DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

MVGR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VI SEMESTER

Foundation Engineering
A1CET216

Unit 4: Pile Foundations

Pile Foundation
• Types of piles
• Load carrying capacity of piles based on
• Static pile formulae
• Dynamic pile formulae
• Pile load tests
• Load carrying capacity of pile groups in sands and clays,
• Pile settlements,
• Uses of bentonite in pile construction
Introduction
• Deep foundations are required when the soil at shallow depth is not capable of
supporting structural loads.
• Deep foundation will be adopted if a firm stratum having desired bearing capacity
cannot be reached by open excavation.
• The purpose of pile foundations is to transmit a super structure load to deeper load
bearing strata, to withstand lateral, vertical, uplift load and to minimize the
settlement.
• A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not
have adequate bearing capacity to withstand the desired structural loads.
• If the results of site investigation show that the soil at shallow depth is unstable or if
the estimated settlement is beyond acceptable limits, a pile foundation will be
adopted.
Classification of Piles
 Classification of
Classification based on materials or
Pilescomposition:
1. Timber piles: Timber piles are made from tree trunks and are well seasoned, straight and
free from all defects. Usually available length will be 4 to 6m. Timber piles are used where
good bearing stratum is available at a relatively shallow depth.

2. Concrete piles: Concrete piles are either precast or cast in-situ. Precast piles are cast and
cured at the casting yard and then transported to the site for installation. These piles are
adequately reinforced to withstand handling stresses along with working stress. Precast
piles are generally used for short lengths. Cast-in-situ piles are constructed by drilling hole
in the ground and then filling that hole with freshly prepared concrete after placing the
reinforcement.
Classification based on materials or
composition:
3. Steel Piles: Steel piles are usually of rolled H-sections or thick pipe sections.
These piles are used to withstand large impact stresses and where fewer
disturbances from driving is desired. These piles are also used to support open
excavations and to provide seepage barrier.

4. Composite piles: A pile made up of two different materials like concrete and
timber or concrete and steel is called composite pile. Composite piles are mainly
used where a part of the pile is permanently under water. The part of the pile
which will be under water can be made of untreated timber and the other part can
be of concrete.
Classification based on the function:
1. End bearing piles: Piles which transfer structural load to a hard and relatively
incompressible stratum such as rock or dense sand are known as end bearing piles.
These piles derive the required bearing capacity from end bearing at tip of the pile.
2. Friction piles: These are piles which derive carrying capacity from skin friction or
adhesion between the pile surface and surrounding soil.
3. Tension pile: These piles are also called as uplift piles. Generally it can be used to
anchor down the structures which are subjected to uplift pressure due to
hydrostatic force.
4. Compaction piles: These piles are used to compact loose granular soil to increase
its bearing capacity. Compaction piles do not carry load and hence they can be of
weaker material. Sand piles can be used as compaction piles.
5. Anchor piles: These piles are generally used to provide anchorage against
horizontal pull from sheet piling.
6. Fender piles and dolphins: Fender piles and dolphins are used to protect water
front structure from impact of any floating object or ships.
Classification Based on Mechanism of
Load Transfer:
i. End-Bearing Pile ii. Friction Pile iii. Bearing-Cum-Friction Piles
Classification based on method of
installation:
1. Bored piles: Bored piles are constructed in pre-bored holes either using a casing or
by circulating stabilizing agent like bentonite slurry. The borehole is filled with
concrete after placing or lowering reinforcement. The main advantage in bored piles
is no damage due to handling and driving which is common in driven piles. The
different types of bored piles are: small diameter piles up to 600mm diameter:
Large diameter pile greater than 600mm; Under-reamed piles generally 300 to
450mm diameter.
2. Driven piles: Driven piles may be of concrete, steel or timber. These piles are driven
into the soil strata by the impact of a hammer. Generally boring is not used in these
cases. When pile is driven into granular soils it densifies the soil and increases
stiffness (strength) of soil.
3. Driven and Cast-in-Place Piles: These piles are formed by driving a tube with a
closed end into the soil strata, and then filling the tube with freshly prepared
concrete. The tube may or may not be withdrawn afterwards.
Bored piles

Driven and Cast-in-Place Piles:

