STUDY MATERIAL

Foundation for AI and Data Science

 15 MARKS IN Data Science [ DTSC ] ---- CLASS XI

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 Syllabus for Section 3 : Foundation for AI and Data science [ 15 Marks ] -
ARTI

 History of AI : Alan Turing and cracking enigma , mark 1 machines , 1956-

the birth of the term AI , AI winter of 70’s , expert systems of 1980s, skipped
journey of present day AI, pattern recognition and Machine learning

 Brief History of Data Science , Data Science as a conjunction of computer

science statistics and domain knowledge . Definition of Data Science ,
Data Science Life Cycle – capture , maintain , process , analyze ,
communicate

 Introduction to Linear Algebra and statistics for AI :

Basic matrix operations like matrix addition , subtraction , multiplication
, transpose of matrix , identity matrix.
Brief introduction to vectors , unit vector , normal vector , Euclidean
space.
Probability distribution , frequency , mean , median and mode , variance
and standard deviation , Gaussian distribution.
Correlation , Regression , parametric , non-parametric tests ( Basic idea )
Distance function , Euclidean norm , distance between two points in 2D
and 3D and extension of idea to n dimensions.

 Basic ideas of different Data Science Toolkit : Excel , R

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  CONTENTS

Sl No Topic Page No
1 AI-Basic Concept 4
2 History of AI 18
3 Turing Test 28
4 Data Science – Basic Concept 31
5 Distance function , Euclidean Norm , 35
Distance between two points in 2D , 3D
and n dimension
6 Correlation and Regression 39
7 Uniform Distribution , parametric , non- 52
parametric tests
8 Data Science Tool Kit 64
9 R 69

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What Is Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial Intelligence is currently one of the hottest buzzwords in tech and with
good reason. The last few years have seen several innovations and
advancements that have previously been solely in the realm of science fiction
slowly transform into reality.
Experts regard artificial intelligence as a factor of production, which has the
potential to introduce new sources of growth and change the way work is done
across industries. China and the United States are primed to benefit the most
from the coming AI boom, accounting for nearly 70% of the global impact.
Artificial Intelligence is a method of making a computer, a computer-controlled
robot, or a software think intelligently like the human mind. AI is accomplished
by studying the patterns of the human brain and by analyzing the cognitive
process. The outcome of these studies develops intelligent software and
systems.

Weak AI vs. Strong AI

When discussing artificial intelligence (AI), it is common to distinguish between
two broad categories: weak AI and strong AI.
Weak AI (Narrow AI)
Weak AI refers to AI systems that are designed to perform specific tasks and are
limited to those tasks only. These AI systems excel at their designated functions

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but lack general intelligence. Examples of weak AI include voice assistants like Siri
or Alexa, recommendation algorithms, and image recognition systems. Weak AI
operates within predefined boundaries and cannot generalize beyond their
specialized domain.
Strong AI (General AI)
Strong AI, also known as general AI, refers to AI systems that possess human-level
intelligence or even surpass human intelligence across a wide range of tasks.
Strong AI would be capable of understanding, reasoning, learning, and applying
knowledge to solve complex problems in a manner similar to human cognition.
However, the development of strong AI is still largely theoretical and has not been
achieved to date.

Types of Artificial Intelligence

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1. Narrow AI (or Weak AI): Specialized AI designed for specific tasks.

2. General AI (or Strong AI): Human-level intelligence, still theoretical.

3. Artificial Superintelligence (ASI): Hypothetical AI surpassing human intellect.

1. Purely Reactive
These machines do not have any memory or data to work with, specializing in just
one field of work. For example, in a chess game, the machine observes the moves
and makes the best possible decision to win.

2. Limited Memory
These machines collect previous data and continue adding it to their memory.
They have enough memory or experience to make proper decisions, but memory
is minimal. For example, this machine can suggest a restaurant based on the
location data that has been gathered.

3. Theory of Mind
This kind of AI can understand thoughts and emotions, as well as interact socially.
However, a machine based on this type is yet to be built.

4. Self-Aware

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Self-aware machines are the future generation of these new technologies . They
will be intelligent, sentient, and conscious.

