechnical
equipment, and other articles to withstand specified Commission, 2007a
severities of sinusoidal vibration
IEC 60050-826:2004 Vocabulary related to electrical installations on residential, International International Electrotechnical
industrial, or commercial premises Commission, 2004
E/ECE/324/Rev.2/ Safety requirements of vehicle electric power train International United Nations, 2013
Add.99/Rev.2
ISO 13850:2015 Functional requirements and design principles for the International International Organization for
emergency stop function on machinery, independent of the Standardization, 2015a
type of energy used
IEC 60204-1:2016 General safety requirements of electrical, electronic, and International International Electrotechnical
programmable electronic equipment and systems to machines Commission, 2016b
not portable by hand while working
UL 2231-1 Requirements to reduce the risk of electric shock to the user USA UL, 2012a
from accessible parts in grounded or isolated circuits
(external to or on-board) for charging BEVs
ISO 6469-3:2011 Requirements for electric propulsion systems and conductively International International Organization for
connected auxiliary electric systems of electrically propelled Standardization, 2011b
road vehicles for the protection of persons inside and outside
the vehicle against electric shock
ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.5 Criteria, test methods, and procedures for classifying International United Nations, 2009
dangerous goods
ST/SG/AC.10/1/Rev.17 Model regulations on the transport of dangerous goods International United Nations, 2011

Table 3. (continued).
Industry Standard
IEEE C95.4-2002 Recommendations to prevent inadvertent detonation International Institute of Electrical and
of electric initiators by radio-frequency electric and Electronics Engineers Standards
magnetic fields generated from transmitting antennas Association, 2002
(0.5 MHz to 300 GHz)
M421-16 Minimum requirements for electrical work and electrical Canada CSA Group, 2016b
equipment operating / intended to operate at a mine
SLP 20 Suggest guidelines for the safe use of commercial electric USA Institute of Makers of Explosives,
detonators near radio frequency energy sources 2011
SLP 22 Recommendations to allow sufficient time in the event
of a transportation incident involving explosive materials USA Institute of Makers of Explosives,
to evacuate bystanders to a safe distance 2007
Directive 2014/35/EU Laws relating to making available on the market electrical European Union Official Journal of the European
equipment designed for use within certain voltage limits Union, 2014
ISO 15817:2012 Safety requirements for remote operator control systems International International Organization for
used on earth-moving machinery as defined in Standardization, 2012c
ISO 6165:2012
ISO 17757:2017 Safety requirements for autonomous and semi- International International Organization for
autonomous machines and systems used in earth- Standardization, 2017c
moving and mining operations
AS/NZS 4240.1:2009 Requirements for the design, construction, testing, Australia and Standards Australia, 2009
installation, commissioning, and modification of remote New Zealand
control systems for mining equipment and machinery
energy and their capacity is affected by the battery SOC. 6. Regenerative braking ‒ The power is returned to the
Alternatively, the regenerative braking functionality can be supply line and ultimately back to the energy storage
automatically turned off before the battery SOC limits system.
brake capacity (Section 7.3). The regenerative braking state 7. Braking resistor ‒ A resistive element used to dissi-
(on or off) should always be clearly displayed on the oper- pate kinetic energy that was transformed into electri-
ator interface. cal energy due to dynamic or regenerative braking.
8. Supply line ‒ The cable supplying power from the
7.3 Braking System battery to the motor inverter.
The vehicle must have a service brake system, a sec- The following should be noted regarding dynamic
ondary braking system, and a park brake system as defined braking:
in ISO 3450:2011 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90 (Table 3). 1. Rheostatic braking must have the capacity to dissi-
Definitions: pate the braking power. Given the current state of the
1. Service brake system ‒ As defined in EN ISO 3450 and technology, this is typically accomplished by the use
CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90; can include electric or electro- of grid brake resistors. In larger BEVs, it may not feasi-
mechanical braking through the application of ble or practical to install this magnitude of brake resis-
dynamic braking. tors.
2. Secondary brake system ‒ As defined in EN ISO 3450 2. Regenerative braking requires reserve battery capacity
and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90. in which energy can be returned to the battery by
3. Park brake system ‒ As defined in EN ISO 3450 and way of the supply line. This requires that the battery
CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90; can include electric or electro- SOC can fully accommodate absorbing this energy at
mechanical braking through the application of all times or the system combines battery capacity and
dynamic braking. grid brake resistor capacity.
4. Dynamic braking ‒ The use of an electric traction 3. An electric traction motor requires an electric supply
motor as a generator when slowing a vehicle such as to hold a vehicle stationary against an external
an electric or diesel-electric locomotive. It can be force. If this electric supply fails, the motor will no
rheostatic, regenerative, or a combination of the two. longer be able to hold the machine stationary. Thus,
5. Rheostatic braking ‒ The generated electrical power if the battery of a BEV is disconnected, the motor
is dissipated as heat in brake grid resistors. will not be able to hold the BEV stationary on a

ramp. The secondary braking system must take over that might be accidentally energized or vulnerable to static
in this scenario. charges.
To be consistent with conventional drivetrains, when
using an electric motor and electrical energy storage sys- 7.4.2 Extraneous Electricity
tem as the main traction drive, any loss of electrical cou- Guidelines should be consulted to ensure that an elec-
pling between the rotor and stator of the electric traction tric detonator is not used if extraneous electricity at the
drive should automatically apply the secondary braking blasting area exceeds a given limit (e.g., 50 mA in the
system in compliance with ISO 3450:2011 and CAN/CSA- United States; Occupational Health and Safety Administra-
M424.3-M90 (Table 3). The secondary braking system tion, 1996).
should be applied automatically following the activation
of a warning after the system senses an unsafe condition 7.4.3 Minimum Distances from Radio Frequency Transmit-
from the battery monitoring system, BMS, or vehicle con- ters
trol system in conjunction with 4.3.2.2 of CAN/CSA- During electric blasting, an employer and a blaster
M424.3-M90. The braking system circuit shall be designed must ensure minimum distances from radio frequency
in accordance to ISO 13849-1 and tested in accordance to transmitters are maintained as detailed in the Standard SLP
ISO 13849-2, ISO 3450:2011 and CAN/CSA-M424.3-M90 20 (Table 3). Recommended minimum distances are 100 m
(Table 3). from a citizens band radio, cellular telephone, satellite tele-
phone or other mobile or portable radio frequency trans-
7.4 Electrical Systems mitter; and… 1000 m from a TV transmitter or an AM, FM or
Safety data sheets for the BEV battery system should be other radio frequency transmitter (Institute of Makers of
made available by the OEM. Electrical systems should be Explosives, 2011).
designed in accordance with ISO 14990-1:2016, ISO 14990-
2:2016, and ISO 14990-3:2016 (Table 3). Applicable local 7.4.4 Transportation of Electric Detonators
codes should also be reviewed and followed. To ensure If electric detonators are in their original containers,
BEVs do not adversely affect nearby equipment, communi- current evidence indicates that radio energy is not a hazard
cation devices, or other microprocessor-controlled devices, in their transportation because the wires are coiled or
they should be designed to conform to ISO 13766-1:2018 folded in a manner that provides highly effective protec-
and ISO 13766-2:2018 (Table 3), which outline require- tion against current induction. Furthermore, most truck
ments and limit values for electromagnetic (EM) emission bodies and freight cars are made of metal; this virtually
and immunity to external EM fields, as well as the proce- eliminates the penetration of radio frequency energy. Elec-
dure and criteria for testing machinery and associated electric detonators not in their original containers must be
trical / electronic systems. transported in a SLP 22 compliant box (Table 3). The barrier
The BMS should be integrated into the BEV design to laminate design of such a box includes a layer of steel or
monitor critical battery operating conditions (e.g., temper- sheet metal, shielding of the detonators from radio fre-
ature, SOC), which would be defined by the type of battery, quency energy. If vehicles equipped with radio transmitters
the battery OEM, and the system integrator or OEM. The are used to transport electric detonators, it is recom-
BMS communicates with charging infrastructure and emer- mended that the transmitter is turned off when the deto-
gency shutdown subsystems (Sections 8.1‒8.3). nators are placed in or taken out of the box. To protect
against shock and friction, the box should be lined with soft
7.4.1 Electrical Interference with Blasting Caps material such as wood or sponge rubber.
The risk of interference with blasting caps is a particular
concern. Recommendations regarding prevention of this 7.5 Shock and Vibration
electrical interference can be found in IEEE C95.4-2002 BEVs should be designed to meet shock and vibration
(Table 3). Standard M421-16 (Table 3) clause 4.7.4.1 states: profiles that align with the anticipated use environment. As
Blasting-circuit conductors shall be kept at least 150 mm a minimum, the requirements of ISO 15998:2008 or
away from power or lighting cables and, where possible, IEC 60068-2-6:2007 (Table 3) should be met.
shall be run on the side of the working opposite power and
lighting circuits. Standard M421-16 clause 4.7.4.3 states: 7.6 Fire Suppression
Blasting-circuit conductors shall not come into contact BEVs should have a fire suppression system appropri-
with pipes, rails, or other electrically conductive materials ate for the vehicle type. Automatic systems should be capa-

ble of being manually activated by the BEV operator. Local ers with a handle and warning label
mining regulations or site level risk assessments may also • Pinch points eliminated if possible
require an automatically activated system. Fire-fighting • Appropriate signage attached for service
information to train operators, mechanical and electrical • Signage to discourage welding or other modifications
personnel, and first responders must be provided by the to the battery and electrical system
OEM. These individuals require distinct training / qualifica- • In the event that a hazardous voltage enclosure can
tion levels within their own category to efficiently and be opened without tools, it should comply with Sec-
safely undertake tasks of varying degree of risk. tion 5.1.1.3 of E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.99/Rev.2 (Table 3)
or be touch-safe
7.7 Accessibility and Service
OEMs and vendors should provide recommended 7.8 Emergency Stop
schedules and procedures for inspecting and maintaining If the hazards and risks inherent to a BEV energy stor-
BEVs and their components. BEVs intended for use in mines age system cannot be eliminated or sufficiently reduced by
should be ruggedly constructed and designed to facilitate safe design, an emergency stop function should be
inspection and maintenance by a skilled person as defined included in the BEV design that complies with
in IEC 60050-826:2004 (Table 3): ISO 13850:2015 (Table 3), which deals with safety aspect(s)
• Components arranged for easy access for inspection or one or more types of safeguard that can be used across
and maintenance a wide range of machinery.
• Lifting points for heavy components, located such that
cables / chains do not interfere with other components 7.9 Master Disconnect
• Proper clearance for inspecting and maintaining com- A BEV should incorporate one or more manual master
ponents disconnect devices (possible configuration illustrated in
• Access openings in enclosures located only where Figure 10), which completely de-energizes a BEV for ser-
necessary for maintenance or inspection vice or storage. When activated, it physically disconnects
• High- and low-voltage components separated all high- and low-voltage sources of electrical energy to
• Enclosures where access is for maintenance personnel the BEV controls and traction system, including protec-
only; barriers, partitions, and covers provided and tive functions such as fire suppression and vehicle
arranged so that testing and troubleshooting can be entrapment prevention. The master disconnect is not
safely conducted required to disconnect electrical connections internal to
• Covers as lightweight as is feasible (i.e., < 1 kg); if cov- the battery system. A master disconnect device incorpo-
ers cannot be lightweight, consider using hinged cov- rates lockout / tagout capability.
Figure 10. Example of a Master Disconnect Device

7.10 Hazardous Voltage Interlock can be one loop covering all components or several loops
A hazardous voltage interlock loop (HVIL) should be covering different parts of the machine. It should be moni-
used to prevent direct exposure of hazardous voltage on tored to detect faults in the circuit. Opening the HVIL loop
BEVs (Figures 11 and 12). It should be used for lids and con- will trigger a power shutoff for the battery power outlet.
nectors that don t fulfill IP class IP2X code (International The shutdown can be delayed to make it possible to reduce
Electrotechnical Commission, 2013a) when open. The HVIL current through power contactor(s). The function may be
Figure 11. Conceptual Diagram of a Hazardous Voltage Interlock Loop (HVIL)
Figure 12. Example of a Hazardous Voltage Interlock Loop (HVIL)