Classification based on Shape of
Longitudinal Section:
a. Prismatic
b. Tapered
c. Under-reamed
d. Sheet-pile
Classification based on shape of Cross-
section:

a) Circular
b) Square
c) Hexagonal
d) I-section
e) H-section
f) Pipe, etc.
Classification Based on Displacement of Soil during
Installation:
i. Displacement Piles:
• Driving of piles in soils causes lateral displacement of the soil and such piles are known as
displacement piles. Displacement piles help to densify loose cohesionless soils up to a distance of 3.5
times the pile diameter and, hence, increase the load-carrying capacity. Displacement piles are not
effective in dense cohesionless soils as the angle of shearing resistance decreases due to dilatancy
effect.
• In clays, pile driving causes remolding of the clay up to a distance of about twice the diameter of the
pile, causing a reduction in their shear strength if the clays are sensitive. Also, the pore pressure
developed during driving reduces the shear strength of these soils. This process helps in driving of the
piles. If sufficient time is allowed after installation before the construction of the superstructure, the
pore pressure will dissipate and the shear strength is regained. Examples of displacement pile are
driven piles.
ii. Small- or Non-Displacement Piles:
• Piles with rolled steel sections, screw piles, and open-ended hollow section piles cause a small
displacement of soil during driving and such piles are called as small-displacement piles.
• In the case of bored piles, a bore hole is first made into the soil and the pile is then constructed by
concreting the cased or uncased bore hole after placing the reinforcement. Such piles are called as
non-displacement piles. Bored cast in-situ or bored precast piles are examples of non-displacement
piles.
PILE DRIVING
• The operation of forcing a pile into the ground is known as ‘pile driving’.
• Pile hammers are of the following types:
(i) Drop hammer: This is the simplest type. The hammer is raised by pulley and
which and allowed to fall on the top of the pile.
(ii) Single-acting hammer (steam or pneumatic): The hammer is raised by steam or
compressed air and is allowed to drop on to the pile head.
(iii) Double-acting hammer (steam or pneumatic): steam or air pressure is
employed to lift the ram and then accelerate it downward.
(iv) Diesel hammer (internal combustion): This works on the internal combustion of
diesel oil. Energy is provided both for raising the hammer and for downward stroke.
(v) Vibratory hammer: The driving unit vibrates at high frequency and thus, the
driving is quick and quiet.
PILE CAPACITY
• The ultimate bearing capacity of a pile is the maximum load which it can carry
without failure or excessive settlement of the ground. The allowable load on a
pile is the load which can be imposed upon it with an adequate margin of
safety.
• The following is the classification of the methods of determining pile capacity:
(i) Static analysis
(ii) Dynamic analysis
(iii) Load tests on pile
(iv) Penetration tests
• The first two are theoretical approaches and the last two are field or practical
approaches.
Note: IS:2911 Part I (1979) recommends the use of Chart for Nq values to be used for driven
piles in granular soil. The code includes the term ½ γBNγ in addition for determining qpu and
recommends that Nγ values to be taken corresponding to general shear failure.
Values of Nq for pile formula (after Berezantzev et al, 1961) and Nq for driven piles (IS: 2911 Part I-1979)
Bearing capacity factor Nq for piles in sand (Nordlund, 1963)
1. A concrete pile of 30 cm diameter was driven into sand of loose to medium density to a
depth of 12m. The following properties are known: Average unit weight of soil along the
length of the pile, y = 18 kN/m3 , average φ = 40°,
Calculate (a) the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile, and (b) the allowable load with
Fs = 2.5. Assume the water table is at great depth.
2. A concrete pile of size 35cm x 35cm and 25m long is driven into a homogeneous mass of
soft clay soil. The water table is at the ground surface. The unit cohesion of the soil under
undrained condition is 25kN/m2. Compute Qu and Qa with FS = 2.5.
3. Assuming a factor of safety equal to 3.0, determine the allowable pile load capacity of
a 40cm diameter driven concrete pile shown in Fig.
4. A timber pile was driven by a drop hammer weighing 30 kN with a free fall of 1.2 m. The
average penetration of the last few blows was 5 mm. What is the capacity of the pile
according to Engineering News Formula?
5. A 40 x 40 cm reinforced concrete pile 20 m long is driven through loose sand and then into
dense gravel to a final set of 3 mm/blow, using a 30 kN single-acting hammer with a stroke of
1.5 m. Determine the ultimate driving resistance of the pile if it is fitted with a helmet, plastic
dolly and 50 mm packing on the top of the pile. The weight of the helmet and dolly is 4 kN. The
other details are: weight of pile = 74 kN; weight of hammer = 30 kN; pile hammer efficiency
ηh=0.80 and coefficient of restitution e = 0.40. Use the Hiley formula
Load Tests on Piles
• Load test on a pile is one of the best methods of determining the load-carrying capacity of a
pile. Three types of pile tests are generally carried out: Vertical load test, Lateral load test,
Pull out test
• It may be conducted on a driven pile or cast-in-situ pile, on a working pile or a test pile, and
on a single pile or a group of piles. A working pile is one which forms part of the foundation,
while a test pile is one which is used primarily to check estimated capacities.
• Two categories of tests are: Initial test & Routine test
• Initial tests are carried out on test pile to estimate the allowable load/ predict the
settlement at a working load.
• Routine test is carried out as a check on working piles and to access the displacement
corresponding to the working load.
• Pile load test are very useful for cohesion less soil. However, incase of cohesive soils, the
data from the pile load test should be used with caution on account of disturbance due to
pile driving, development of pore pressure and the in adequate time allowed of
consolidation settlement.
Procedure for pile load test
• IS: 2911 Part IV (1979) details the procedure for carrying out the load tests and
assessing the allowable load.
• According to the code, the test shall be carried out by applying a series of vertical
downward loads on a RCC cap over the pile.
• The load shall preferably be applied by means of a remote controlled hydraulic
jack taking reaction against a loaded platform.
• The test shall be applied in increments of about 20% of the assumed safe load.
• Settlement shall be recorded with at least three dial gauges of sensitivity 0.02
mm.
• Each stage of loading shall be maintained till the rate of movement of pile top is
not more than 0.1 mm per hours which ever is later.
Pile load Test Setup
1. The ultimate load, Qu can be determined as the abscissa of the point where the curved
part of the load-settlement curve changes to falling straight line, Fig. (a)
2. Qu is the abscissa of the point of intersection of the initial and final tangents of the load
settlement curve, Fig.(b)
Procedure for pile load test (Cont…)
• The loading shall be continued up to twice the safe load or the load at which the
total settlement of the pile top/ cap equals the appropriate value as indicated in
the criterion stated below:
1. 2/3 the final load at which the total settlement attains a value of 12mm.
2. Fifty percent of the final load at which the total settlement equals 10% of piles
diameter in case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5% of bulb diameter in case of
under reamed piles.
• The allowable load on a group of piles shall be the lesser of the following:
1. Final load at which the total settlement attains a value of 25mm, unless a total
settlement different from 25mm is specified in a given case on the basis of the
nature and type of structure.
2. Two-thirds the final load at which the total settlement attains a value of 40 mm.
• In the case of the cyclic load test, the load is raised up to a particular level, released to zero
and again raised to a higher value and released to zero. Settlements are recorded at each
increment or decrement of load. A typical plot of a cyclic load test data will look as shown
in Fig.
8. The following data refers to a cyclic pile load test carried out on a 300 mm dia, 10 m long
pile.