Deep Learning vs. Machine Learning

Machine Learning:
Machine Learning focuses on the development of algorithms and models that
enable computers to learn from data and make predictions or decisions without
explicit programming. Here are key characteristics of machine learning:

1. Feature Engineering: In machine learning, experts manually engineer or

select relevant features from the input data to aid the algorithm in
making accurate predictions.
2. Supervised and Unsupervised Learning: Machine learning algorithms
can be categorized into supervised learning, where models learn from
labeled data with known outcomes, and unsupervised learning, where
algorithms discover patterns and structures in unlabeled data.
3. Broad Applicability: Machine learning techniques find application across
various domains, including image and speech recognition, natural
language processing, and recommendation systems.

Deep Learning:
Deep Learning is a subset of machine learning that focuses on training artificial
neural networks inspired by the human brain's structure and functioning. Here are
key characteristics of deep learning:

1. Automatic Feature Extraction: Deep learning algorithms have the ability

to automatically extract relevant features from raw data, eliminating the
need for explicit feature engineering.

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 2. Deep Neural Networks: Deep learning employs neural networks with
multiple layers of interconnected nodes (neurons), enabling the learning
of complex hierarchical representations of data.
3. High Performance: Deep learning has demonstrated exceptional
performance in domains such as computer vision, natural language
processing, and speech recognition, often surpassing traditional
machine learning approaches.

How Does Artificial Intelligence Work?

Put simply, AI systems work by merging large with intelligent, iterative processing
algorithms. This combination allows AI to learn from patterns and features in the
analyzed data. Each time an Artificial Intelligence system performs a round
of data processing, it tests and measures its performance and uses the results to
develop additional expertise.

Ways of Implementing AI

Machine Learning

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It is machine learning that gives AI the ability to learn. This is done by
using algorithms to discover patterns and generate insights from the data they
are exposed to.
Deep Learning
Deep learning, which is a subcategory of machine learning, provides AI with the
ability to mimic a human brain’s neural network. It can make sense of patterns,
noise, and sources of confusion in the data.

AI Programming Cognitive Skills: Learning, Reasoning and Self-Correction

Artificial Intelligence emphasizes three cognitive skills of learning, reasoning, and

self-correction, skills that the human brain possess to one degree or another. We
define these in the context of AI as:

 Learning: The acquisition of information and the rules needed to use that
information.
 Reasoning: Using the information rules to reach definite or approximate
conclusions.
 Self-Correction: The process of continually fine-tuning AI algorithms and
ensuring that they offer the most accurate results they can.

However, researchers and programmers have extended and elaborated the goals
of AI to the following:

1. Logical Reasoning

AI programs enable computers to perform sophisticated tasks. On

February 10, 1996, IBM’s Deep Blue computer won a game of chess
against a former world champion, Garry Kasparov.

2. Knowledge Representation

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 Smalltalk is an object-oriented, dynamically typed, reflective
programming language that was created to underpin the “new world” of
computing exemplified by “human-computer symbiosis.”

3. Planning and Navigation

The process of enabling a computer to get from point A to point B. A

prime example of this is Google’s self-driving Toyota Prius.

4. Natural Language Processing

Set up computers that can understand and process language.

5. Perception

Use computers to interact with the world through sight, hearing, touch,
and smell.

6. Emergent Intelligence

Intelligence that is not explicitly programmed, but emerges from the rest
of the specific AI features. The vision for this goal is to have machines
exhibit emotional intelligence and moral reasoning.
Some of the tasks performed by AI-enabled devices include:

 Speech recognition
 Object detection
 Solve problems and learn from the given data
 Plan an approach for future tests to be done

Advantages and Disadvantages of AI

Artificial intelligence has its pluses and minuses, much like any other concept or
innovation. Here’s a quick rundown of some pros and cons.