24 ¦ GMG RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN UNDERGROUND MINING
supplemented with discharge function for hazardous volt- high humidity levels, presence of conductive contami-
age to decrease discharge time. A separate circuit can also nants and pollution, and the presence of water or corrosive
be used to monitor harnesses with hazardous voltage that environments.
are protected against direct contact. A fault in such circuit Energy storage systems̶whether within or outside
may only result in a warning. the BEV̶should be protected against fault current and
over-current. An over-current protective device should be
7.11 Insulation / Ground Fault Monitoring in close proximity to the energy storage cells and should
High-voltage energy is always present in a BEV battery not require a current greater than the fault current avail-
system. Insulation systems between the high-voltage bat- able to open. The over-current protective device should be
tery bus and the vehicle chassis protect operators, techni- rated to interrupt the maximum fault current available from
cians, and service personnel from potential shock hazards a fully charged energy storage system.
(e.g., IEC 60204-1:2016, UL 2231-1, and ISO 6469-3:2011; The BEV design should allow for an interlock device to
Table 3). If the insulation system breaks down or if the elec- prevent movement of the BEV while connected to the
trical system is compromised, there is a potential risk of power source, unless the BEV is designed to operate while
electric shock to personnel in contact with the BEV. plugged in (e.g., jumbos).
A BEV should include an insulation monitoring system
to alert personnel to the risk of electric shock due to a com- 7.12.2 BEV Firmware / Software Risk Assessment
promised high voltage electrical system. An insulation Standard industry practice is to complete a risk assess-
monitoring system continuously monitors the path ment when new equipment or technologies are introduced
between the high-voltage electrical system and the vehicle into the mining environment. It is highly recommended
chassis. It alerts personnel that there is a risk of electric that a risk assessment is completed whenever BEVs, charg-
shock if a person comes in contact with a high-voltage con- ing systems, and other BEV support equipment are planned
ductor and the vehicle chassis. If insulation resistance drops for a mine. BEVs often use firmware / software systems to
below a predetermined value (typically 100 ohm/V based monitor, protect, and communicate the state of the battery
on the nominal voltage of the battery system), a visual and system within the vehicle. In these situations, a risk assess-
audible indicator or alarm is activated. ment should include identification and analysis of any
The insulation monitoring system may be tested by firmware / software controls that directly impact critical
connecting an OEM-recommended test impedance functions or identified risks.
between any point on the high-voltage bus and vehicle Differences in design and applications of BEVs mean a
chassis (e.g., ISO 14990-1:2016). If the insulation monitoring detailed recommendation is not possible. Rather, it is recom-
system is working properly, an indicator and / or alarm will mended that during the risk assessment process, mine oper-
become active when the test impedance is applied. Upon ations work closely with the BEV OEMs to identify
detection of an insulation fault, the BEV should be firmware / software-based functions that should be included
inspected and repaired by trained service personnel as in the risk analysis. A firmware / software risk review should
soon as possible. consider (but not be limited to) braking systems, steering
systems, personal protection systems, and fire and other
7.12 Additional Safety Recommendations hazard protection systems. Software risk assessments should
Safety encompasses all components of the BEV for the be performed for all software updates, as well as new equip-
full lifecycle, from commissioning to decommissioning. ment. If it is determined that critical functions are controlled
Therefore, these recommendations are categorized accord- by firmware / software systems, then a deeper analysis of the
ing that cycle. Standards ISO 13849-1:2015 and ISO 13849- identified risks is warranted.
2:2012 (Table 3) cover overall risk assessments.
7.12.3 BEV Operation
7.12.1 BEV Design BEVs are extremely quiet while operating, which repre-
BEVs should be designed to avoid operating modes or sents an advantage over traditional diesel equipment (Sec-
sequences that can cause a fault condition or component tion 5.1), but also presents a safety hazard to personnel
failure leading to a hazard. Components should be near the BEV. BEV design should incorporate warning
selected based on the expected stress levels encountered sounds that can be triggered manually (e.g., horn) or auto-
during the lifetime of the BEV. Stress factors include matically for BEVs travelling in forward or reverse. This has
mechanical vibration, low and high temperatures, low and been mandated to protect pedestrians in the United States

for OEMs of commercial hybrid vehicles and BEVs all the factors typically used in a diesel-powered applica-
(FMVSS 141, Table 3). tion must also be considered. The relevant standards and
The OEM is responsible for providing means and proce- regulations are ISO 15817:2012, ISO 17757:2017, and
dures to remove BEVs stopped due to malfunction or loss AS/NZS 4240.1:2009 (Table 3).
of power. 1. Communicate SOC and warnings to remote operator
See Section 9.2 for operating procedures related to 2. Does charging infrastructure need to be automated or
battery exchange and charging. remotely controlled?
7.12.4 BEV Maintenance 7.12.6 BEV Decommissioning

As noted in Section 7.10, high-voltage energy is always OEMs should ensure that energy systems and service
present in a vehicle battery system. Components may con- components are designed and packaged to meet trans-
tain capacitors or other devices that do not immediately portation regulations applicable to the regions from which
dissipate charges. Even when turned off or de-energized, they are shipped, as well as the region where they are
chemical batteries or capacitors of a BEV energy storage intended to be sold. For guidance, see ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.5
system can present a risk of electric shock and burns by (Section 38.3 therein) and ST/SG/AC.10/1/Rev.17 (Table 3).
high short-circuit current. Battery packs may require special See Section 8.2.9 for additional guidance on BEV compo-
procedures to bring down overall potential to an accept- nent handling at end-of-life.
able service value. Other key considerations for BEV main-
tenance include: 8. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
• OEM(s) should provide procedures for towing to pre-
8.1 Introduction
vent creation of dangerous voltages.
• Service areas on a BEV should be designed to prevent The rechargeable battery is central to BEV operation.
unintentional contact with hazardous moving parts and The battery storage capacity (energy density) limits the
voltages when adjusting or resetting controls or per- range that the BEV can travel between charges (Section 5.1)
forming work similar to that while the BEV is energized. and is thus the main obstacle facing widespread commer-
• Conductors energized with hazardous voltages should cial and mining BEV implementation. Rechargeable lead-
be located behind protective covers that require a acid batteries have changed little since their invention in
tool to access or remove. the late 19th Century. In the past four decades, the drive for
• Warning labels should not be attached to removable smaller, lighter, more efficient, less expensive, and more
protective covers. energy-dense storage systems has driven innovation in
• Service areas accessed without tools containing haz- battery technologies. These needs are even more critical in
ardous voltages after the BEV is turned off should self- mining applications, where BEVs are large, heavy, and have
discharge to a non-hazardous level within 10 seconds high energy demands.
of the BEV being turned off. At the most basic level, a battery is one or more energy
• Service areas containing hazardous voltages after the (voltaic) cells containing a conductive electrolyte to facili-
BEV is turned off and take longer than 10 seconds to tate the movement of ions from the negative terminal
self-discharge, require a manual discharge procedure, or (anode) to the positive terminal (cathode), thereby creating
cannot be discharged to a non-hazardous voltage (e.g., an electrical current. For example, lead-acid batteries often
batteries) should be labelled with a warning symbol contain six cells with metal plates immersed in a water / sul-
and a notice of where to obtain appropriate mainte- furic acid solution (Table 4). Lead-acid batteries have long
nance procedures and should require tools for access.
• Battery electric systems of 75 VDC or higher main sys-
tem voltage should be identified according to Direc- Table 4. Rechargeable battery types (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Lithium-ion_battery; Bandhauer et al. 2011; Recharge, 2013)
tive 2014/35/EU (Table 3).
Type Energy density Voltage
(MJ/kg)
7.12.5 Considerations for Remote Control Lead-acid 0.14 2.1
Several factors must be considered when designing a Nickel cadmium 0.14 1.2
Nickel metal-hydride 0.36 1.2
system to be controlled remotely. This section highlights
Nickel zinc 0.36 1.6
important factors that are unique to̶or may be of special Lithium ion 0.36‒0.900 2.3‒4.2
significance to̶BEV design. The list is not comprehensive:

been̶and continue to be̶used in conjunction with fossil aluminum, or nickel-manganese-cobalt), manganese spinel,
fuels to power cars, boats, and other vehicles. or iron phosphate (Canis, 2013; Recharge, 2013). The cath-
Given the relatively high energy density of LIBs ode is separated from the graphite, carbon, or titanate
(Table 4), they are currently the most common choice for anode by a porous polyethylene or polypropylene mem-
BEV applications. The cathode in LIBs for commercial BEVs brane (Figure 13a). The electrolyte is a mixture of lithium salt
can comprise a metal oxide (nickel, cobalt, nickel-cobalt- and organic solvents in liquid or gel form. Another commer-
cially used battery type is a molten
a) salt battery, where the electrolyte is
sodium chloride that is kept at a
temperature high enough for it to
be liquid (Figure 13b). Additionally,
the possibility of using ultracapaci-
tors (very high capacity electrical
capacitors) has been proposed,
either on their own or in combina-
tion with batteries (Figure 13c).
The BMS is central to the safe
and efficient operation of the bat-
tery. Under the control of a micro-
processor, the BMS monitors the
energy consumed by the BEV during
b) operation, and the battery pack volt-
age, current, SOC, depth of dis-
charge (DOD), and temperature, as
well as individual cell voltages. As
noted in Section 8.1, the BMS also
varies the current being delivered to
the battery during charging. Finally,
the BMS redirects the energy pro-
duced during regenerative braking
to the battery pack.
The BMS contains a significant
amount of data related to the oper-
ation, performance, and health of
c) the battery. While some of the data
are proprietary to the OEM, the rest
can be very valuable to the equip-
ment operator to help them under-
stand how the battery is
performing. A guide to which data
are proprietary vs. available to the
operator can be found in the Global
Mining Guidelines Group (2016).
8.2 Functional Requirements

8.2.1 Accessibility and Service
Only a skilled person (Interna-

Figure 13. Conceptual Sketches of a) Lithium-Ion Batteries, b) Molten Salt Batteries, and c) tional Electrotechnical Commission,
Ultracapacitors 2004) should perform maintenance

and service on batteries. The OEM should provide a preven- High internal temperatures can cause separator failure,
tive maintenance program, including a checklist for inspec- leading to internal short-circuiting. For some chemistries,
tion of battery system and any special repair procedures. internal shorting can lead to thermal runaway, which can
ultimately lead to venting of hazardous and flammable
8.2.2 Thermal Management and Testing gases, venting of flame, and potential explosion of the
Within a battery, heat is generated by the current battery assembly. In addition to posing a safety risk (Sec-
flow (the Joule effect); temperature management is tion 8.3), elevated temperatures accelerate the degrada-
within the purview of the BMS, which monitors the mean tion of capacity and power in LIBs, and can cause charge
battery pack temperature and temperatures of individual imbalance among battery cells.
cells, as well as the intake and output coolant tempera- Active testing of LIB over-temperature functionality
tures if coolant is used. A high-temperature condition should follow E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.99/Rev.2 (Table 5) for
typically is the result of an external heat source or the the thermal shock and cycling test, and the over-tempera-
voltage and / or current being out of the operating range. ture protection test. The ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.5 T.2 thermal
Table 5. Names, topics, and jurisdictions of standards related to energy storage systems, listed in the order they are cited in this section. Full standard
citations are listed in Section 12.
Industry Standard
E/ECE/324/Rev.2/ Safety requirements of vehicle electric power train International United Nations, 2013
Add.99/Rev.2
ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.5 Criteria, test methods and procedures for classifying International United Nations, 2009
dangerous goods
J2288_200806 Standardized test method to determine the expected International SAE International, 2008
life cycles of BEV battery modules
UL 1642 Requirements to reduce the risk of and injury from fire USA UL, 2012b
or explosion when lithium batteries are used or removed
from a product and discarded
UL 2580 Evaluates the ability of the electrical energy storage assembly USA UL, 2013
(e.g., battery packs and combination battery pack-
electrochemical capacitor assemblies and the subassembly /
modules that make up these assemblies for use in BEVs) to
safely withstand simulated abuse conditions and prevents
exposure of persons to hazards as a result of the abuse
CAN/CSA-E62660-1:15 Performance and life testing of rechargeable lithium-ion Canada CSA Group, 2015a
cells for propulsion of BEVs and hybrid electric vehicles
CAN/CSA-E62660-2:15 Test procedures to observe the reliability and abuse behaviour Canada CSA Group, 2015b
of rechargeable lithium-ion cells for propulsion of BEVs and
hybrid electric vehicles
IEC 62133-2:2017 Requirements and tests for safe operation of portable sealed International International Electrotechnical
rechargeable lithium cells and LIBs containing non-acid Commission, 2017
electrolyte
IEC 61508:2010 Aspects to be considered when electrical / electronic / International International Electrotechnical
programmable electronic systems are used to carry out Commission, 2010
safety functions
IEC 62061:2005 Requirements and recommendations for the design, International International Electrotechnical
(plus amendments) integration, and validation of safety-related electrical, Commission, 2015
electronic, and programmable electronic control systems
for machines
US CFR Parts 100‒177 United States Code of Federal Regulations on Transportation USA United States Office of the Federal
Register, 2012
Canada TDG Transportation of dangerous goods regulations Canada Transport Canada, 2016
IMDG 2014, 2016 International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code. IMDG 2014 International International Maritime
in force as of January 2016; IMDG 2016 in force as of Organization, 2017
January 2018
IATA Dangerous International Air Transport Association Dangerous International International Air Transport
Goods Regulations Goods Regulations Association, 2018
ISO 14990-1:2016 General safety requirements for electrical equipment and International International Organization for
components incorporated into earth-moving machines as Standardization, 2016a
ISO 6165:2012 Terms and definitions and an identification structure for International International Organization for
classifying earth-moving machinery Standardization, 2012a

