REVIEWER FOR PR2

Quantitative research is an objective, systematic, empirical investigation of the observable

phenomena through the use of computational techniques. It highlights numerical analysis of data
hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger population and
explain a particular observation. Simple quantitative research is concerned with numbers and its
relationship with events. (Faltado et. al 2017)

Quantitative research has seven (7) characteristics and these are the following:

1. Objective.
2. Clearly defined Research Questions.
3. Structured Research Instruments.
4. Numerical Data.
5. Large Sample sizes.
6. Replication.
7. Future Outcomes.

Strengths of Quantitative Research

1. Quantitative research is objective. Misinterpretation is very minimal in this type of research

because it provides numerical data.

2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows the researcher to
comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics of data.

3. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing the statistically
valid random models, findings can be generalized to the population about which information
is necessary.

4. Quantitative studies are replicable, standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated
in different areas or over time with the formulation of comprehensible findings.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the larger the
sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.

2. Quantitative research is costly. Since there are more respondents compared to qualitative
research, the expenses will be greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing the
questionnaires.

3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are
usually ignored. Unlike qualitative research, quantitative research does not consider the distinct
capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information.

4. Information is difficult to gather using structured research instruments specifically sensitive issues
like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, among others.
 5. Data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate if it is not done seriously and
correctly. Some respondents may be just guessing in answering the instrument.

Kinds of Quantitative Research

1. Descriptive Research. This design is concerned with describing the nature, characteristics and
components of the population or a phenomenon. This design is used to find general attributes of
the presently existing situation and determine the frequency with which it occurs. Descriptive
research is used if you want to know how many hours a student spends in social media, the number
of malnourished students who failed in the achievement test, and how healthy is the food served
during the recess in the public school.

2. Correlational Research. It is a systematic investigation of the nature of relationship, or associations

between among variables without necessarily investigating into causal reasons underlying them. It
is also concerned with the extent of relationships that exists between or among the variables. For
example, if review program results can be used to predict performance in the University of the
Philippines College Admission Test (UPCAT), then the higher the review program grade, the most
likely be the score in the UPCAT. Correlational research is employed if you like to know, for example,
if the following factors are related to each other: sex and mathematical ability, marriage and
cancer recovery, occupation and life span.

3. Evaluation Research. It aims to assess the effects and impacts or outcomes of practices, policies
and programs. Assessing of leadership ability in a community and determining the impact of new
teaching procedure for students are examples of evaluation research.

4. Survey Research. It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying
samples chosen from population.it may be done in various ways like face-to-face, phone, mail,
and online.
A survey research may be cross-sectional if the information is collected from a sample in just
single point of time just like the child-rearing practices of single parents, and population practices
of unmarried couples. A survey research is considered longitudinal if the researcher collects
information on the same subjects over a period of time, sometimes lasting many years in order to
study the changes through the years. Longitudinal survey is utilized, for example, to determine the
growth of rice yield in the country and the rate of promotion of doctorate degree holders five years
after earning the degree.

5. Causal Comparative Research. It is also known as ex post facto (after the fact) research. This kind
of research derives conclusion from observations and manifestation that already occurred in the
past and now compared to some dependent variables. It discusses why and how a phenomenon
occurs. For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences stress coping level of adults.
Here, the subjects would be separated into different group (underweight, normal weight, over
weight) and their stress-coping levels measured. This is an ex post facto design because pre-existing
characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups.

6. Experimental Research. This research utilizes scientific method to test cause and-effect relationships
under conditions controlled by the researcher. In this case an effort is made to determine and
 impose control over all other variables except one. An independent variable is manipulated to
determine the effects on the dependent variables. For instance, a teacher would like to know if a
new teaching strategy is effective or not so he/she teaches one section using the new strategy and
teaches another comparable section without the new strategy, then an achievement test was
given to the two sections. The manipulated independent variable is the new teaching strategy
which is being tested if it has an effect on the dependent variable which is the achievement of the
students. Notice that the sections are comparable with one another meaning all other variables
are controlled by the teacher.