Pros

 It reduces human error

 It never sleeps, so it’s available 24x7
 It never gets bored, so it easily handles repetitive tasks
 It’s fast

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Cons
 It’s costly to implement
 It can’t duplicate human creativity
 It will definitely replace some jobs, leading to unemployment
 People can become overly reliant on it

Applications of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) has a wide range of applications across various
industries and domains. Here are some notable applications of AI:

 Natural Language Processing (NLP)

AI is used in NLP to analyze and understand human language. It powers
applications such as speech recognition, machine translation, sentiment analysis,
and virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa.

 Image and Video Analysis

AI techniques, including computer vision, enable the analysis and interpretation of
images and videos. This finds application in facial recognition, object detection
and tracking, content moderation, medical imaging, and autonomous vehicles.

 Robotics and Automation

AI plays a crucial role in robotics and automation systems. Robots equipped with
AI algorithms can perform complex tasks in manufacturing, healthcare, logistics,
and exploration. They can adapt to changing environments, learn from
experience, and collaborate with humans.

 Recommendation Systems
AI-powered recommendation systems are used in e-commerce, streaming
platforms, and social media to personalize user experiences. They analyze user
preferences, behavior, and historical data to suggest relevant products, movies,
music, or content.

 Financial Services
AI is extensively used in the finance industry for fraud detection, algorithmic
trading, credit scoring, and risk assessment. Machine learning models can
analyze vast amounts of financial data to identify patterns and make predictions.

 Healthcare

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AI applications in healthcare include disease diagnosis, medical imaging
analysis, drug discovery, personalized medicine, and patient monitoring. AI can
assist in identifying patterns in medical data and provide insights for better
diagnosis and treatment.

 Virtual Assistants and Chatbots

AI-powered virtual assistants and chatbots interact with users, understand their
queries, and provide relevant information or perform tasks. They are used in
customer support, information retrieval, and personalized assistance.

 Gaming
AI algorithms are employed in gaming for creating realistic virtual characters,
opponent behavior, and intelligent decision-making. AI is also used to optimize
game graphics, physics simulations, and game testing.

 Smart Homes and IoT

AI enables the development of smart home systems that can automate tasks,
control devices, and learn from user preferences. AI can enhance the functionality
and efficiency of Internet of Things (IoT) devices and networks.

 Cybersecurity
AI helps in detecting and preventing cyber threats by analyzing network traffic,
identifying anomalies, and predicting potential attacks. It can enhance the
security of systems and data through advanced threat detection and response
mechanisms.
These are just a few examples of how AI is applied in various fields. The potential
of AI is vast, and its applications continue to expand as technology advances.

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Artificial Intelligence Examples
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become an integral part of our daily lives,
revolutionizing various industries and enhancing user experiences. Here are some
notable examples of AI applications:

ChatGPT is an advanced language model developed by OpenAI, capable of

generating human-like responses and engaging in natural language
conversations. It uses deep learning techniques to understand and generate
coherent text, making it useful for customer support, chatbots, and virtual
assistants.

Google Maps utilizes AI algorithms to provide real-time navigation, traffic

updates, and personalized recommendations. It analyzes vast amounts of data,
including historical traffic patterns and user input, to suggest the fastest routes,
estimate arrival times, and even predict traffic congestion.

Smart Assistants

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Smart assistants like Amazon's Alexa, Apple's Siri, and Google Assistant employ AI
technologies to interpret voice commands, answer questions, and perform tasks.
These assistants use natural language processing and machine learning
algorithms to understand user intent, retrieve relevant information, and carry out
requested actions.

Snapchat Filters

Snapchat's augmented reality filters, or "Lenses," incorporate AI to recognize facial

features, track movements, and overlay interactive effects on users' faces in real-
time. AI algorithms enable Snapchat to apply various filters, masks, and
animations that align with the user's facial expressions and movements.

Self-Driving Cars

Self-driving cars rely heavily on AI for perception, decision-making, and control.

Using a combination of sensors, cameras, and machine learning algorithms,
these vehicles can detect objects, interpret traffic signs, and navigate complex
road conditions autonomously, enhancing safety and efficiency on the roads.

Wearables

Wearable devices, such as fitness trackers and smartwatches, utilize AI to monitor

and analyze users' health data. They track activities, heart rate, sleep patterns,

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and more, providing personalized insights and recommendations to improve
overall well-being.