test (Table 5) is similar to the thermal shock test within ity could be open (i.e., via covers or lids with interlock func-
E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.99/Rev.2: the batteries are stored at tionality) or closed, so that only OEM personnel have
72°C for 6 hours and then at ‒40° C for 6 hours for 10 cycles. authorization to open the enclosure (e.g., for battery main-
They must exhibit no leaking, venting, disassembly, rup- tenance or repair). Other battery system enclosure consid-
ture, or fire, and voltage cannot fall to less than 90% of the erations include:
original voltage. • Venting requirements based on energy storage chem-
istry
8.2.3 Cycle Performance and Battery Life • Temperature monitoring
Battery system cycle performance is a key metric of • Arduous underground mining conditions
battery life. Standard test procedures in J2288_200806 • Mounting for shock and vibration
(Table 5) should be used to determine the expected ser- • Material for wet, corrosive environment
vice life̶in cycles̶of BEV battery modules. Testing bat- • Appropriate clearances from battery cells / packs
tery systems under a standard procedure yields results that • Designated lifting points of energy storage modules
can be compared among systems within the same mine or
among different mines. Underground and surface BEV 8.2.7 Extreme Temperature Considerations
operational profiles likely differ. Specific testing (e.g., DOD, Operating a BEV in temperatures outside the normal
SOC, operating temperature) may be performed to better operating zone of the battery chemistry will almost always
understand battery life under specific conditions. Certain be a compromise between 1) reduced range and 2) requir-
battery types are better suited to unique underground ing a larger capacity energy storage system to offset the
usage profiles that are not captured in J2288_200806 parasitic draw from the additional systems required to raise
(Table 5). These conditions and usage profiles should be or lower temperatures to bring the battery into the desired
defined and additional testing procedures may be applied operational span.
to the systems to better estimate battery system life. The Modern diesel engines are more mechanically efficient
following standards are relevant to design and testing of than ever, yet they only convert approximately 44% of the
battery systems: E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.99/Rev.2, UL 1642, fuel s energy into mechanical work: 56% is converted to
UL 2580, CAN/CSA-E62660-1:15, CAN/CSA-E62660-2:15, heat. This waste heat helps offset the adverse effects of the
and IEC 62133-2:2017 (Table 5). cold and improves operator comfort. By contrast, electric
motors typically have mechanical efficiencies exceeding
8.2.4 Fire Prevention and Suppression 90%. Thus, at most 10% of the energy is converted into
The battery should have a fire suppression system heat. Many battery chemistries and electrical components
designed based on E/ECE/324/Rev.2/Add.99/Rev.2 on BEVs are temperature sensitive and can be irreparably
(Table 5). damaged if subjected to temperature extremes. A suitably
designed BEV considers the effects of low ambient temper-
8.2.5 Automatic Shutdown ature, not only on the energy storage and tractive systems,
Depending on the battery type, operating parameters but on the passenger compartment heating and window
such as temperature, current, voltage, and SOC need to be defrosting systems.
constantly monitored and maintained within certain val- Conversely, in extreme heat conditions, cooling the
ues. For LIBs, exothermic reactions from over-charge and battery can be a challenge. The upper limit of several pop-
over-discharge can lead to thermal runaway and destabi- ular chemistries can be near ambient air temperature,
lize chemicals in the battery. The BMS will typically monitor which may not leave a large enough delta for a traditional
these operating parameters across all battery cells and radiator system to be effective. In these instances, a more
automatically shut down the battery system by disconnect- advanced cooling strategy (e.g., heat pump system) may be
ing the main battery contactors if operating parameters needed.
exceed allowable operating parameters. The automatic
shutdown of the system should be designed and tested to 8.2.8 Storage
comply with IEC 61508:2010 and IEC 62061:2005 (Table 5). The maximum number of batteries stored and storage
procedures in a particular location should be confirmed
8.2.6 System Enclosure with the local authority. Protection and isolation during
Generally, ingress protection specifications for the bat- storage should follow M421-16 (Table 3). The battery sys-
tery system enclosure are supplied by the OEM. Accessibil- tem or BEV OEM should fully define the storage conditions

for battery packs or components of interest̶any devices considered early in the planning process due to the com-
containing battery cells that can be damaged or become plexity of transportation regulations and the potential
inoperable by the effects of long-term storage: costs of disposal.
1. Storage temperature range, ideal storage temperature Recycling of lithium ion cells is an alternative to dis-
2. Component life without periodic SOC / state of health posal as waste; however, recycling LIBs at present is likely to
check provide more ecological than economical benefits. The
3. Component life with periodic SOC / state of health check wide range of materials present within a lithium ion cell,
4. Maintenance intervals and documented procedures materials used in the battery system packaging, and the
5. Equipment required to maintain the components dur- potential for the cells to hold significant amounts of
ing storage stranded energy together make recycling a complicated
OEMs should supply documented procedures for han- process. It is anticipated that as LIB systems become more
dling damaged battery systems or system components. prevalent (especially in the automotive industry), new bat-
Potentially hazardous system components should be iden- tery construction techniques and recycling processes will
tified if separate from the system as a whole. These docu- improve the economics of recycling.
ments outline safe handling and storage practices for A third option to consider at end-of-life̶commonly
battery systems that have been physically damaged or referred to as second life ̶is becoming available. Battery
subjected to high or low temperatures, flooding, or other systems at end-of-life often have 70‒80% of their storage
forms of abuse. Procedures should provide instruction for capacity. Used, undamaged LIB systems are finding a sec-
the safe reduction of stored energy (discharging) and veri- ond life in applications such as power grid stabilization sys-
fication that the battery is in a safe state. Specialized tems and residential photovoltaic storage systems and
equipment (pack discharge resistors) for preparing and could last many years at this reduced capacity. Similar to
handling damaged battery systems should be provided by recycling of LIBs, the market for these second life applica-
the OEM. tions has not yet fully matured. LIB systems have become
more prevalant in propulsion systems; therefore, a signifi-
8.2.9 End-of-Life cant increase in the quantity of battery sytems available for
Energy storage systems in BEVs have a limited life and second life applications will follow and will likely drive
will eventually wear out. End-of-life for the battery system growth in second life applications.
or individual replaceable components of the system The significant amounts of energy in a worn-out bat-
should be fully defined by the OEM. When a BEV energy tery system and the presence of materials that may require
system reaches end-of-life, it should be properly decom- special handling, recycling, or disposal methods based on
missioned and disposed of in accordance with local laws. local laws are key safety considerations. Mine operators
In some situations, the OEM may be able to rebuild the should never attempt to disassemble, dispose of, rebuild,
battery system and bring it back to compliance with spec- or repurpose a battery system without contacting the OEM
ifications. Regardless of the approach taken, before the for instructions. Disposal / recycling and transportation
battery system is transported, it will need to be packaged methods at the battery system end-of-life should always be
and labelled according to requirements, which vary by made in consultation with the battery system OEM and
geographic location. The battery system OEM should be local laws. Components containing hazardous materials
contacted for detailed instructions. While not universal, should be properly labelled to avoid improper disposal.
many transportation regulations, including the United OEMs should label energy storage systems to alert to own-
States Department of Transportation, Canada Transporta- ers of the need for special packaging, transport, and dis-
tion of Dangerous Goods, International Maritime Danger- posal procedures. The energy storage system labelling
ous Goods Code, and Australian Code for Transport of should also include OEM contact information.
Dangerous Goods, as well as the International Air Trans-
port Association Dangerous Goods Regulations require 8.3 Safety Requirements
use of packaging designed and tested to the United
8.3.1 Hazard Conditions: Causes and Effects
Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Danger-
ous Goods, Model Regulations (Section 38.3 for lithium Hazard identification analyzes how batteries interact
metal batteries and LIBs). Whereas disposal of used bat- with their environment. For LIBs, the following hazard con-
tery systems may not be a primary consideration in plan- ditions are identified during charging, discharging (BEV
ning a battery electric mine, a plan for disposal should be operation), and storage (Table 6):

Table 6. Hazard conditions for lithium ion batteries (Mikolajczak, Kahn, White, & Long, 2011).
Hazard Cause Comments
Thermal runaway Over-charge, over-voltage Can cause lithium plating, where lithium ions deposit dendritic
metallic lithium on the anode, leading to a potential short-circuit.
Over-temperature (70°
C) Can also lead to increased temperatures.
Can cause degradation of the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer on
the anode, which if breached, allows the electrolyte to react with the
anode in a high-temperature exothermic reaction. Does not apply to
lithium titanate anodes, which do not depend on the SEI layer.
Over-discharge, under-voltage Can cause anode copper to dissolve in the electrolyte, which may form
dendritic metallic copper when the cell voltage is increased, leading to
potential short-circuit.
Over-current, rapid charge and discharge High currents can increase the temperature of the cells. See over-temperature.
Internal short-circuit due to cell defect Possible defects include: component deformation, blocked separator
pores, uneven anode coating, uneven contact between separator and
anode, delamination of current collector, contamination, and dry electrolyte.
Internal short-circuit due to lithium Caused by over-charge or over-discharge.
plating, precipitated anode copper
Mechanical damage, abuse Puncturing a cell would damage the SEI layer on the anode and cause
a high-temperature exothermic reaction between the anode and electrolyte.
External heat source, fire See over-temperature.
Venting Thermal runaway Breakdown of organic solvents in the electrolyte into highly toxic and
flammable gases.
Combustion Thermal runaway May occur when the flammable gases are released and mix with
of battery cells oxygen if the temperature is high enough or if there is an external
sources of heat or spark.
Rapid disassembly of Thermal runaway, poor venting Battery module may explode if the gases produced during thermal
battery module runaway are not allowed to vent to the atmosphere.
Venting with flame, Thermal runaway, high temperature, External sources of heat or spark near battery vents.
ignition of vented gas external spark
1. Charging or discharging at low temperature undetected and initiate thermal runaway. During a thermal
2. Over-voltage (over-charge) runaway, the high heat of the failing cell can propagate to
3. Under-voltage (over-discharge) the next cell, causing it to become thermally unstable as
4. Overloading (over-current) well. In some cases, a chain reaction occurs, in which each
5. Over-temperature cell disintegrates at its own timetable. A battery pack can
6. External short-circuit be destroyed within a few seconds or linger for several
7. Internal short-circuit hours as cells are consumed one-by-one. To increase safety,
8. External heating some packs may be fitted with dividers to prevent cell fail-
9. Chemical reactions ure from spreading to neighboring cells.
10. Mechanical crush, shock, penetration, or rupture of a Another safety issue is cold temperature charging.
cell resulting in liquid or flammable / toxic gas release Some LIBs cannot be charged below 0° C. Although the
The likelihood of the above risks depends on the battery packs appear to be charging normally, plating of metallic
chemistry and how the OEM battery design mitigates and lithium occurs on the anode during a sub-freezing charge.
addresses the risks. The plating is permanent and cannot be removed. If done
The cumulative effects of electrical and chemical haz- repeatedly, cold temperature charging can compromise
ard conditions can lead to thermal runaway (Section 8.2.2). the safety of the pack, making the battery more vulnera-
Potential effects of these hazard conditions are gas release, ble to failure if subjected to impact, crush, or high-rate
heat release, fire, and corrosive electrolyte release. These charging.
hazards are strongly linked to thermal runaway. Gas release
can lead to elevated levels of carbon monoxide and diox- 8.3.2 Hazard Condition Monitoring, Prevention, and Miti-
ide, hydrogen gas, methane, ethane, ethylene, propylene, gation
and hydrogen fluoride (Recharge, 2013). In addition, gases Temperature detection by the BMS must be adequate
can combust at gas temperatures exceeding 350° C. to identify dangerous temperatures in the battery pack, that
An internal short-circuit caused by contamination dur- is, there must be a sufficient number of temperature sensors
ing manufacture with microscopic metal particles can go next to battery cells. Sensor data are used to prevent hazard

conditions 1‒5 in Section 8.3.1 by notifying the BEV control life (Section 8.2.9). Applicable regulations depend on the
unit to take corrective action and cause an alarm if battery geographical region(s) among which batteries are being
temperature is out of safe operating range. Actions could be transported and the battery chemistry. Regardless of the
to request the BEV to stop using the battery, control ambi- quantity of batteries or transportation method, the most
ent heating or cooling, or as a last measure, open the bat- recent versions of local transportation authorities should
tery contactors. Hazard condition 6 is prevented by fusing. be consulted for guidance, as well as the OEM. Transporta-
Hazard conditions 7‒10 are prevented by appropriate bat- tion regulations ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.5, US CFR Parts 100‒
tery mechanical protection, usage, and handling. 177, Canada TDG, IMDG 2014, 2016, and IATA Dangerous
Hazard conditions during charge, discharge, and stor- Goods Regulations (Table 5) should be consulted before
age can be prevented by avoiding exposing batteries to transporting batteries, battery systems, and BEVs and spare
heat and fire (e.g., welding on or near batteries) and electri- parts containing batteries.
cal abuse (Recharge, 2013). In the event of a hazard condi- Damaged or suspect batteries may usually be trans-
tion, mitigation measures reduce sensitivity, reduce the ported similarly to known good batteries; additional precau-
reaction (e.g., manage fire and fume emissions), and break tions usually apply. Local regulations̶including those listed
the reaction chain (e.g., neutralize corrosive electrolyte above̶may require special labelling and packaging of the
spills) (Recharge, 2013). battery or battery system to provide additional layers of pro-
During battery swap-out, a combination of intrinsically tection. Regardless of how minimal the severity of damage to
safe connections (touch safe, fail safe and redundant sys- a battery or battery system, local transportation authorities
tems) and procedures must ensure isolation of high poten- and the OEM should be consulted for transportation guid-
tial cell groups down to a more acceptable energy level ance for damaged or suspect batteries or battery systems.
when true zero energy is not possible.
Battery maintenance procedures by a skilled person 9. CHARGING SYSTEMS
(International Electrotechnical Commission, 2004) should
9.1 Introduction
ensure proper isolation of high potential cell groups down
to a more acceptable energy level when true zero energy is Since chargers are an integral part of the BEV system,
not possible. Access for battery maintenance should be the charging philosophy (Section 6.5.2) needs to be estab-
limited through the use of labels and the requirement for lished and understood early in the charging system design
tools. Welding on or near batteries should only be done process and by all participants of the mine design team.
after consultation with the OEM. Charging mining BEVs presents challenges absent from
It should be noted that some failure modes, such as the commercial BEV world. The equipment is much larger
dendrite formation and subsequent internal short-circuit, and heavier. Batteries on most mining BEVs require a much
cannot be completely detected or prevented, and the sta- higher capacity. The mine environment can be hostile, with
tistical likelihood is that they will eventually occur. OEMs rough roadways, temperature extremes, dust, vibration, and
should provide a response plan for these events and their concussion from blasting. An element that the two environ-
effects. ments share is a great variety in BEVs. A given mine will likely
employ BEVs from several OEMs, each with different sizes,
8.3.3 Transportation battery types, and usage profiles (e.g., Table 7). Thus, a
Packaging, labelling, and notification precautions must major hurdle to overcome when introducing BEVs into a
be taken when transporting batteries for use or at end-of- mine is a strategy for charging all BEVs. As noted in Sec-
Table 7. Example of fleet vehicles