IMPORTANT IN DIFFERENT FIELDS

For Accountancy, Business, and Management (ABM), quantitative research helps
• design a new product or service considering the demand of the people;
• ensure the adequate distribution of the products;
• determine the proper time to open a store and/or to apply for a new loan;
• give small business knowledge of the proper procedure and strategy to meet the necessities of
the customers; and
• remain any organization to be competitive, find the most feasible location for an enterprise,
deliver quality goods and services, analyze what competitors are doing and find ways on how
to fulfill continuously the needs of the clients.

For Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), quantitative research helps
• provide medical practitioners information about disease trends and risks factors, results of
various health interventions, patterns of care, and health care cost and use;
• determine the effectiveness and even side effects of drugs and therapies in different
populations;
• evaluate the experiences in clinical practice in developing mechanisms for best practices and
in ensuring high-quality patient care;
• provide engineers, architects, and other builders creative, conveniently beautiful, and efficient
designs as they utilize modern technology in adapting to the ever-changing society; and
• develop new materials and procedures to further strengthen the structural materials that can
withstand various calamities and disasters.

For Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS), quantitative research helps

• provide solutions to the social problems directly felt by people including societal behaviors and
social issues such as stress, work ethics, organizational commitment, leadership style, child labor,
teenage pregnancy, human trafficking, drug addiction, and other forms of criminality; and
• understand social interactions to formulate new theories and practices which promote the
development and welfare of the society.

For Sports, quantitative research helps (Sports Research: Tips for Reading and Interpreting Studies 2018)
• explain the basic mechanisms about how athletes function;
• offer coaches and athletes ways to gain solid information and apply it to sports performance;
and
• provide coaches concepts to develop programs and coaching techniques

For Technical-Vocational Livelihood (TVL), quantitative research helps (Rauner and Maclean 2008)
 • support the dynamics of standard technological and economic development, the
establishment of labor markets, and mobility of employees; and
• provide vocational education and training to serve qualified and skilled workers

For Arts and Design, quantitative research helps (Freach 2011)

• give designers and clients a much more nuanced understanding of the people for whom they
design while providing knowledge that addresses some of the most fundamental questions
people face throughout the process which include learning about people’s behavior,
understanding culture, defining context, and setting focus.

I. Definition of Variables

Variables are changing qualities or characteristics of persons or things. (Suter 2013 in Baraceros
2016, 29). For example, a person's hairstyle is a potential variable, which could be "straight" for one
person and "curly" for another.

II. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Variables

Variables can be classified as qualitative or quantitative.

● Qualitative. Qualitative variables take on values that are names or labels. The color of a shirt
(e.g., red, green, blue) or the size of a shirt (e.g., small, medium, large) would be examples of
qualitative or categorical variables.

● Quantitative. Quantitative variables are numeric. They represent a measurable quantity. For
example, when we speak of the population of a school, we are talking about the number of
people in the school - a measurable attribute of the school. Therefore, the population would be
a quantitative variable.

The classification of variables is very useful for researchers in deciding which analytical procedure
should be used. It helps us determine what data to be collected, how to collect it, and which method
of analysis should be used.

III. Qualitative Variables

Qualitative variables can be further classified as nominal or ordinal variables.

1. Nominal Variable. A type of variable used to name, label, or categorize particular attributes
that are being measured without ordering of the categories.

Some examples of nominal variables include gender, skin color, blood type, etc.

2. Ordinal Variable. A type of variable used to categorize particular attributes with an order or
rank. This can be with a numeric value or without numeric value.

IV. Quantitative Variables

 Quantitative variables can be further classified as interval or ratio variables

1. Interval Variable. A type of variable used to define values measured along a scale, with each
point placed at an equal distance from one another. Addition and subtraction operations can
be performed on the numerical values of this variable type.

Examples

o Temperature: Temperature, when measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit is considered as an

interval variable because 0 is arbitrary. That is, 0°C and 0°F do not mean no temperature.

o IQ Test: An individual cannot have a zero IQ, so this satisfies the no zero property of an
interval variable. The level of an individual's IQ will be determined, depending on which
interval the score falls in.

o Time: Time is a good example of an interval variable when measured using a 12-hour
clock. The numbers on a wall clock are on an interval scale since they are equidistant
and measurable. For example, the difference between 1 o’clock and 2 o’clock is the
same as that between 2 o’clock and 3 o’clock.