MuZero
MuZero is an AI algorithm developed by DeepMind that combines reinforcement
learning and deep neural networks. It has achieved remarkable success in
playing complex board games like chess, Go, and shogi at a superhuman level.
MuZero learns and improves its strategies through self-play and planning.
These examples demonstrate the wide-ranging applications of AI, showcasing its
potential to enhance our lives, improve efficiency, and drive innovation across
various industries.

FAQs

1. Where is AI used?
Artificial intelligence is frequently utilized to present individuals with personalized
suggestions based on their prior searches and purchases and other online
behavior. AI is extremely crucial in commerce, such as product optimization,
inventory planning, and logistics. Machine learning, cybersecurity, customer
relationship management, internet searches, and personal assistants are some of
the most common applications of AI. Voice assistants, picture recognition for face
unlocking in cell phones, and ML-based financial fraud detection are all examples
of AI software that is now in use.

2. What is artificial intelligence in simple words?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) in simple words refers to the ability of machines or
computer systems to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. It is
a field of study and technology that aims to create machines that can learn from
experience, adapt to new information, and carry out tasks without explicit
programming. Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human
intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans and mimic
their actions.

3. What Are the 4 Types of AI?

The current categorization system categorizes AI into four basic categories:
reactive, theory of mind, limited memory, and self-aware.

4. How Is AI Used Today?

Machines today can learn from experience, adapt to new inputs, and even
perform human-like tasks with help from artificial intelligence (AI). Artificial

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intelligence examples today, from chess-playing computers to self-driving cars,
are heavily based on deep learning and natural language processing. There are
several examples of AI software in use in daily life, including voice assistants, face
recognition for unlocking mobile phones and machine learning-based financial
fraud detection. AI software is typically obtained by downloading AI-capable
software from an internet marketplace, with no additional hardware required.

5. What are some examples of AI in everyday life?

Examples of AI in everyday life include voice assistants like Siri or Alexa,
recommendation engines like Netflix's movie recommendations, and autonomous
vehicles.

6. How is AI helping in our life?

AI and ML-powered software and gadgets mimic human brain processes to assist
society in advancing with the digital revolution. AI systems perceive their
environment, deal with what they observe, resolve difficulties, and take action to
help with duties to make daily living easier. People check their social media
accounts on a frequent basis, including Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and other
sites. AI is not only customizing your feeds behind the scenes, but it is also
recognizing and deleting bogus news. So, AI is assisting you in your daily life.

7. What are the three types of AI?

The three types of AI are:

1. Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI): Also known as Weak AI, it specializes

in performing specific tasks and lacks general cognitive abilities.
2. Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): Refers to Strong AI capable of
understanding, learning, and applying knowledge across various
domains, similar to human intelligence.
3. Artificial Superintelligence (ASI): Hypothetical AI surpassing human
intelligence in all aspects, potentially capable of solving complex
problems and making advancements beyond human comprehension.

8. Is AI dangerous?
Aside from planning for a future with super-intelligent computers, artificial
intelligence in its current state might already offer problems.

9. What are the advantages of AI?

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The advantages of AI include reducing the time it takes to complete a task,
reducing the cost of previously done activities, continuously and without
interruption, with no downtime, and improving the capacities of people with
disabilities.

10. What are the 7 main areas of AI?

The main seven areas of AI are:

1. Machine Learning: Involves algorithms that enable machines to learn

from data and improve their performance without explicit programming.
2. Natural Language Processing (NLP): Focuses on enabling computers to
understand, interpret, and generate human language.
3. Computer Vision: Deals with giving machines the ability to interpret and
understand visual information from images or videos.
4. Robotics: Combines AI and mechanical engineering to create intelligent
machines capable of performing tasks autonomously.
5. Expert Systems: Utilizes knowledge and reasoning to solve complex
problems in specific domains, mimicking human expertise.
6. Speech Recognition: Involves converting spoken language into text or
commands, enabling machines to interact with users through speech.
7. Planning and Decision Making: Focuses on algorithms that allow AI
systems to make choices and optimize actions to achieve specific goals.