Equipment Fleet Power Loaded weight Battery Range for 15% grade
(kW) (kg) (kWh) (km)
Haulage / water trucks 8 300 60,000 400 8
LHD machines 14 250 60,000 200 4
Graders 1 100 20,000 200 12
Drill and bolters 12 125 25,000 100 4
Emulsion loaders 4 150 15,000 100 8
Large utility vehicles 15 150 15,000 100 8
Small utility vehicles 30 100 5,000 50 12

tion 6.5.2.1, a simple and standardized charging interface is 9.2 Safety Considerations
key to making BEV charging simple, convenient, and safe. While working with the charging system and in or near
Although OEMs have their own packaging specifica- the BEV, workers are exposed to EM radiation. The Interna-
tions and requirements, mine-specific packaging require- tional Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
ments need to be communicated to the OEM to prevent has several guidelines regarding magnetic field exposure
damage to the charging system during transport to the (http://www.icnirp.org/). Based on commercial BEVs, health
mine. Once the charging system is delivered to the mine, risks associated with direct EM radiation exposure appear
constraints on transport (e.g., tipping, vibration shock, and to be low. Digital communication devices also emit EM
fit within the mine conveyance system) need to be radiation. As their use grows, it is increasingly important to
imposed. Before installation, standardized markings would limit EM emissions. Chargers should be compliant with
need to be added to the charger to: regional EM emission and susceptibility standards (Table 8).
• Identify the device as a BEV charger The charger‒BEV interface is a point of interaction
• Identify energy storage type / chemistry compatibility between the charging system and BEV operators, who are
• Provide icon-based operating instructions (step 1, 2, 3, accustomed to diesel-based mining equipment. Safety fea-
etc.) tures must be compliant with regional safety standards
• Indicate regional standards for installation and opera- (Table 8). Ergonomic functionality must be designed to pre-
tion vent shock and mechanical hazards and avoid physical risk
The jurisdiction has a significant effect on the electrical when workers install, connect, operate, disconnect, and
and safety standards to which the BEV chargers̶and maintain the (initially unfamiliar) charger system. Training
indeed BEVs themselves̶should be designed. In many programs are essential to safely operate the charging sys-
locations, an electrical code is in effect. Typically, an tem, and avoid collisions and pedestrian interactions in the
authority having jurisdiction enforces the electrical code, charging area. This section details safety features that
often through a permitting and / or inspection process. should be universal among charging systems and safety
Design and construction of the chargers should be such features for specific charger types.
that they meet the appropriate electrical standards
(Table 8). Further, the final installation of the chargers 9.2.1 Installation
should respect the local practices, and undergo any Key features should be considered for the charging
approvals or inspections that may be necessary. area before installation:
Table 8. Names, topics, and jurisdictions of standards related to chargers, listed in the order they are cited in this section. Full standard citations are listed
in Section 12.
Industry Standard
IEEE-519-2014 Establishes goals for design of electrical systems that include International Institute of Electrical and
both linear and nonlinear loads Electronics Engineers Standards
Association, 2014
IEC 62196-1:2014 Applies to plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors, vehicle International International Electrotechnical
inlets and cable assemblies for BEVs Commission, 2014a
IEC 62196-2:2016 Applies to plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and International International Electrotechnical
vehicle inlets with pins and contact-tubes of standardized Commission, 2016a
configuration
IEC 62196-3:2014 Applies to vehicle couplers with pins and contact-tubes International International Electrotechnical
of standardized configuration Commission, 2014b
SAE J1772_201710 General physical, electrical, functional, and performance North America SAE International, 2017
requirements to facilitate conductive charging of BEVs and
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
IEC 61851-23:2014 Requirements for the control of communication between International International Electrotechnical
the DC charger and the BEV Commission, 2014c
DIN SPEC 70121 Specifies the DC-specific communication between the BEV Europe Deutsches Institut für Normung
and the supply equipment e. V., 2014
SAE J3105 [WIP] Electric vehicle power transfer system using a mechanized International SAE International, 2012
coupler
IEC 60664-1:2007 Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage International International Electrotechnical
systems Commission, 2007b
IEC 60364-5-52:2009 Selection and erection of wiring systems International International Electrotechnical
Commission, 2009

• Ventilation / cooling system lines to minimize these risks. The overall goal is to ensure a
• Clearly identified parking spaces for BEV safe charge via sufficient handshaking, communication,
• Drainage system and sump to limit mud and water in self-tests, and ramp up of the charging process.
the charging area, especially after washing down
• Overhead support of charging cable (if required) 9.2.2 Operation and Maintenance
• Protection of charge cable from abrasion The charger connector cannot be removed until the
• Remote emergency off switch near the charger, out- charger is turned off and similarly, charging cannot be initi-
side potential hazard zone ated if the connector is unlocked. If the lock is opened dur-
• Upstream, overcurrent protection device to supply ing charging, power flow must be stopped immediately to
the charger prevent arcing and lethal shocks.
• Upstream or integrated earth leakage / ground fault If the BMS detects a fault / problem during the charge
(GF) protection device (GF circuit interrupter) process (e.g., battery gets too hot or the cooling system is
• Ground path not working), the vehicle BMS must report to the charger
‒ Charger is tied to mine ground grid and stop the charge. In addition to the BMS, the charger
‒ When plugged in, BEV has a path to ground via must have features to protect itself if the connection to bat-
charge cable tery is faulted. In case of charger input power failure, the
• Protection against ingress of dirt and water into charger will prevent back-feed of power by physically iso-
charger connectors lating the BEV from the charger at the DC output on the
It is important that the selected charger is compatible charger.
with the energy storage type and chemistry in use at the Maintenance should be performed according to OEM
mine and is rated for the appropriate charging rate (slow recommendations.
or fast). If cooling is provided, ratings with and without
cooling (chemistry related) need to be considered. 9.3 Incoming Power System
Chargers should accommodate the different types of bat- The power system in an underground mine often
teries in use, such as LIBs and molten salt batteries. With extends to great depths and distances, providing power for
DC charging (off-board), the BMS of the BEV is in master all underground loads (e.g., ventilation fans, dewatering
mode. Therefore a variety of chemistries can be charged, pumps, and mobile equipment). These loads can be large
as long as appropriate standards are implemented. and start and stop frequently during a day. As noted in Sec-
The installation of the charger should comply with tion 6.5.5.5, chargers produce undesirable harmonic fre-
local codes (Table 8). Further considerations for the charg- quencies that interfere with other devices and degrade the
ing station include: power quality. Harmonic frequencies in power systems
• Adequate space for personnel to safely operate and cause heating of equipment and conductors. As a rule of
maintain thumb, the power system should provide a fault current
• Level floors that can be easily cleaned (concrete if that is approximate 20 times the FLA of the charger (Insti-
possible) tute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Asso-
• Adequate visibility and lighting of battery charger ciation, 2014). The impact of the ventilation and other
controls contributors should be integrated into the harmonic study.
• Compatibility with planned type of charging system See Section 6.5.5 for further details on power system
(i.e., fixed, cable connected / temporary, or fixed for design.
operation but easily transported to other areas) The power requirements for a specific charger will be
There may be value in installing the power electronics specified by the OEM. Additional considerations are as fol-
in a dedicated charger electrical room. A decentralized lows:
human-machine interface would then be installed at the • Distribution equipment located within a distance that
charging area. Be aware that voltage drop may be an issue. ensures system strength
An alternative is to move the charger around as needed̶ • Generally, mine power distribution systems with
subject to the mining strategy in use. chargers should comply with IEEE-519-2014 (see Table
Given how often BEV batteries require recharging, 8 above).
exposure to potential hazards frequently occurs when • Incoming short-circuit rating / withstand capability
workers connect, operate, and disconnect the charging sys- • Input power requirements: voltage, current, fre-
tem. This section includes design and procedural guide- quency, phases, grounding, and isolation

• Voltage fluctuations and other typical mine power When first considering BEVs in a mine, one approach
challenges in the mine grid might be to adapt mobile equipment connectors for drills
and bolters in diesel-based mines to charging BEVs. This
9.4 Types of Charging and Connection Interfaces seems to be straightforward: it requires very little fixed
infrastructure, the BEV OEM would supply everything on
9.4.1 On-Board Charging from Alternating Current (AC)
Supply the BEV (including an on-board charger), and it would sim-
ply be a case of connecting the charger to the AC supply to
As described below, the charger system is not a consid- charge the equipment. In addition to the AC supply, a pilot
eration for on-board charging from an AC supply (Figure 14) circuit should be considered when the charging power
because the charger is on the BEV. The output cable chosen increases. Given that it is hard to tell when charging is
is specific to the local conventions of a given mine / jurisdic- occurring, there is a risk of arcing if the plug is disconnected
tion. The AC feed could be via a jumbo cable connection during a high power charge. Live parts of the connector
or dedicated disconnect̶as chosen by the customer of should also be protected with an automatic shutoff or
BEV OEM. The cord set should be easily replaceable, in case appropriate ingress protection to prevent undesired con-
it is damaged or needs to be longer (i.e., better to use a tact. Although on-board charging for the entire fleet might
longer cord rather than adding an extension). appear to be the most convenient and simple option, OEMs
With an on-board charging from AC supply arrange- for on-board charging BEV and drivetrain have identified
ment, the connection to the BEV is via an AC plug (Fig- several concerns (Section 9.4.1.4).
ure 14). Equipment for converting AC to DC is located on
board the BEV and consists minimally of power electronics 9.4.1.2 Charging interface During charging, a connector car-
for rectification and regulation. In addition, a transformer rying AC is brought to the BEV. Because the power conver-
may be required to step the voltage up or down and pro- sion equipment is on board the BEV, so too is most
vide some isolation from the fixed power system. communication needed to regulate charge rates. This mini-
mizes the amount of communication needed through the
9.4.1.1 Design considerations The mine design must connector between the mobile and stationary equipment.
include AC connections where BEVs will be parked, similar For commercial BEVs, on-board charging is generally
to what is traditionally done with diesel vehicles. The BEV used for low-rate charging (e.g., at the owner s home or
design requires an integrated charger on the BEV, with the business). Connector types are defined by IEC 62196-
plug type chosen that is specific to the mine / jurisdiction. 1:2014, IEC 62196-2:2016, and IEC 62196-3:2014 (Table 8)
The charging system is not a consideration because the and vary depending on locale. For North America, BEVs
charger is on the BEV. All of the responsibility for perfor- have standardized on the IEC 62196 Type 1 (SAE J1772)
mance is in the hands of the BEV OEM. connector (Table 8; Figure 15). The five pins have three
Figure 14. Typical On-Board Charging Arrangement

sizes, from largest to 4. With high-capacity chargers, the power electronics

smallest: AC line 1 and must be cooled while the charge is underway.
line 2; ground pin; prox- 5. Each BEV would likely have a customized charger,
imity detection and con- increasing the spare parts inventory, maintenance
trol pilot. The connector requirements, and repair difficulty compared to stan-
is capable of delivering dardized off-board chargers.
80 A at 240 volts AC 6. The power of an on-board charger has practical limits.
(VAC; 1 Phase), which The more advanced commercial BEV industry has taken
provides up to 19.2 kW an off-board approach for high-capacity charging.
Figure 15. SAE J1772 Connector of power. In Europe, a 7. Conventional underground mining AC connections
(SAE International, 2017) higher capacity Type 2 might not have an interlock system to prevent the
connector is employed, BEV from moving when plugged in.
supporting a higher voltage but lower current, delivering These issues can probably be resolved when consider-
up to 22 kW. ing a smaller charger (<100 kW). However, many issues
The signalling over the IEC 62196 connectors for AC could become prohibitive as the capacity of the charger
charging is limited to: increases. Even in cases where issues can be resolved, costs
1. Determining whether the plug is inserted into the BEV tend to increase because each BEV needs to be equipped
2. Indicating to the BEV the available mains current, so with a charger. Further, design difficulties increase because
the BEV does not attempt to draw more current than OEM engineers must balance battery and charger size, and
the charging station is able to deliver charge equipment cooling and protection̶all while trying
Another option for on-board charging is to use conven- to find space for the charger on the various mobile plat-
tional underground mining AC plugs. forms.
9.4.1.3 Advantages of on-board charging 9.4.2 Off-Board Charging of On-Board Batteries