2. Ratio Variable. A numeric variable having a zero value. Addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division operations can be performed on the numerical values of this variable type.

Some examples of ratio variables include time spent on the internet daily, height in feet
and inches, and weight in kilograms

For temperature, when measured in Kelvin, is an example of ratio variables. The presence
of a zero-point accommodates the measurement in Kelvin.

Discrete and continuous variables are two types of quantitative variables: Discrete variables represent
counts (e.g. the number of objects in a collection). Continuous variables represent measurable
amounts (e.g. water volume or weight).

I. Independent Variables (IV)

Independent variables (IV) are those that are suspected of being the cause in a causal relationship.
If we are asking a cause and effect question, our IV will be the variable (or variables if more than one)
that we suspect causes the effect.

There are two main sorts of IV, active IV and attribute IV:

● Active IV are interventions or conditions we apply to participants. These can be a teaching

strategy for the nursery students, a new therapy for clients, or a new training program being
tested on employees.
 ● Attribute IV are intrinsic characteristics of the participants that are suspected of causing a result.
For example, if we are examining whether gender—which is intrinsic to the participants—results
in higher or lower scores on some skill, then gender is an attribute IV.

Independent variables can be called predictor or criterion variable in predictive questions where
a variable is thought to predict another variable, rather than asked whether it causes the other.

II. Dependent Variables (DV)

Dependent variables (DV) are those that are influenced by the IV. If we ask, "Does A
cause/predict/influence/affect B?," then B is the DV.

● DV are variables that depend on or are influenced by the IV.

● DV are outcomes or results of the influence of the IV.
● DV answer the question: What do I observe happening when I apply the intervention?
● DV receives the intervention.

The dependent variables are usually called outcome variables in predictive questions or questions
about differences between groups but no manipulation of an IV.

An extraneous variable is any variable that you're not investigating that can potentially affect the
dependent variable of your research study. A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable
that not only affects the dependent variable, but is also related to the independent variable.

Quantitative Research Problem

A research topic or problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer in the form of
scientific inquiry. It is a general question about relations among variables that you need to undertake
as a researcher. (Birion et.al, 2005, p.7 in Faltado, et. al 2017)

A quantitative research problem is any researchable research problem geared toward a

possible result. (Baraceros 2016)

Sources of Quantitative Research Problem

Wondering where you can find quantitative research problems? The following are the possible
sources of quantitative research problems.

1. Personal experiences and interests. Your everyday personal or professional experience may lead
you to identify a research problem for which you would like to solve. For example, personally, you
may prefer the taste of organically produced rice and wonder if people, in general, prefer the taste
of organically produced rice to those produced non-organically.

2. Related studies and literature. While reading many sources of literature such as books, journal
articles, and newspapers, there are research problems that may capture your interest. As you read,
some ideas may let you think and realize that there is a need to conduct research to validate the
body of knowledge and/or consider that some studies are suffering from inconsistencies or
discrepancies.
3. Prevailing theories and philosophies. These are beliefs and ideas of the people around us which
may lead you to conduct a study. An example of it is the idea that men are better leaders than
women, and/or students who study from private schools are brighter than those who study in public
schools.

4. Funding agencies. Some research problems are suggestions of agencies of the government or any
non-government institutions. They provide researchers funds for them to have research-based data.

Criteria of Good Quantitative Research Problem

A good research problem can be represented by the acronym FINER.

F - Feasible. You must have the ability to carry out the research. You need to be realistic about its
scope and scale. You must have enough materials and sources of information to study. Moreover,
the research problem has to be clear and focused to be feasible.

I - Interesting. You must be interested in the research problem with much willingness, dedication, and
commitment. This interest will motivate you to finish your research.

N - Novel. The research problem does not simply copy questions investigated by other workers but
should have the scope to be investigated. It may aim at confirming or refuting the already
established findings, establish new facts, or find new aspects of the facts. Also, it is not answerable
by yes or no. It has to be simple and clear, not too broad, and not too narrow.

E - Ethical. The research to be conducted must be approved by the appropriate authorities. Further, it
should be such that minimizes the risk of harm to the participants, protect the privacy and maintain
their confidentiality, and provide the participants the right to withdraw from research. It should also
guide in avoiding deceptive practices in research.