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History of AI

Artificial intelligence, or at least the modern concept of it, has been with us for
several decades, but only in the recent past has AI captured the collective psyche
of everyday business and society.

The introduction of AI in the 1950s very much paralleled the beginnings of the
Atomic Age. Though their evolutionary paths have differed, both technologies are
viewed as posing an existential threat to humanity.

Perceptions about the darker side of AI aside, artificial intelligence tools and
technologies, since the advent of the Turing test in 1950 have made incredible
strides -- despite the intermittent roller-coaster rides mainly due to funding fits
and starts for AI research. Many of these breakthrough advancements have flown
under the radar, visible mostly to academic, government and scientific research
circles until the past decade or so, when AI was practically applied to the wants
and needs of the masses. AI products such as Apple's Siri and Amazon's Alexa,

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online shopping, social media feeds and self-driving cars have forever altered the
lifestyles of consumers and operations of businesses.

Through the decades, some of the more notable developments include the
following:

 Neural networks and the coining of the terms artificial

intelligence and machine learning in the 1950s.

 Eliza, the chatbot with cognitive capabilities, and Shakey, the first mobile
intelligent robot, in the 1960s.

 AI winter followed by AI renaissance in the 1970s and 1980s.

 Speech and video processing in the 1990s.

 IBM Watson, personal assistants, facial recognition, deepfakes,

autonomous vehicles, and content and image creation in the 2000s.

1950

Alan Turing published "Computing Machinery and Intelligence," introducing the

Turing test and opening the doors to what would be known as AI.

1951

Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds developed the first artificial neural network
(ANN) called SNARC using 3,000 vacuum tubes to simulate a network of 40
neurons.

1952

Arthur Samuel developed Samuel Checkers-Playing Program, the world's first

program to play games that was self-learning.

1956

John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester and Claude Shannon coined
the term artificial intelligence in a proposal for a workshop widely recognized as a
founding event in the AI field.

1958

Frank Rosenblatt developed the perceptron, an early ANN that could learn from
data and became the foundation for modern neural networks.

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John McCarthy developed the programming language Lisp, which was quickly
adopted by the AI industry and gained enormous popularity among developers.

1959

Arthur Samuel coined the term machine learning in a seminal paper explaining
that the computer could be programmed to outplay its programmer.

Oliver Selfridge published "Pandemonium: A Paradigm for Learning," a landmark

contribution to machine learning that described a model that could adaptively
improve itself to find patterns in events.

1964

Daniel Bobrow developed STUDENT, an early natural language processing (NLP)

program designed to solve algebra word problems, while he was a doctoral
candidate at MIT.

1965

Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg and Carl Djerassi

developed the first expert system, Dendral, which assisted organic chemists in
identifying unknown organic molecules.

1966

Joseph Weizenbaum created Eliza, one of the more celebrated computer

programs of all time, capable of engaging in conversations with humans and
making them believe the software had humanlike emotions.

Stanford Research Institute developed Shakey, the world's first mobile intelligent
robot that combined AI, computer vision, navigation and NLP. It's the grandfather
of self-driving cars and drones.

1968

Terry Winograd created SHRDLU, the first multimodal AI that could manipulate and
reason out a world of blocks according to instructions from a user.

1969

Arthur Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho described a backpropagation learning algorithm to

enable multilayer ANNs, an advancement over the perceptron and a foundation
for deep learning.

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Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert published the book Perceptrons, which
described the limitations of simple neural networks and caused neural network
research to decline and symbolic AI research to thrive.

1973

James Lighthill released the report "Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey," which
caused the British government to significantly reduce support for AI research.

1980

Symbolics Lisp machines were commercialized, signaling an AI renaissance. Years

later, the Lisp machine market collapsed.

1981

Danny Hillis designed parallel computers for AI and other computational tasks, an
architecture similar to modern GPUs.

1984

Marvin Minsky and Roger Schank coined the term AI winter at a meeting of the
Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence, warning the business
community that AI hype would lead to disappointment and the collapse of the
industry, which happened three years later.