1. The charger is carried with the BEV, eliminating the The off-board charging arrangement locates the trans-
need to install a separate enclosure within the mine formers and rectification equipment in a fixed enclosure
to house the charger. removed from the BEV (Figure 16).
2. The charging location is more flexible. A dedicated
charging unit in a particular location is not needed to 9.4.2.1 Design considerations The mine design must
execute a charge. include charging stations where BEVs will be parked. The
3. OEMs are free to optimize the charger and battery BEV design must specify the charger protocol / plug type
arrangement to suit the BEV. (Section 9.4.1.2). The charging system design must meet
4. Handshaking and communications between the BEV specific protocol / plug type, or be proprietary and compat-
and the stationary connection are minimized or elimi- ible between BEV and charging system.
nated. Several kilometres of travel ways will be developed in
an underground mine during its operating life. As such,
9.4.1.4 Disadvantages of on-board charging both the charging method and location of charging instal-
1. It is difficult for BEV OEMs to accommodate batteries and lations must be taken into account. For static charging
drivetrain equipment on large equipment such as LHD (charging that works only while the BEV is stationary), ded-
machines and haulage trucks. A large capacity, on-board icated and strategically positioned BEV charging locations
charger̶including power electronics (and sometimes a would be required throughout the mine. Integrating stan-
transformer)̶adds to this challenge. Ergonomics and dardized charging interfaces would allow different types of
operator visibility may be compromised. BEVs to charge at the nearest available charging location,
2. The added weight and volume of the on-board negating the need for the BEV to return to a dedicated
charger consumes space and may limit the range of charger. Static charging may be best-suited to charging
the BEV. mobile BEVs that do not have limited or restricted move-
3. The charging equipment remains with the BEV, where ments. By comparison, dynamic charging (while the vehicle
it is exposed to dust, temperature extremes, vibra- is moving) would help prevent limited range issues associ-
tions, and other harsh operational conditions. ated with BEVs. Dynamic charging would be better suited

Figure 16. Off-Board Charging Arrangement
to tram haulage scenarios, where the mode of operation is on-board charging, where communication over the con-
continuous and repetitive. nector is limited to initial handshaking.
Regardless of the method chosen, the charger loca- To date, there is little sign the automotive industry is
tions should provide for wayside equipment, as well as ease converging on one standard charger. Thus, OEMs have
of access for equipment maintenance and inspection. A responded by accommodating multiple standards on a sin-
typical off-board charging arrangement locates wayside gle charger. At least four connector types are in use.
equipment such as transformers, charging pads, cooling 1. More than 10,000 CHAdeMO connectors have been
units and rectification equipment in a fixed enclosure installed to date worldwide (Figure 17). This connec-
removed from the BEV. tor has found widespread acceptance in Japan, along
the west coast of North America, and in some parts of
9.4.2.2 Charging interface Europe. Chargers are currently limited to 62.5 kW
(125 A at 500 VDC), though the connector is rated for
9.4.2.2.1 Manually operated connection interface
up to 100 kW (200 A at 500 VDC).
The power electronics for converting AC line voltage to
DC for charging is housed within stationary equipment
next to the BEV. Hence, a DC connector is used. Overall, the
application of off-board charging in mines is an evolving
situation. Ultimately, multiple connectors may be required.
While the charge is taking place, the BEV BMS needs to
constantly vary the current delivered. The BMS monitors
the energy consumed by the BEV while being driven, as
well as temperature, individual cell voltages, and total pack
voltage. During charging, the same process is monitored in
reverse, creating a safety net in the event of problems with
a single cell within the battery pack. Typically, at up to 80%
SOC, the BEV will demand relatively high amounts of
power. Demand will taper off as the charge progresses into
the final phases to prevent damage to battery packs. Since
the BEV is requesting the changes in charge rate and the
charger is varying the rate, a robust means of communicat-
ing between the two units is essential. This contrasts with Figure 17. CHAdeMO Connector (reprinted from Kane, 2016)

2. There are two versions of CCSs̶Type 1 and Type 2̶ • Uncertain whether ratings are acceptable for use in a
which differ only in the physical connector. North mine
American automakers favour Type 1 and European • No environmental protection
automakers favour Type 2 CCSs (Section 9.4.1.2) with
two DC pins added (Figure 18). The SAE J1772-based 9.4.2.2.1.1 Recommendation for standardization
connector (Table 8) is rated for 350 kW with a range of A standardized, non-proprietary charger interface is vital
200‒1,000 VDC, while Type 2 is suitable for up to to control charging cost and complexity. The best way to
350 kW (500 A at 1,000 VDC). standardize a charger interface for mining is to use one from
3. China has implemented a separate GB/T type connec- the automotive industry. As of now, the CCS is the most
tor, capable of 187.5 kW (250 A at 750 VDC; Figure 18). widely adopted standard among automotive OEMs and can
be adapted for use in mines. It has the following advantages:
• Physical interface and communication protocol are
designed to allow a robust and safe connection
between the charger and the BEV.
• It is capable of DC-charging up to 1,000 V; other sys-
tems can only charge up to about 500 V, which is not
enough for large mining BEVs.
• The CCS cable assembly has current ratings up to 200
A, which enables up to 350 kW charging power.
Emerging liquid-cooled cable assembly technology
will allow higher current values, while keeping cable
maneuverability and ease of handling.
• The latest CCS standard enables up to 500 A, for 500
Figure 18. CCS Type Connectors (reprinted from Phoenix kW charging.
Contact, 2018) • A new version (CCS 3.0), currently in draft form, will
allow for wireless communication, inductive charging,
4. Tesla Motors has developed a proprietary supercharger reverse power transfer, and pantographs.
system that is exclusive to their vehicle line; they are It is not possible to implement either Type 1 or Type 2 CCS
installing a network of such charging stations through- world-wide due to availability and certification require-
out North America, capable of delivering up to 120 kW. ments. We recommend use of the CCS type applicable to
For DC chargers that use a cable and plug to connect to your region.
a BEV, a rugged armoured charger output cable should be
selected. The cord set should be as short as possible and 9.4.2.2.1.2 Communication protocol
have sheathing or other protective measures. To prevent Communication protocols include controller area net-
damage when the cable is not in use, a retraction system, work (CAN) or powerline communication (PLC). PLC carries
control device, or hanger should be considered. the following benefits:
The CHAdeMO and CCS Type 1 or Type 2 connectors • It leverages automotive standard chargers
have the following advantages: • PLC interfaces are available for purchase
• Proven performance in automotive industry • PLC is an established communications framework for
• Locking connector BEVs
• Relatively lightweight and manageable • Standards IEC 61851-23:2014 and DIN SPEC 70121
• Easy to maintain (Table 8) are now being chosen as industry standards
• Readily available spare parts in the bus and port equipment industries
• Various scenarios can be tested out of the box (e.g., • Standard SAE J3105 (Table 8) electric vehicle power
insertion / removal testing) transfer system using a conductive overhead autocon-
Disadvantages include: nect charging device is currently in preparation for
• Automotive connectors are plastic, which is often not release in late 2018 or early 2019.
rugged enough for mine duty The parameters to be exchanged between vehicle and
• CHAdeMO voltage (500 VDC) is not high enough for changing stations for the CCS can be found in the OEM CCS
mining applications protocol and at https://charinev.org.

9.4.2.2.2 Automated coupler devices ure 19 right). In the charging station, communication is
Automatic charging interfaces are not standard nor established between the BEV and the charger. An overhead
interoperable: it is recommended to use the same charging connection is lowered onto the BEV via a pantograph, mat-
interface OEM for both halves of the interface to ensure ing with the charging rails. After completing a safety check,
safe operation. Characteristics to consider when choosing a the charge is initiated. In general, the charge rate of the
connection interface are: pantograph arrangement is high (150‒450 kW) and is
• Rated voltage according to IEC 60664-1:2007 (Table 8) expected to increase. Several electric bus and infrastructure
[CAT III, Pollution Degree 3] manufacturers are developing standardized recommended
• Rated amperage according to IEC 60364-5-52:2009 practices for charging interfaces.
(Table 8) The following principles apply to both bottom-up and
• Ingress protection when mated top-down pantographs. Of key importance is the compli-
• Ingress protection when unmated ance according to CCS Mode-4 communication. Therefore,
• Touch protection a minimum 4-pole design is required for the contact inter-
• Enclosed vs. exposed contacts (Y/N) face with DC+, DC‒, protective earth (PE), and CP for com-
• Sequencing (ground contact is first make, last break, munication and safety purposes.
control pilot (CP) is last make first break) (Y/N) A pantograph may have a mechanical connection
• Wire cross-section sequence as described in IEC 62196-3:2014, clause 6.7
• Number of power contacts (Table 8), although it is not required. In the case no contact
• Number of signal contact order can be guaranteed during an unintentional discon-
• Misalignment tolerance nect, IEC 61851-23:2014 (Table 8) stipulates that a risk
• Available configurations (ex top down, bottom up, side) assessment must show that no dangerous situation will
• Self-cleaning (Y/N) occur. Note: when the connection is made, no voltage is
present on the automatic connection devices (International
9.4.2.2.2.1 Pantographs Electrotechnical Commission, 2014c).
As an alternative to connector-based charging, panto- Two versions of top-down pantographs are currently
graph-based systems are being used to charge larger BEVs on the market: with or without the mechanical connec-
such as city buses. Pantographs are mechanical linkages tion sequence. In the first version, the charging station
connected such that the movement of one arm produces applies a signal check making sure all poles are con-
identical movements in a second arm. Some varieties are nected. The contact verification assures communication
mounted on board the BEV and extend upwards to make between the BEV and charging station can only begin
contact with the charger (Figure 19 left). In others, the pan- when all contacts are connected properly. Hence, power
tograph is mounted on the infrastructure and extends transmission can only begin when the system is protected
downward onto charging rails on the roof of the BEV (Fig- by PE and the BEV cannot move if the pantograph is con-
Figure 19. Two Pantograph Interfaces Available and Standardized in SAE J3105 (Table 8)

nected. A very fast disconnection time in case of emer- location. The pantograph moves upward to mate with the
gency is required. In the second version, with the connec- interface on the BEV chassis / axles. This high-power charg-
tion sequence, there is a variety of interfaces (Figure 20), ing method is useful when there are limitations on the
such as contact cone, contact rails, and contact hood, with available space on the BEV roof top for installing contact
different sizes depending on the available space on the bars or similar connection interfaces.
roof top of the vehicle. High-level communication between the off-board
Another recently adopted option is to use a bottom-up charger and BEV can be done via the CP contact using
pantograph to charge BEVs from below (Figure 21). The the PLC protocol or via a wireless interface using an
pantograph is installed in the ground on a specific isolated adapted version of the PLC protocol detailed in Sec-
location and the connection interface (modified contact tion 9.4.2.2.1.2.
dome) is installed on the chassis / axles of the BEV. The BEV For all pantograph charging, IEC 61851-23:2014
then moves over the pantograph, stopping at the required (Table 8) specifies a minimum distance of 3 m from the sur-
Figure 20. Three Interfaces Available for Top-Down Pantographs with Connection Sequence
Figure 21. Underbody Charging Using a Bottom-Up Pantograph

face on which people stand to any touchable live conduc- Currently, two charging methods have been developed
tors that are not otherwise protected from human contact. for BEVs: stationary and dynamic. Stationary chargers con-
Advantages of pantograph charging includes: sist of a primary coil that is typically buried underground at
• Safe automated connection system (no human inter- a permanent charging base location; the secondary coil is
action with power elements) located on the underside of the BEV. Dynamic chargers are
• Very high power DC charging is permitted (currently similar, but instead of a fixed location for the primary coil,
up to 600 kW at 1,000 VDC) multiple coils are positioned along the route of travel. This
• High voltage ratings allows for seamless and continuous charging while the BEV
• Open-source charging connection systems enabling is in motion. To date, stationary charging is more widely
interoperability among different types of BEV deployed, with several implementations in operation in
The disadvantage is that compatibility with an under- mass transport systems. Dynamic charging systems are still
ground mining environment has yet to be evaluated. in their infancy and only experimentally deployed.
9.4.2.2.2.2 Inductive and resonant charging 9.4.2.2.2.3 Automated enclosed pin and socket
Inductive charging is similar to pantograph charging In this type of charging interface, a flexible plug
but is wireless and eliminates physical contact between the extends from the charging station, plugs into the charging
charger and the vehicle. Inductive charging involves ener- socket installed on the BEV, and initiates charging after a
gizing a primary coil with an oscillating EM field to trans- signal is issued (Figure 22). The automated enclosed pin
fer energy to a secondary coil. Resonant charging is a type and socket is an interface for rapid, charging systems cur-
of inductive charging where primary and secondary coils rently rated up to 1 MW at 1,000 VDC. The enclosed pin and
oscillate at the same resonant frequency, which strongly socket interface is fully enclosed and touch-protected with
connects the two coils and does not require precise align- integrated angular and positioning misalignment compen-
ment of the two coils. sation. It can be installed on the side, front, or back of the
A clear benefit to inductive charging is that it is invisi- BEV. The contacts are inherently self-cleaning.
ble. With no cables, wires, plugs, catenaries, or pantographs The entire system is designed to ensure the safety of the
to install and deploy, the installation is clean and efficient. operator and other personnel. In all situations̶whether or
Enclosed electrical connections reduce the risk of electrical not the system is plugged in̶all live parts are out of reach
shorts and shock, and protect the equipment from the cor- of workers and are protected against accidental contact. The
rosion associated with underground mines. In addition, the power and signal contacts are released only after the contact
risk of damage to cables, plugs, and other wayside compo- carrier has been precisely mechanically connected; the elec-
nents is virtually eliminated. Inductive charging also offers tronic release to start charging is then issued.
an opportunity for automating the charging cycle, because
there are no moving parts, and no human interaction is 9.4.2.3 Off-board proprietary chargers OEMs may choose to
required to connect or disconnect electrical components. develop and supply off-board proprietary chargers for the
BEV. This approach is very simple from an engineering and
commercial standpoint̶the charger is specifically
designed for the BEV, ordered, and delivered with the BEV.
However, with multiple BEVs in the fleet throughout the
mine, a specific charger for every type of BEV may be cum-
bersome. Each piece of equipment would need to be
assessed, potential charging locations determined, and an
equipment-specific charger installed. The result would
likely be multiple charger types at each location. In addi-
tion, personnel would need to be trained on the various
charging interfaces and support personnel would need to
be capable of maintaining and troubleshooting them.
One possible remedy to these concerns is to use one
OEM for the BEV drivetrain to standardize the entire mine.
Figure 22. Automated Enclosed Pin and Socket Charging Experience has shown that dictating to OEMs the type of
Interface equipment and technology to use on board their BEVs sti-