R - Relevant. The question should be academic and intellectual interest to people in the field you have
chosen to study.

Selected Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Title

The research title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the study. It must contain the
following:
A. the subject matter or research problem
B. the setting or locale of the study
C. the respondents or participants involved in the study
D. the time or period when the study was conducted.

The Contents of Background of Research

The background of research contains the following elements.

1. Research justification. This involves providing your reader critical background or contextual
information that introduces your topic area. This also indicates why your research is important. You
can write it by presenting a central concern or to which your research relates.

2. Summary of the literature review. This part includes a review of the existing literature on the area of
your research, leading up to your topic. You have to discuss the contribution of other researchers
in the field and identify gaps in it. Such gaps are the areas that are not yet addressed from such
existing literature. Then, you can explain how your study will address these gaps and how it will
contribute to the existing knowledge in the field.

3. The research aim or objective. This is a concise statement at the close of the literature review
indicating the general aim or purpose of your research project.

4. The summary of the research design. This explains how the research aims will be achieved. This
might include the method/s that will be used (interviews, surveys, video observation, diary
recording); if the research will be phased, how many phases, and what methods will be used in
each phase; and brief reference to how the data will be analyzed.

Research Questions

Research questions are the subparts of the main research problem which are also called sub
problems. The answer to these will lead to the resolution of the main researchable research problem.

Characteristics of the Research Questions

1. Research questions must add up to the totality of the problem statement. This means that your
research questions must be established from the research situations which will lead to answer your
researchable research problem. Do not include questions in excess to the coverage of the research
problem. Do not omit significant questions that will help you cover all significant areas of the research
problem.

2. Each research question should be a completely researchable unit in and of itself. This means
that each of your research question must be researchable as a separate study to become a part of
the whole. It should not duplicate or overlap the other sub-problems or other research question.

3. Interpretation of data should be apparent in a research question, like that in a researchable

problem. There are times that people are mistaken with the procedural or process questions to be
research questions. An example of it is something like "What is the best way to choose a sample" or
"What instruments or methods should be used to gather the data"? Since these questions are
answerable without extensive research or interpretation of data, these are not valid research questions.
Also, each question must not be answerable by yes or no.

The Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The scope and delimitations of the study simply presents the topic and boundaries of the
research problem you are going to investigate.

The Scope of a Study

Scope refers to the coverage at which the research area will be explored. Facts and theories
about the target participants are included in this area. For example, as a researcher, you may decide
to investigate the impact of using gadgets on the behavior patterns of elementary students. However,
it is impossible to consider all aspects of the target participants. As a result, the scope shall be limited
to a specific sample size of the target population over a certain period of time.

For you to write a good scope statement, you have to consider the following questions:
• Why – the general aims and objectives (purpose) of the research.
• What – the topic of investigation
• Where – the location or setting of the study (the place where the data will be gathered)
• When – the timeframe within which the data is to be collected.
• Who – the subject of the study and the population from which they will be selected. This
population needs to be large enough to be able to make generalizations.
• How – how the research is to be conducted, including a description of the research design,
methodology, research tools and analysis techniques.

Delimitation of a Study
Delimitation is the parameters or characteristics that limit the scope and set the boundaries of
the study. These may include sample size, time, and geographic area. As a researcher, you are free to
decide what research tools and methodologies you are going to use. Insufficient time and financial
resources are also delimitations that can be imposed to allow further analysis or investigations.

Purposes of a literature review

Aside from giving support to the topic, these are the purposes of literature review according to
Baraceros (2016):

➢ To know the different concepts, ideas, theories that are related to your study and learn from
them through connecting them with your own research paper.
➢ To have more basis in proving that your research topic is correct and relevant.
➢ To learn more terms, especially the unfamiliar ones, that are related to your study.
➢ To connect the past researches, thesis or dissertation to your current research study.
➢ To know the connectedness of your paper to the current situation of the country and of the
world.