1985

Judea Pearl introduced Bayesian networks causal analysis, which provides

statistical techniques for representing uncertainty in computers.

1988

Peter Brown et al. published "A Statistical Approach to Language Translation,"

paving the way for one of the more widely studied machine translation methods.

1989

Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio and Patrick Haffner demonstrated how convolutional
neural networks (CNNs) can be used to recognize handwritten characters,
showing that neural networks could be applied to real-world problems.

Neural networks have differing characteristics.

1997

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Sepp Hochreiter and Jürgen Schmidhuber proposed the Long Short-Term
Memory recurrent neural network, which could process entire sequences of data
such as speech or video.

IBM's Deep Blue defeated Garry Kasparov in a historic chess rematch, the first
defeat of a reigning world chess champion by a computer under tournament
conditions.

2000

University of Montreal researchers published "A Neural Probabilistic Language

Model," which suggested a method to model language using feedforward neural
networks.

2006

Fei-Fei Li started working on the ImageNet visual database, introduced in 2009,

which became a catalyst for the AI boom and the basis of an annual competition
for image recognition algorithms.

IBM Watson originated with the initial goal of beating a human on the iconic quiz
show Jeopardy! In 2011, the question-answering computer system defeated the
show's all-time (human) champion, Ken Jennings.

2009

Rajat Raina, Anand Madhavan and Andrew Ng published "Large-Scale Deep

Unsupervised Learning Using Graphics Processors," presenting the idea of using
GPUs to train large neural networks.

2011

Jürgen Schmidhuber, Dan Claudiu Cireșan, Ueli Meier and Jonathan Masci
developed the first CNN to achieve "superhuman" performance by winning the
German Traffic Sign Recognition competition.

Apple released Siri, a voice-powered personal assistant that can generate

responses and take actions in response to voice requests.

2012

Geoffrey Hinton, Ilya Sutskever and Alex Krizhevsky introduced a deep CNN
architecture that won the ImageNet challenge and triggered the explosion of
deep learning process and implementation.

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2013

China's Tianhe-2 doubled the world's top supercomputing speed at 33.86

petaflops, retaining the title of the world's fastest system for the third consecutive
time.

DeepMind introduced deep reinforcement learning, a CNN that learned based on

rewards and learned to play games through repetition, surpassing human expert
levels.

Google researcher Tomas Mikolov and colleagues introduced Word2vec to

automatically identify semantic relationships between words.

2014

Ian Goodfellow and colleagues invented generative adversarial networks, a class

of machine learning frameworks used to generate photos , transform images and
create deepfakes.

Diederik Kingma and Max Welling introduced variational autoencoders to

generate images, videos and text.

Facebook developed the deep learning facial recognition system DeepFace,

which identifies human faces in digital images with near-human accuracy.

2016

DeepMind's AlphaGo defeated top Go player Lee Sedol in Seoul, South Korea,
drawing comparisons to the Kasparov chess match with Deep Blue nearly 20
years earlier.

Uber started a self-driving car pilot program in Pittsburgh for a select group of
users.

Five pillars of AI technology changing the way businesses operate.

2017

Stanford researchers published work on diffusion models in the paper "Deep

Unsupervised Learning Using Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics." The technique
provides a way to reverse-engineer the process of adding noise to a final image.

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Google researchers developed the concept of transformers in the seminal paper
"Attention Is All You Need," inspiring subsequent research into tools that could
automatically parse unlabeled text into large language models (LLMs).

British physicist Stephen Hawking warned, "Unless we learn how to prepare for,
and avoid, the potential risks, AI could be the worst event in the history of our
civilization."

2018

Developed by IBM, Airbus and the German Aerospace Center DLR, Cimon was the
first robot sent into space to assist astronauts.

OpenAI released GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer), paving the way for
subsequent LLMs.

Groove X unveiled a home mini-robot called Lovot that could sense and affect
mood changes in humans.

2019

Microsoft launched the Turing Natural Language Generation generative language

model with 17 billion parameters.

Google AI and Langone Medical Center's deep learning algorithm outperformed

radiologists in detecting potential lung cancers.