Load on pile top, kN 150 200 250 300 400 500 600
Total Settlement of pile top, mm 1.45 2.25 2.75 3.60 5.75 10.75 30.0
Net settlement of pile top, mm 0.4 0.65 0.8 1.0 1.7 5.25 22.8

Plot the load settlement curve and estimate the allowable load of the pile as per IS code of
practice.
Load on pile top, kN 150 200 250 300 400 500 600
Total Settlement of pile top, mm 1.45 2.25 2.75 3.60 5.75 10.75 30.0
Net settlement of pile top, mm 0.4 0.65 0.8 1.0 1.7 5.25 22.8
Elastic Settlement, mm 1.05 1.6 1.95 2.6 4.05 5.5 7.2

Load settlement curve

Load, kN
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
5
Total Settlement, mm

10
15
20
25
30
35
Failure of a pile group as a block
Pile Groups in Clay:
In the case of pile groups in clay, the load capacity of the pile group is computed keeping in
view two considerations:
1. Piles act individually without overlap of their corresponding pressure bulbs –
Qug1 = nQui = n(cNcAp + αcA̅ s)
2. Piles act as a block of soil enclosed by the piles as shown in Fig. The size of the block in
any direction is given by –
Bg =[(n – 1)S] + d
where n is the number of piles in the row along the direction,
S is the c/c spacing of piles in the row along the direction, and
D is the diameter of the piles
QUg2 = cNcApg + αcA
̅ sg
where Apg, the cross-sectional area of the pile group,
is Bg x Bg for a square pile group, and
Asg, the surface area of the pile group, is 4 (Bg x L).
Pile Groups in Sand:
• When piles are driven in loose- to medium-dense cohesionless soils, the soil around
the pile is compacted, increas-ing the group efficiency. For better results, it is
desirable to start the driving of piles at the center of the site and work outward. For
dense sands, the driving of piles may reduce group efficiency due to dilatancy.
• In the case of bored piles, there is limited densification of soil around the pile.
• Group efficiency, therefore, depends on pile spacing, and may be less than 100% if
piles are spaced closer than 3 d, where d is the diameter of the pile.
• The load capacity of a pile group is obtained from – Qug = ƞgNQu
• In the case of end-bearing piles, driven in dense sand at a spacing more than 3
d, where d is the diameter of the pile shaft, group efficiency is generally much more
than 100%. The load capacity o f the pile group is taken as – Qug = Nqu
• For bored piles in sand and gravel, group efficiency is about 2/3 to 3/4.
6. A group of 16 piles of 50 cm diameter is arranged in square pattern with a centre to centre
spacing of 1.0 m. The piles are 9 m long and are embedded in soft clay with unconfined
compressive strength of 100kN/m2. Adhesion factor is 0.6. Determine the ultimate load
capacity of the pile group.
7. A group of 9 piles of 400mm diameter is arranged in square pattern with a centre to
centre spacing of 900mm. The piles are 15 m long and are embedded in sand with φ=32° and
unit weight of 18kN/m3. Adhesion factor is 0.6. Determine the ultimate load capacity of the
pile group. Use Berezantsev recommendation for Nq.
What will be the settlement of pile group, if the settlement of the single pile is 2mm.
Settlement of pile group
Pile group in Clays:
• For bearing piles the total foundation load is assumed to act at the base of the piles on an
imaginary foundation of the same size as the plan of the pile group as show in Fig.
• For friction piles it is virtually impossible to determine the level at which the structural
load is effectively transferred to the soil. The level used in design is at a depth of two-
thirds the penetration depth.
Pile groups in sand