fles innovation, leads to complications, and yields a poorer sion, 2004), a simple and consistent charging inter-
product. This approach also increases risk because the face across the mine eliminates confusion and addi-
mine completely depends on a single vendor. tional training. The type of BEV or location within
Proprietary charging solutions may be a reasonable the mine is irrelevant̶simply plug in the BEV and
option for a few initial trial BEVs, or in a small-scale deploy- initiate the charge.
ment of a handful of BEVs. However, they may be infeasible
for full-scale deployment of BEVs throughout a mine. 9.4.2.6 Disadvantages of off-board charging of on-board
batteries
9.4.2.4 Off-board standardized charging interface As with 1. Space must be allocated in the mine to house charg-
the commercial BEV industry, the solution for mining BEVs ing equipment.
may be to standardize the charging interface. Once the 2. The BEV must move to a specific location to charge.
connector, voltage range, and communications between 3. Greater potential exists for a variety of chargers, lead-
the charger and BEV are agreed upon, a BEV from one OEM ing to handshaking and communication problems
could be connected to a charger from another OEM. An between the charger and BEV.
obvious consideration is to adopt a standard from the com-
mercial BEV industry. However, the demands of a mining 9.4.3 Off-board Charging of Off-Board Batteries ( Swap-
BEV differ from those of a passenger BEV. The entire charg- ping )
ing arrangement needs to be rugged to withstand the The charging strategies above involve charging a bat-
harsh mining environment. The connectors, charger, volt- tery mounted on the BEV. With battery swapping, a dis-
ages, charge rates, and communication methods need to charged battery is removed from the BEV and replaced
be suitable for a mining BEV drivetrain and battery. If these with a fully charged one (Figure 23). The BEV can resume
issues can be addressed, then the mining industry would work while the depleted battery is charged. Battery swap-
benefit from the research and development already ping is a viable option that is already used in mining. The
invested by the commercial BEV industry. If not, then the energy density limitations of LIBs (Section 5.1) mean that
development of a mining only interface may be the only swapping may be the most viable option if long uphill trips
solution. However, achieving agreement on connector are unavoidable, especially if implementing BEVs in exist-
type, communication protocol, handshaking, and other ing mines.
details will be challenging.
9.4.3.1 Design considerations The mine design would not
9.4.2.5 Advantages of off-board charging of on-board bat- require designated parking for each BEV, but would require
teries swap-and-charge stations. Some fixed charging infrastruc-
1. BEV size and weight are low because charging equip- ture could be eliminated in favour of a swap-and-charge
ment is not on the BEV. station. The BEV design must include the ability to swap
2. If practical, chargers can be located in cool and con- batteries easily (accessible) and safely. The charging system
taminant-free areas. would be designed into the charging station.
3. High-capacity chargers are feasible because size and
weight are not issues. 9.4.3.2 Battery swapping and charging interface Typically,
4. Multiple BEVs can share one charger if connectors and the battery is disconnected from the BEV, then removed via
communication protocols are compatible between BEVs. a crane, forklift, or on-board lifting mechanism. In many
5. Off-board charging is the standard method in parallel cases, the battery can be left on board the BEV while charg-
industries such as public transport and port equipment. ing, but this inhibits the use of the BEV during charging.
6. For proprietary charging interfaces, the responsibility Once the battery has been disconnected from the BEV, it is
for the entire system (i.e., drivetrain, batteries, and directly connected to the charger. Upon completion of the
charger) lies with the OEM. charge, the reverse process is followed to reinstall and
7. For standardized interfaces: reconnect the battery on board the BEV.
• Those in charge of procuring mobile equipment or
charging infrastructure are free to purchase any 9.4.3.3 Advantages of battery swapping
type of BEV from any OEM. 1. BEVs can undergo multiple battery swaps in a produc-
• For equipment operators (instructed persons tion shift, which could permit a smaller on-board bat-
defined in International Electrotechnical Commis- tery capacity. The battery could be sized to last for

Figure 23. Battery Swapping Arrangement
short periods and the mining schedule arranged so 3. Battery inventory management is challenging.
swap-outs occur at predetermined intervals. This will • A substantial battery inventory would be required
even reduce the cost of ore transport per tonne. (e.g., three batteries for every two BEVs), miti-
2. Enables long uphill haulage. gated by the fact that the batteries could be lower
3. Some charging infrastructure can be eliminated in capacity.
favour of a swap-out station. • It is unrealistic to have a standardized battery type
4. Designated parking for each BEV would not be deployed across the entire fleet if more than one
required. OEM is used, resulting in management difficulties.
5. BEVs do not need to be plugged in at the end of a shift. A battery swap strategy has many challenges. With
changes to mine layout, it may be possible to eliminate the
9.4.3.4 Disadvantages of battery swapping need to swap batteries, or at least limit swapping to a hand-
1. Complications are involved in removing the batteries. ful of BEVs. In general, an on-board strategy should be pur-
• A manual arrangement (e.g., crane) presents both sued wherever possible, with swapping considered only if
logistic and safety concerns, given the high fre- other alternatives prove infeasible.
quency of swap-outs.
• An automated arrangement may suffer from wear 9.4.4 Hybrid Charging Method
and tear in the mining environment, and would A combination of on- and off-board charging
require a high level of engineering effort to accom- arrangements can offer some benefits of both (Figure 24).
modate all types of BEV. The on-board component is a low-capacity charger that
• BEV design options could be limited by the need to allows the batteries to be recharged over a relatively long
facilitate battery removal. time span. If a fast charge is required, the BEV is driven to
2. Fixed infrastructure is required. an off-board rapid charger. Proper isolation must be
• Dedicated swap-and-charge stations would be designed to avoid interaction between the operator and
needed in strategic locations throughout the mine. electrical energy.
• The swap-and-charge infrastructure may be large, Most commercial BEVs employ a hybrid arrangement.
translating into significantly more mining excava- Typical commuter, home- or business-based charging sta-
tion to house the equipment. tions supply AC power to the BEV, which then uses an on-
• Limited battery charging locations means much of board charger to convert to DC and regulate the charge
the mining fleet would need to leave their work rate. For a long-distance trip beyond the capacity of a sin-
areas to pass through the swap-and-charge sta- gle battery charge, the driver pulls into a dedicated off-
tions. board facility with higher rate charging.

Figure 24. Typical Hybrid Charging Arrangement
9.4.5 Overhead Catenary Systems or Trolley Assist • Normal operation

Trollies have been used in underground mining for • Fault
many years (especially coal mining). They are typically rail • Charging in progress
mounted and use AC or DC power fed through cables from • Remaining charging time
overhead catenary systems to move ore and people around • Charging complete
the mines. In open pit mining, AC operated haul trucks fed
from overhead catenary systems have also been exten- 9.5.2 Emergency Shutdown Terminals
sively used. The challenge of using a 100% electric truck is An E-Stop button should be provided outside the
the inability of the truck to leave the tracks covered by the charger. The E-Stop button should be sequenced so the
trolley system. power electronics shut down the charge first, followed by
A recent iteration, which is not a true hybrid system, opening the contactors. If power electronics are not
uses a pantograph for ramp assist to reduce diesel fuel con- responding, then the contactors will dump. If the charger
sumption during the ramp climb. The truck operator aligns power interface is far from the charger unit, then an E-
the truck with the overhead lines, manually deploys the Stop is required at both locations.
pantograph, and switches off the diesel; the sequence is
reversed toward the end of the climb. The trolley system 9.6 Communications and Monitoring
can be used on the downhill trajectory as well, to inject The open charge point protocol (OCPP) enables BEVs to
regenerative energy back into the grid. The technology is communicate (i.e., request and confirm) with a central sys-
moving toward a hybrid system, replacing diesel with bat- tem over the internet in extensible markup language (XML)
tery power, and automating the alignment and the deploy- format (Open Charge Alliance, 2018). We suggest implemen-
ment of the pantograph. tation of an open communication protocol such as OCPP 2.0.
9.5 Operation and Controls 10. OPERATIONS
9.5.1 Operator Control Visibility and Lighting 10.1 Battery Safety

When the charger is connected to the BEV, the BEV Relative to the number of rechargeable batteries in
gives the charger instructions and minimum and maximum active use, LIBs have caused little harm in terms of damage
current limits. The charger complies and provides the and personal injury. Battery OEMs achieve this high level of
requested current. Status indicators to the operator are: safety by adding three layers of protection:

1. Limiting the amount of active material to achieve a battery chemistry can exacerbate damage to the BEV and
workable equilibrium of energy density and safety potentially put personnel at risk.
2. Including numerous safety mechanisms within the Below are key issues that should be considered before
cell any BEV is introduced into the mine:
3. Adding an electronic protection circuit in the battery pack 1. Are the battery chemistry and fire suppression tech-
Safety challenges include risks associated with static niques understood for this BEV?
discharge, faulty chargers, over-discharge, contamination a. Is the BEV equipped with an appropriate fire extin-
from metal particulates, cold temperature charging, and guisher?
inappropriate testing. Heat-related battery failures are b. Is the operator trained in the appropriate response
taken very seriously by OEMs, who typically choose a con- to a fire on board?
servative approach. c. Are emergency services aware of the proper fire
The hazards presented by lithium batteries are gener- suppression techniques?
ally associated with either electrical potential or chemistry. d. Do emergency services have the appropriate train-
The detailed hazards are discussed in Section 8.3.1. It is the ing to fight a fire on this BEV?
responsibility of OEMs to adequately address the various e. Do emergency services have the appropriate fire
hazards associated with batteries and to ensure the cus- suppression equipment?
tomer is fully informed of the risks and requirements for 2. In mixed fleets, emergency personnel may have to
handling and operating batteries and battery equipment quickly identify the battery chemistry on board a
safely. given BEV and choose the appropriate suppression
Appropriate measures are needed to achieve the man- technique.
dated safety standard set forth by UL 1642 (see Table 5 and a. Can emergency personnel quickly identify the bat-
Section 8.2). A nail penetration test that could be tolerated tery chemistry from a distance during an emer-
by an older 18650 cell with a capacity of 1.35 Ah would gency?
cause an explosion in modern high-density 2.4 Ah cells. As b. Have operators been trained to identify the battery
a side note, UL 1642 does not require nail penetration. LIBs chemistry and any unique responses they should
are nearing their theoretical energy density limit and bat- take based on that chemistry?
tery OEMs are beginning to focus on improving manufac- 3. Fires and structural damage will likely lead to a clean-
turing methods and increasing safety. For example, a up operation later.
one-in-200,000 failure rate triggered a recall of almost six a. Are mine maintenance personnel aware of the bat-
million lithium-ion packs used in Dell laptops. tery chemistry on board the BEV?
b. Do maintenance personnel have access to the
10.1.1 Emergency Response and Battery Chemistry appropriate equipment to clean up after a chemical
BEVs present a unique risk to owners, operators, work- spill from the BEV.
ers, maintenance personnel, and safety personnel. Unlike c. Do mine maintenance personnel have the proper
their fossil-fuel counterparts, BEVs can present several bat- training to safely effect a cleanup after a battery
tery chemistries, which require special consideration when chemical spill?
a BEV is involved in an incident that structurally damages In the United States, the National Fire Protection
batteries or causes fire on the BEV. LIBs differ from lithium Association has published recommendations for
metal batteries and each battery type can have variances in response to BEV fires from LIBs (Long & Blum, 2016), and
chemistries that prohibit the use of standard fire suppres- offers an online course (National Fire Protection Associa-
sion techniques. Employing the incorrect techniques on a tion, 2018).
Table 9. Training requirements for workers associated with BEVs

Role Electric
Operators Minimal training for battery user interface and charging
Mechanics Required for non-electric components (e.g., hydraulic packs)
Electricians Possibly with aptitude for instrumentation; likely require additional personnel specifically trained for battery electric
equipment (similar to instrumentation technologists)
Remote service / support Additional skillsets may be required when troubleshooting̶perhaps direct toward OEMs and / or engineers
Fuel / charging All workers need to be trained to conduct the chosen charging method