SELECTING RELEVANT LITERATURE

Once you have found the articles, books, or information, you need to examine the materials. To
help you in choosing the right reference, check out these guidelines:

1. Examine the title – A good title should be specific and contains the major variables of the study.
2. Screening for inclusion – This includes the applicability of the studies previously identified and
selecting or excluding them.
3. Extracting data – This involves gathering applicable information from each primary study
included in the review.
4. Analyzing and synthesizing data – This last step requires the authors to organize, compare,
collate, summarize, aggregate, or interpret the information previously extracted to suggest a
new contribution to the body of knowledge.
Characteristics of Materials Cited

Samo, as cited in Prieto (2017), enumerated the different characteristics of the literature and studies to
be acknowledged in the present studies:

1. Materials must relevant to the research topic.

2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible.

3. Materials must be as recent as possible, up to 10 years back.

CITING RELATED LITERATURE USING STANDARD STYLES

In taking down notes for your review of related literature, you should also include where you get
those details so that you can acknowledge the creator. There are different formats in citing sources for
the research paper. Here are some of the most common citation styles:

✓ APA (American Psychological Association). It is an author/date-based citation style. This means the
emphasis is placed on the author and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it. (Author,
date) Author (Date)

✓ MLA (Modern Language Association). It is the most often used in arts and humanities papers
particularly in the USA. It is probably the most used of all citation styles. Unlike in APA, MLA
emphasizes on the author and page of the article/source used. (Author page), Author (page)

✓ AMA (American Medical Association) or Vancouver. The Vancouver system is mainly used in
medical and scientific papers.

✓ Chicago Manual of Style. It includes two systems for in-text citation such as author-date system and
notes-bibliography system. The NB system is mostly used in historical papers. It is almost similar to that
of the APA in-text citation style.
Examples:

• APA – (Reyes, 2012) or Reyes (2012)

• MLA – (Reyes p917)
• AMA/Vancouver – numbering with either square [ ] or curved brackets ( ) can be used as long
as it is consistent (i.e. Research is fun! [1])
• Chicago – (Reyes 2012) or Reyes (2012)

In writing the research paper, for this matter, you will need to use the Chicago Manual of Style
(CMOS) 17th edition format. With the mentioned two systems of CMOS above, you will only use the
author-date system. Remember that you should always align your parenthetical citations to that of
your reference list. And since you are to use the author-date system, the term to be used for the
complete list of sources is ‘References’ rather than ‘Bibliography’.

How to Use Proper APA Citation

 Not all the time that author is only one. There are instances that authors are multiples and/or if
the date is not available.

✓ When citing multiple authors (this refers to 2-3 authors) in a parenthetical citation, use the word
“and” instead of ampersand “&”.
✓ When citing multiple authors (this refers to 4 to 10 authors) in a parenthetical citation, write out
the last name of the first author plus “et al.” without a comma after the last name.
✓ If there is no available date of publication, you can use the access date or use the abbreviation
“n.d.”
✓ If there is no author, cite by its title. But make sure to make it shorten (up to four keywords).

Two Authors: (Reyes and Dalisay 2003) or Reyes and Dalisay (2003)

Four to ten authors:

Gungon et al. (2019) …

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework serves as the outline that you can follow in doing your research. It is
also useful in analyzing a particular research or study. It is sometimes called the ‘blueprint’ of the
research as it shows the overview of the research or the ‘plan’ in doing the research. It is mostly
presented through diagrams, charts, or maps, and rarely through a narrative form.

Nature and Purposes

A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a
preferred approach to an idea or thought. In most cases, the framework is presented in diagrams or
graphs.

Figure 1. Purposes of Conceptual Framework

Example of a Conceptual Framework

Refer to the example of a conceptual framework below. It uses the common format in
presenting the paradigm which is the IPO (input-process-output). However, you can also showcase
your creativity in presenting your research’s blueprint.
 Don’t forget that after the diagram, you should always follow it up with an explanation of what
is written or included in the diagram. This will help readers in understanding your plan.

Figure 2. IPO format of Conceptual Framework

What should be included in INPUT?

- The needed information for your research.

- The information that mostly comes from external factors or subjects/respondents
- Everything that you need for your research (i.e. information, materials, paper works)
What is included in the PROCESS?

- The action you will perform to get the information written in the input
- What will you do to the information or data you gathered?
What is written in OUTPUT?

- The expected result after processing the input

Aside from the IPO format, there are other ways on how you can create your conceptual
framework diagram.