• where S is the ratio of pile spacing to pile diameter and r is the

number of rows in a pile group.
Negative Skin Friction
• ‘Negative skin friction’ or ‘down drag’ is a phenomenon which occurs when a soil layer
surrounding a portion of the pile shaft settles more than the pile.
• This condition can develop where a soft or loose soil stratum located anywhere above the
pile tip is subjected to new compressive loading.
• If a soft or loose layer settles after the pile has been installed, the skin-friction-adhesion
developing in this zone is in the direction of the soil movement, pulling the pile
downward, as shown in Fig. Extra loading is thus imposed on the pile.

• Negative skin friction may also occur by the lowering

of ground water which increases the effective stress
inducing consolidation and consequent settlement of
the soil surrounding the pile.
Negative Skin Friction
• It is necessary to subtract negative skin friction force from the total load that
the pile can support. In such a case the factor of safety will be modified as
follows:

• Values of negative skin force are computed in just the same way as positive
skin friction.
• For cohesive soils:
Negative Skin Friction
• For cohesionless soils:

• Sometimes negative skin friction may develop even in the zone of the fill, if the fill itself is
settling under its self-weight.
• When a large magnitude of negative skin friction force is anticipated, a protective sleeve
or coating may be provided for the section that is embedded in the settling soil.
• Skin friction is thus eliminated for this section of the pile and a down drag is prevented.
• Negative skin force may be computed even for pile groups.
Uses of bentonite in pile construction
• Bentonite is a very fine-grained clayey material having a high percentage of
montmorillonite mineral. Bentonite clay is a mined product. Usually, two types are there
– Sodium based and Calcium based. Sodium based is suitable for soil stabilization work.
• Bentonite slurry shall be used for stabilizing the sides of the pile borehole. Bentonite
powder shall be mixed with water to make slurry having specified
parameters, conforming to IS:6186 and procured from the established source shall be
used.
• During pile boring: During pile boring operation, due to the collapse of the inside
diameter of the borehole increases irregularly. Actual pouring of concrete in pile bore will
increase to fill the over breakage volume.
• Before pouring of concrete: After flushing of the borehole bottom and before pouring of
concrete into the pile bore, if side soils of the borehole collapse, again loose muck will be
deposited at the pile bottom which affects the quality and end bearing capacity of pile
adversely.
• During pile concrete: During concreting there is a chance of producing some soil pockets
inside the build-up concrete, which may cause damage to the pile shaft and decrease the
load bearing capacity of the pile.
 Practice Problems
• A pile is driven in a uniform clay of large depth. The clay has an unconfined compression
strength of 90 kN/m2. The pile is 30 cm diameter and 6 m long. Determine the safe
frictional resistance of the pile, assuming a factor of safety of 3. Assume the adhesion factor
α = 0.7.
• Design a square pile group to carry 400 kN in clay with an unconfined compression strength
of 60 kN/m2. The piles are 30 cm diameter and 6 m long. Adhesion factor may be taken as
0.6.
• A 16-pile group has to be arranged in the form of a square in soft clay with uniform spacing.
Neglecting end-bearing, determine the optimum value of the spacing of the piles in terms
of the pile diameter, assuming a shear mobilisation factor of 0.6.
 Acknowledgements
• Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by Murthy V. N. S.
• Textbook of Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics by Gopal Ranjan & Rao A.S.R.
• Geotechnical Engineering By C.Venkatramaiah.
• Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by K.R. Arora.
• Internet sources.
• NPTEL lecture notes on Earthquake Resistant Design of Foundations.