10.2 Operator Training be queried about the documentation / training available

Operation of a BEV differs from a similar machine with for their platforms. Table 10 lists standards that could be
a diesel powertrain. Thus, all personnel working with or used to design an appropriate training program.
around a BEV need to be properly trained to fully under-
stand the operational differences, ensure safe practices are 11. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
used, and identify and avoid potential hazards (Table 9).
11.1 Introduction
Operator manuals should be provided by the OEM; addi-
tional training options may be available. Typical opera- Once the electric mine is operating, data should be col-
tional practices that will differ from a diesel equivalent are: lected and analyzed to assess mine performance. This sec-
• Daily inspections tion describes the type of data and information required to
• Unit start up assess the capabilities of battery-powered equipment for
• Brake test procedures underground mines. The goal is to define the typical perfor-
• Performance differences mance parameters used in the mining industry for under-
‒ Lower noise levels ground mobile equipment, and to lay out example
‒ Higher torque output performance specifications and data sheets for the equip-
‒ Higher maximum speed ment, batteries, and chargers. The intent is to describe the
‒ Regenerative braking performance requirements and capabilities to establish
Operational differences will exist among OEMs and among standard approaches for:
BEV models manufactured by a given OEM. • Mine operators to specify the performance require-
Duty cycle planning is critical for maximizing BEV avail- ments to achieve their operational goals
ability and utilization, because the energy density differs • OEMs to describe the performance within the respec-
between typical battery chemistries and diesel fuel. Rela- tive machine specification / data sheets, and commu-
tive to refueling with diesel, BEVs have a shorter tramming nicate the information required from mining
range or working time between recharges and take longer companies to ensure machines meet the operational
to charge or swap the battery. Operators should have an goals
understanding of the energy required to complete a spe- The mine operators will then be able to identify the avail-
cific task to ensure the charge level is sufficient or make the ability of BEVs as potential alternatives to diesel equipment
decision to charge the unit before proceeding. Range esti- for their operations, and the OEMs will be able to ascertain
mates from the OEM and training can assist the operator the industry requirements.
with determining how to proceed.
11.2 Deﬁnitions
10.3 Maintenance Personnel Training It is essential to ensure clarity on terminology used to
When selecting BEVs, the change management for ser- describe the performance of the BEV in comparison to
vice and repair should be a key consideration. OEMs should diesel equipment.
Table 10. Names, topics, and jurisdictions of standards related to BEV operator training. Full standard citations are listed in Section 12.
Industry Standard
ISO 14990-1:2016 See Section 15.7 for maintenance manual and service International International Organization
literature, including reduction of electrical hazards while for Standardization,
servicing a BEV 2016a
ISO 20474-1:2017 Specifies appropriate technical measures for International International Organization
eliminating or reducing risks from relevant hazards, for Standardization,
hazardous situations, or events during commissioning, 2017d
operation, and maintenance
ISO 8152-1984 Training of mechanics appropriate for earth-moving International International Organization
machinery for Standardization,
1984
ISO 6750-2005 Specifies the content and gives guidance on the format of International International Organization
operator s manuals for earth-moving machinery for Standardization,
2005
ISO 7130-2013 Basis for content and methods used for operator training for
earth-moving machinery International International Organization
for Standardization,
2013

11.2.1 Duty Cycle haulage duty cycle of haul-discharge, an average energy

The overall performance of electric equipment should consumption and time can be estimated.
not be described in terms of the total time from the begin- For equipment such as drills, bolters, and personnel
ning to the end of a process as defined by the operator carriers, a repetitive duty cycle may not be appropriate.
and the OEM, but should include both process time (i.e., Instead, the duty cycle would be defined by the time
when a unit is acted upon to bring it closer to an output) elapsed while travelling from one point to another under
and delay time (i.e., when a unit of work is expended wait- various empty and loaded conditions. Usually, once it has
ing to take the next action). For BEV equipment, parame- arrived in the work area, this equipment is parked and shut
ters and variables related to the duty cycle could vary. It is off or plugged in to the grid.
essential to capture the impact of delays and performance
variables that are altered by external factors. Therefore, 11.2.2 Idle / Queued Periods
the duty cycle should be divided into actions that consti- Hypothetically, one duty cycle operates at 100% utiliza-
tute equipment performance. Once the action perfor- tion. In reality, there are times when the BEV is idle and / or
mance has been evaluated without the influence of waiting in line while consuming time and energy in a cycle
another machine, then permutations, combinations, and and / or between sequences of cycles. These idle periods
loops can be used to characterize the operation of a spe- must be accounted for when estimating the actual perfor-
cific duty cycle. mance in a fixed time period (e.g., 1 hour, 1 shift) as avail-
The duty cycle can be defined by primary actions for ability and utilization (Section 11.2.3).
each class of equipment. Each primary action consists of
at least one segment that defines energy consumed and 11.2.3 Availability and Utilization
grade, distance, and time travelled. These actions can be Equipment availability is defined as the fraction of
defined at fixed distance and / or tailored to specific min- scheduled (calendar) hours without downtime for mainte-
ing applications. The cycle for a LHD is shown in Fig- nance or repair (Figure 28). In the case of battery electric
ure 25. equipment, battery charging or swapping hours are con-
For primary haulage equipment (LHDs and haulage sidered unavailable hours where the equipment is not
trucks) the duty cycle is illustrated in Figures 26 and 27. For available for operation. Equipment utilization is defined as
the LHD machine duty cycle of load-haul-dump or the truck the percentage of time the available equipment worked.
Figure 25. Primary Haulage Cycle: A Load (Muck); B Tram (Haul); C Dump; D Return Tram; E. Repeat

Figure 26. Short Distance Traveled Duty Cycle Scenario for LHD Machines and Trucks
Figure 27. Long Distance Traveled Duty Cycle Scenario for LHD Machines and Trucks
Common definitions and formulas for the parameters are Available hours = Hours available to operate (includes time
as follows: between operating shifts)
Scheduled hours = Calendar hours in a day, month, etc. Unavailable (down) hours = Time unavailable due to break-
(168 h/wk) down, repair, battery charging, etc.

Operating hours = Hours operated (measured by hour unavailable to do useful work (Figure 28). BEVs could have
meters on engine and / or BEV system enabled) lower availability than diesel equipment; the mine operator
should take this into consideration when considering the
Available hours = Scheduled hours ‒ Down hours (1) application and reviewing OEM performance specifications.
Since operating hours are determined based on hour
meter data from the BEV drive systems (e.g., traction,
Available hours
Availability (%) = ‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒ ×100 (2) hydraulic power pack, and auxiliary systems) and the sys-
Scheduled hours
tems would be off during charging, these hours would not
be recorded as operating hours. However, it will be impor-
Operating hours tant for the mine operator to measure charging hours and
Utilization (%) = ‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒‒ ×100 (3)
Available hours add them to the recorded down hours to accurately
assess the impact on availability. Therefore, technology to
record charging time̶either on board the machine or
battery̶should be considered in equipment specifica-
tions for BEVs.
Figure 28. Breakdown of Scheduled Hours
11.3 Equipment Performance
11.2.4 Battery Charge Time
11.3.1 General Requirements
The time required for on-board battery charging or
swapping (off-board charging) can be significantly greater It is recommended that OEMs openly communicate
than for comparable diesel equipment. If this time period is BEV machine, battery, and charger performance metrics
long, it should be considered down time because the BEV is based on accurate field testing with standardized meth-
ods and environmental parame-
ters. This will permit mining
Table 11. Examples of environmental variables
operators to assess and compare
Parameter Example descriptors or values
the operational feasibility of the
Road conditions Firm, muddy, flexing slightly under load or undulating,
maintained fairly regularly, watered, gravel various equipment. This process
Rolling resistance 3% will reduce uncertainty and dis-
Ambient temperature Maximum 28° C wet bulb globe temperature in summer
crepancies in performance
Underground temperature throughout the season varies
on average between ‒5 and 45° C; exception will need to expectations. It is also recom-
be addressed accordingly mended that OEMs provide the
Other considerations Humidity
guidelines for the procedures
Corrosion ratings
Ingress protection ratings and practices used to obtain per-
Salt resistance formance measurements. The
Rock falls most significant performance
requirements that need to be
understood are:
Table 12. Examples of operational parameters 1. The ability to achieve the same
Parameter Example descriptors or values output for a given duty cycle as a
Operator skills At least 5 y experience
comparable diesel unit
Idle periods Any duration over 10 min. should be considered
Distance In metres for each cycle
2. The energy requirements to
Payload OEM would specify a payload and standard bucket volume, perform the duty cycle, and num-
based on a specified rock (ore and / or waste) density ber of such cycles capable by the
Charging station Estimated time to reach charging station
battery energy stored on-board
Estimated time to charge or swap
Grade Uphill haul at 0‒18% grade and specify distance before recharge is required
Flat haul at 0‒2% grade and specify distance 3. The time required to recharge
Downhill haul at 0‒18% grade and specify distance or swap the battery
Speed limit Speed limit according to class of equipment
To standardize and implement
Specific remark Tire type
Inflation pressure in-field performance protocols for
BEVs, operational environmental

variables and operational parameters should be considered ing). Therefore the actions that drive continuous vs.
and defined for the particular mining applications (Tables 11 peak and the frequency of such actions for peak
and 12). Also, OEMs should list all operating criteria / assump- should be clearly stated.
tions for the performance data communicated, including:
• Road conditions (e.g., rolling resistance [RR] assump- 11.3.3 Regenerative Braking Systems
tions) BEVs provide an opportunity to use regenerative brak-
• Ambient temperature ing (Sections 6.2.2 and 7.3). When the speed pedal is
• Auxiliary systems operation (e.g., air conditioning / released, the electric motor can become a generator and
heating, lighting) provide a braking force to the wheels while generating
• Other battery loads (e.g., electric drives, controls, radios) electricity to charge the battery. The amount of available
• Tire type and inflation pressure regenerative braking can greatly influence the range and
must be clearly defined in the duty cycle (Section 11.2.1).
11.3.2 Equipment Performance Assessment If the battery is fully charged, regenerative braking may
Standardized methods for describing performance for not take place unless there is an alternative dissipative
the traction, pump, and auxiliary motors are required to component such as a brake resistor. Alternatively, the stan-
compare battery equipment to diesel equipment. As an dard service brake could be used when regeneration is not
example, there is an arbitrary definition of peak vs. contin- available. The OEM should provide details on the regenera-
uous ratings: tive braking method, as well as the limiting factor for charg-
1. Peak rating in terms of diesel equipment is the maxi- ing of batteries (e.g., 80%) to ensure regenerative braking
mum torque that could be generated at zero speed could always be used.
(i.e., stall condition while mucking) and that a torque
converter at this operating point would survive for 11.3.4 Specifications
approximately 5‒15 s before overheating. The same The OEM should provide comprehensive specifications
drive train would be capable of running continuously for the BEV that include performance information in a per-
loaded uphill at full power. formance data sheet similar to Figure 29. These data should
2. Continuous rating should characterize the average be for typical power required at ideal conditions and at
energy use for an action; the peak rating often overes- ambient temperatures as stated in the data sheets, in order
timates the value. However, the continuous rating to assist in understanding the efficiency of the OEMs bat-
may be a continuous uphill haul (same as diesel rat- tery electric drive system.
Figure 29. Typical Performance Data Sheet

For basic grade performance data, the units should be ferred for haulage equipment. Moreover, radial tires have
kW (power) at the maximum speed (km/h) attainable at tougher overall construction than bias-ply tires, providing
that grade. In addition, typical duty cycle(s) should be a longer life and smoother ride. Overall, radial tires used
described in as much detail as possible, and the OEM on hard surfaces consume less energy and have a lower
should use accurate simulation models to determine total life cycle cost than bias tires. However, bias tires are gen-
energy required for each duty. The OEM should state if the erally a better choice for loading applications (loaders,
data are measured or estimated and if estimated, specify scoop trams) because they have stronger and tougher
the basis of the estimation and what verification testing sidewalls, providing more stability when loads are carried
would be undertaken prior to delivery. up high.
Methods to measure the RR provided by a tire type
11.3.5 Impact of Tires on BEV Performance include:
When comparing the performance of BEVs, the type of • Measurement on drums in laboratory
tires on the BEV and the road surface over which the BEV is • Specially equipped trailers for measurement on road
moving are key factors to consider. In an underground • Coastdown measurement on road
mine, battery energy is used for driving, running auxiliary • Pulling test on a surface road during which the pull
systems (e.g., cooling/ heating, lights) and to power various force to move a vehicle at slow speed is measured
processes (mucking, dumping, spraying, drilling, etc.). In RR is usually expressed in terms of percent road grade
particular, the trackless rubber-tired truck-loader haulage or in terms of resistance force as a percentage of the gross
systems used to transport fragmented material from the vehicle weight. For example, a vehicle travelling with 10%
production area to the desired location draw significant RR on a horizontal surface must overcome equivalent resis-
energy from the battery during driving to overcome resistance to a truck travelling up a 10% grade with no RR. A RR
tive forces such as RR and climbing force. The RR is defined of 2.5‒3.0% is often considered for modelling the energy
as the force acting on a vehicle caused by the interaction consumption of a rubber tired haulage system used under-
between the tires and the road surface impeding its free ground, assuming that haulage drift / decline is generally
rolling. It can significantly impact BEV performance (speed, unpaved (compacted crushed rock as surface layer).
autonomy, productivity) and should be considered during
standard performance measurement tests. 11.3.6 Heat Generation
The RR depends on the road surface type (paved or Diesel units produce significantly more heat, but more
unpaved) and roughness conditions (the presence of importantly, produce harmful emissions that must be
irregularities, bumps, mud, snow, etc.) and tire type (bias diluted to safe levels for human occupancy underground
ply, radial) and condition (inflation pressure, treads, mate- through high fresh air ventilation flow rates (see Sections 5
rial composition, temperature). These parameters will and 6.6). The ventilation requirements in a diesel mine are
influence the energy required from the battery to perform relatively easy to calculate by summing known engine
a specific duty cycle. For softer surfaces, both bias ply and emissions, and are often legislated based on total diesel
radial tires yield a similar RR (e.g., surfaces C‒H in power (m3/s per kW) in the fleet. The total required fresh air
Table 13). However, when the road surface is harder, radial ventilation flow to dilute diesel exhaust gasses is usually
tires̶though more expensive̶yield a lower RR than sufficient to control the heat generated as well, and the
bias-ply tires (surfaces A and B in Table 13) and are pre- mine engineer does not usually need to consider this heat
Table 13. Expected rolling resistance (RR) factors for various road conditions and two tire types (adapted from Caterpillar, 2018)
Roadway condition RR (%)
Bias tires Radial tires
Surface A: Hard and smooth; concrete, cold asphalt or dirt surface; no tire penetration or flexing 1.5 1.2
Surface B: Firm, smooth and rolling; dirt or light surfacing; flexes slightly under load; watered; maintained 3.0 2.5
Surface C: Dirt, rutted; flexes under load; 25 mm tire penetration or flexing; no water; little maintenance 4.0 4.0
Surface D: Dirt, rutted; flexes under load; 50 mm tire penetration or flexing; no water; little maintenance 5.0 5.0
Surface E: Dirt, rutted, soft under travel; 100 mm tire penetration or flexing; no stabilization; no maintenance 8.0 8.0
Surface F: Loose sand or gravel; 150 mm tire penetration or flexing 10 10
Surface G: Dirt, rutted, soft under travel; 200 mm tire penetration or flexing; no stabilization; no maintenance 14 14
Surface H: Very soft mud, rutted; 300 mm tire penetration; no flexing 20 20