Remember:

Arrow is used to show cause and effect relationship

Solid line is used to show connection or correlation

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Organizing Definitions

Just like what we stated above, an important part of writing a research paper is to give
definitions of key terms. There are two types of definitions:
Conceptual definition – this is the universal definition that is accepted worldwide. Additionally, the
meaning of the term is mostly taken from the dictionary.

Operational definition – the definition is based on the observed characteristics and how it is used in the
study.

SPATULA

Conceptual definition: a kitchen utensil with a broad flat blade for lifting and turning food.

Operational Definition: stainless steel utensil that looked like a spoon on one side and flat end
on the other side. It was used for scraping and transferring a sample to Petri dish.

MIRROR

Conceptual definition: a reflective surface, now typically of glass coated with a metal
amalgam, that reflects a clear image.

Operational Definition: connecting a device (usually from smartphone) to a television without

the use of a cable wire.

INSIDER

Conceptual definition: a person within a group or organization, especially someone privy to

information unavailable to others.

Operational Definition: a person the researchers refer to and trusted when they need
information from specific organization

PAX

Conceptual definition: a person or persons

Operational Definition: shorter version for a person or persons and mostly used when referring to
a cost or value of a package.

BEAT

Conceptual definition: to strike (a person or an animal) repeatedly and violently so as to hurt or

injure them, typically with an implement such as a club or whip.

Operational Definition: to stir using a fork, whisk or a beater

HYBRID

Conceptual definition: a thing made by combining two different elements; a mixture.

Operational Definition: a car with a gasoline engine and an electric motor, each of which can
propel it

CANVAS

Conceptual definition: a strong, coarse unbleached cloth made from hemp, flax, cotton, or a
similar yarn, used to make items such as sails and tents and as a surface for oil painting.
 Operational Definition: a piece of cloth, mostly white, used as a medium for oil painting

TRAVELLING

Conceptual definition: make a journey, typically of some length or abroad.

Operational Definition: In basketball, it is taking more than two steps while holding the basketball
without dribbling it

LEVERAGE

Conceptual definition: the exertion of force using a lever, or an object used in the manner of a
lever.

Operational Definition: the ratio of a company's loan capital (debt) to the value of its common
stock (equity).

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is a prediction of what might be the answer to your research question/s and it
typically focused on the relationship of two different variables used in the study (Crossman 2019).
Formulating a hypothesis is one of the most tedious tasks in writing a research paper. The hypothesis
gives directions to the collection and interpretation of data thus it should be well-grounded and written
before the said actions.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Null Hypothesis (H0) – represents a theory that has been put forward, either because it is believed to
be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument but has not been proven.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) – is a statement of what a hypothesis test is set up to establish. This is the
opposite of the null hypothesis and can only be reached once the null hypothesis is rejected. Mostly,
the alternative hypothesis is the actual desired answer of the researcher/s.

Example:

H0 – There is no difference between the two medicines on average.

Ha – The two medicines have different effects, on average.

HOW TO WRITE A SYNTHESIS

Previously, you have known what the right articles and sources you should select. In this part of
the module, you will be given tips on how to synthesize all the information from different sources. It is
like creating a puzzle; you have to combine the right piece (article) and make a whole picture. Here
are the tips:

1. Collect all the literature and studies related to your research and could somehow answer your
research question.
2. From each literature and study, select the most relevant part (take note of it, analyze,
paraphrase, and then summarize)
3. After paraphrasing each literature and study, summarize it by critically comparing and showing
their differences and then relate it to your current study.
Remember to take note as well all the references you have selected!

Techniques for Writing a Synthesis

1. Summary. The most uncomplicated way of assembling a synthesis. Here, you write one after the
other the most relevant information and sources you gathered.
2. Example or Illustration. For the reader to clearly understand the connection of each literature
and study, it would be better to give off some examples or even illustrations.
3. Two (or more) reasons. This one starts with stating your research topic or objective then provide
reasons why it is true, timely or relevant. Of course, you have to support all your explanations
with the evidences you have gathered (literatures and studies).
4. Comparison and Contrast. This one needs a thorough understanding of your topic and
examination of your collected references. You have to explore each of the relevant literature
and see its similarities and differences to other literatures you have and to your research topic.