source when sizing ventilation and refrigeration system 3. Zero net work is done if a vehicle returns to its start-
requirements. ing point, and the net energy consumed to move the
In an electric mine, these emissions do not exist, and machine is lost as heat. Energy used to move material
although less heat is generated, heat is the only contami- to a higher elevation is put into the potential energy
nant that must be assessed to determine ventilation and of that material.
refrigeration requirements for the electric mobile equip- 4. Zero net work is done if a vehicle moves a load on
ment fleet. The quantity of heat produced depends on con- level ground, and all energy consumed is lost as heat.
tinually varying duties of each unit, and the efficiency of 5. Vehicles require energy to overcome drivetrain, RR
each machine s drivetrain and charging system. Some key and auxiliary loads. This energy is ultimately con-
concepts to understand are: verted to heat.
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it changes The concepts above indicate that a solid understanding is
from one form to another (The (Law of Conservation required of the duty of each unit. In addition, the efficiency
of Energy). of each unit must be known or estimated to determine
2. If a vehicle does not raise a load, no potential energy average heat generated during a typical operation. These
is stored and all energy transmitted from the battery heat values can then be summed for the fleet during a typ-
(kWh) is lost as heat. ical operating shift to determine the ventilation flow rates
and / or refrigeration requirements for the mine.
Figure 30. Comparison of Heat Generation and Efficiency between Diesel And Battery Electric Vehicles
Figure 31. Energy Flow for a Battery Electric (left) and Diesel Truck (right)

A benefit of BEVs over diesel vehicles is the significant each unit to determine the electrical energy consumed (or
improvement in efficiency and reduction in heat genera- power required) on various load conditions and ramp
tion (Section 5.1). Figure 30 compares the efficiencies of grades. By subtracting mechanical work done for each of
each component of the respective drives and the resulting these cases, the overall losses and heat generation can be
heat losses. Heat generation from a BEV can be as little as determined.
20% of similar diesel equipment. It is suggested that OEMs develop performance data
An additional advantage of BEVs is that during braking sheets (e.g., Figure 29) that present the overall efficiency of
and down ramp operation, most systems are able to chan- the BEV in terms of losses. These losses equate to the aver-
nel kinetic energy to charge the battery. This regenerative age heat generation (measured in kW or kWh/km) and can
braking (Sections 6.2.2, 7.3, and 11.3.3) allows the machine be used to determine ventilation and refrigeration require-
to recoup some portion the energy put into the potential ments.
energy of the BEV mass at a higher elevation. The total heat
generation can be significantly affected, since not only are 11.4 Battery Performance
the kinetic and potential energy not lost as heat, but they
11.4.1 Performance
are re-used to continue operation. Since a diesel vehicle
does not have a large energy storage reservoir (battery), A key performance criterion of interest to mine opera-
this energy is lost as heat and cannot be re-used. tors is the run-time of the battery (i.e., if the battery will last
Consider the energy flow when a BEV or diesel truck is for an entire shift). Separating the overall BEV performance
hauling a load up a ramp (Figure 31). When driving up- from the battery performance provides an understanding
ramp with a load, battery energy is flowing to the losses as of the extent the latter improves with technology evolu-
heat. It is also used to accelerate the mass of the vehicle tion.
and load: Since the temperature of the underground working
area where the BEV will operate could affect battery per-
Kinetic energy = 0.5 × mass × velocity2 (4) formance, OEMs should provide the performance specifi-
cations based on a hot underground environment.
Battery energy is also used to move the combined However, this may not be practical. The OEM should indi-
mass higher in elevation, which is stored as potential cate̶at a minimum̶if the proposed battery has been
energy: used in such environments and what measures need to be
taken to alleviate the impact of heat (Section 8.3). This is
Potential energy = (5) particularly important if there is no significant real mine
mass × acceleration due to gravity × height experience.
By combining the consumed energy to perform spe-
During deceleration, the kinetic energy can be cific tasks during worked hours in a shift and the battery
returned to the battery to be re-used for the next accelera- capacity, the mine operator could estimate the run-time in
tion. When travelling down-ramp empty, some portion of terms of hours per shift. This information will assist in iden-
the potential energy of the vehicle can be captured and put tifying the number of battery replacements or charges
back into the battery pack. The only heat generated is thus required per shift per equipment, the dimensions and loca-
the net energy consumed by the battery pack, minus the tion of charging stations, the range of operations, and the
potential energy of any material left at a higher elevation. mine infrastructure design and logistics. Parameters that
The potential energy of a 30 tonne mass that is 2 km up a define the battery performance should include those indi-
17% ramp is approximately 27.4 kWh. cated in Table 14.
If you consider hauling down-ramp loaded with
waste rock for backfill, materials, or other payload, the 11.4.2 Specifications
potential energy of that load can act as an additional Battery specifications are important to understand
energy source (other than energy from the charger). This BEV efficiency. The mine operator together with the OEM
can effectively provide fuel for the truck while performing should define a set of useful parameters relevant to the
a needed service. operation. The OEM should then provide a battery perfor-
The current challenge facing the mine engineer is to mance data sheet similar to Table 15 and performance
obtain a reliable source of information related to heat gen- charts similar to examples shown in Table 16 and Fig-
eration for specific machines. It is important that OEMs test ure 32.

11.5 Charger Performance

Table 14. Battery performance parameters
Parameter Consideration 11.5.1 Performance
Voltage and current Are there practical / safety limits that should be enforced?
From a vehicle performance stand-
Controllable charger One fits all?
point, it is essential to specify the
Leverage bus standards?
charging requirement so that it assists
Battery cycles How to represent lifetime battery cycles?
End-of-life definitions
the mine operator or system integrator
(70%? 80%? Secondary use) in the design of a suitable charging lay-
Rebuild? Replace? Repair? out and vehicle operating schedule. It
Capacity kWh nameplate̶does not represent useable energy is important to understand the timing
Beginning vs. end of life of charging, the location of charging
Warrantied kWh delivered?
stations, and potential opportunity for
Number of cycles?
Ah throughput? charging considerations based on mine
Electric brake reserve ̶how much battery energy needs to power availability. The OEM should
be reserved for downhill navigation? (Section 11.4.2)
state the charging infrastructure
requirements, indicating the number
and location of charging stations and
Table 15. Example of battery performance data sheet ventilation and electrical infrastructure
Description Details (to be completed by OEM) requirements. If battery change-outs
Cell Chemistry are required to meet normal operation
Specific energy (kWh/kg)
requirements, then OEM should pro-
Energy density (KWh/m3)
Nominal voltage (V)
vide details of the excavation size and
Amperage (A) layout, as well as charging station
Operating voltage (min‒max V) infrastructure including lifting equip-
Cell monitoring system
ment and capacity requirements and
Battery Nameplate capacity (Ah) total / useable
Nameplate power (kWh) total / useable
fire suppression requirements.
Number of cells
Optimal discharge rate (e.g., 0.5C) 11.5.2 Specifications
Optimal charging rate (e.g., 0.5C) An example of the basic charging
Maximum charge current (80% SOC)
system specification is given in
Operating temperature range (° C)
Lifespan cycles at % DOD Table 17.
Self-discharge rate (% per month)
Memory effect (Y/N) 11.6 Machine Performance
Cooling time (h)
Requirements
Cooling method, if applicable
Battery monitoring system The above specifications and data
Battery swapping (Y/N, time) sheets will provide a useful summary
Opportunity charging (Y/N, time) of the features of the BEVs, but the var-
Battery pack weight (kg)
ious parameters on their own may
Battery pack dimensions (mm)
Charging time (lowest SOC 100%) make it difficult for the mine operator
kW of heat output per kWh of charging to conclude if a potential BEV solution
Gassing (if applicable) would meet the overall production or
service requirements at a specific mine
location and application. Since these
Table 16. Battery performance charts (example list) overall performance requirements are
Voltage (V) function of discharge capacity (%) at ‒45, ‒25, 0, 25, and 55° C most important, the OEM should be
Voltage (V) function of discharge capacity (%) at normal temperature (21° C): 0.5, 1, and 2CA able to clearly indicate if a particular
Voltage (V) function of charge capacity (%) at normal temperature (21° C): 0.5, 1, and 2CA equipment design can ultimately meet
Discharge capacity (%) function of time (days) storage under normal temperature (21° C)
the requirements. An example of how
Lifespan (cycles) function of DOD (%) at normal temperature (21° C): 0.5, 1, and 2CA
Lifespan (cycles) function of DOD (%) at: ‒45, ‒25, 0, 25, and 55°C this can be summarized is given in
Table 18.

Figure 32. Examples of Battery Performance Charts
Table 17. Battery charger requirements

Description Details (to be completed by OEM)
Dimensions (L × W × H)
Weight (kg)
Operating temperature (° C) and humidity
Input range (maximum rated input voltage, current,
power, frequency, VA ranges)
Output range (i.e., voltage, current rating) as well
reference to fast / slow / regular charging rate
Power factor
Charger efficiency
Enclosure specifications
Charge time (based on minimum SOC)
Derating of charger capacity (if applicable)
Heat rejection of battery charger over voltage
and charging current range
Table 18. Machine performance data (example)

Description Details from mining company
Equipment type 40 tonne haul truck
Heading size 5 m × 5 m (helps define box capacity limitations)
Ore density 2.1 t/m3 broken density (for calculation of actual load)
Profile description 2 km haul, up-hill carry, 15% average grade, peak of 17%
Seat time 8 h/shift, 2 shifts/day
Objective Haul 800 t/day
Description Examples of outputs by OEM
Loads per charge 4
Loads per shift 14
Swaps per shift 3 (8 min each, for 24 min total per shift)
Capacity per load 40 t
Speed (km/h) 10 loaded (up), 12 unloaded (down)
Cycle time (minutes) 32 min (22 min tram with 10 min for load, dump and traffic)
Production capability 560 t/shift
1,120 t/day
Production objective met with one truck ‒ 320 t/day margin

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COPYRIGHT NOTICE iii

2. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS, SYMBOLS, AND ABBREVIATIONS 1

5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of BEVs vs. Traditional Diesel Equipment 2

5.2 Business Case 3

6.2 Mine Layout and Infrastructure 5

6.3 Personnel Movement 8

6.4 Other Electric Equipment 8

6.5 Charging Infrastructure 10

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6.5.5.3 Battery swap-out station design 13

6.6 Ventilation and Cooling 14

7. BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE DESIGN 18

7.2 Operator Interface 18

7.3 Braking System 20

7.4 Electrical Systems 21

7.6 Fire Suppression 21

7.7 Accessibility and Service 22

7.8 Emergency Stop 22

7.9 Master Disconnect 22

7.10 Hazardous Voltage Interlock 23

7.11 Insulation / Ground Fault Monitoring 24

7.12 Additional Safety Recommendations 24

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7.12.6 BEV Decommissioning 25

8. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS 25

8.2 Functional Requirements 26

8.3 Safety Requirements 29

9.2 Safety Considerations 32

9.3 Incoming Power System 33

9.4 Types of Charging and Connection Interfaces 34

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9.4.2.6 Disadvantages of off-board charging of on-board batteries 41

9.5 Operation and Controls 43

9.6 Communications and Monitoring 43

10.1 Battery Safety 43

10.2 Operator Training 45

10.3 Maintenance Personnel Training 45

11. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 45

11.3 Equipment Performance 48

11.4 Battery Performance 52

11.5 Charger Performance 53

11.6 Machine Performance Requirements 53

12. RESOURCES, REFERENCES, AND RECOMMENDED READING 55

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1. FOREWORD FLA Full Load Amperage

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