2020

The University of Oxford developed an AI test called Curial to rapidly identify

COVID-19 in emergency room patients.

Nvidia announced the beta version of its Omniverse platform to create 3D models
in the physical world.

DeepMind's AlphaFold system won the Critical Assessment of Protein Structure

Prediction protein-folding contest.

2021

OpenAI introduced the Dall-E multimodal AI system that can generate images
from text prompts.

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The University of California, San Diego, created a four-legged soft robot that
functioned on pressurized air instead of electronics.

2022

Google software engineer Blake Lemoine was fired for revealing secrets of Lamda
and claiming it was sentient.

DeepMind unveiled AlphaTensor "for discovering novel, efficient and provably

correct algorithms".

Intel claimed its FakeCatcher real-time deepfake detector was 96% accurate.

OpenAI released ChatGPT in November to provide a chat-based interface to its

GPT-3.5 LLM.

2023

OpenAI announced the GPT-4 multimodal LLM that receives both text and image
prompts.

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Beyond 2023

We can only begin to envision AI’s continuing technological advancements and

influences in business processes, manufacturing, healthcare, financial services,
marketing, customer experience, workforce environments, education, agriculture,
law, IT systems and management, cybersecurity, and ground, air and space
transportation.

In business, 55% of organizations that have deployed AI always consider AI for

every new use case they're evaluating, according to a 2023 Gartner survey. By
2026, Gartner reported, organizations that "operationalize AI transparency, trust
and security will see their AI models achieve a 50% improvement in terms of
adoption, business goals and user acceptance."

Today's tangible developments -- some incremental, some disruptive -- are

advancing AI's ultimate goal of achieving artificial general intelligence. Along
these lines, neuromorphic processing shows promise in mimicking human brain
cells, enabling computer programs to work simultaneously instead of
sequentially. Amid these and other mind-boggling advancements, issues of trust,
privacy, transparency, accountability, ethics and humanity have emerged and

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will continue to clash and seek levels of acceptability among business and
society.

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Turing Test in Artificial Intelligence

The Turing test was developed by Alan Turing(A computer scientist) in 1950. He
proposed that the “Turing test is used to determine whether or not a
computer(machine) can think intelligently like humans”?
The Turing Test is a widely used measure of a machine’s ability to demonstrate
human-like intelligence. It was first proposed by British mathematician and
computer scientist Alan Turing in 1950.
The basic idea of the Turing Test is simple: a human judge engages in a text-
based conversation with both a human and a machine, and then decides which
of the two they believe to be a human. If the judge is unable to distinguish
between the human and the machine based on the conversation, then the
machine is said to have passed the Turing Test.
The Turing Test is widely used as a benchmark for evaluating the progress of
artificial intelligence research, and has inspired numerous studies and
experiments aimed at developing machines that can pass the test.
While the Turing Test has been used as a measure of machine intelligence for
over six decades, it is not without its critics. Some argue that the test is too
focused on language and does not take into account other important aspects of
intelligence, such as perception, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Despite its limitations, the Turing Test remains an important reference point in the
field of artificial intelligence and continues to inspire new research and
development in this area.
Imagine a game of three players having two humans and one computer, an
interrogator(as a human) is isolated from the other two players. The interrogator’s
job is to try and figure out which one is human and which one is a computer by
asking questions from both of them. To make things harder computer is trying to
make the interrogator guess wrongly. In other words, computers would try to be
indistinguishable from humans as much as possible.

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The “standard interpretation” of the Turing Test, in which player C, the interrogator,
is given the task of trying to determine which player – A or B – is a computer and
which is a human. The interrogator is limited to using the responses to written
questions to make the determination
The conversation between interrogator and computer would be like this:
C(Interrogator): Are you a computer?
A(Computer): No
C: Multiply one large number to another, 158745887 * 56755647
A: After a long pause, an incorrect answer!
C: Add 5478012, 4563145
A: (Pause about 20 seconds and then give an answer)10041157
If the interrogator wouldn’t able to distinguish the answers provided by both
humans and computers then the computer passes the test and the
machine(computer) is considered as intelligent as a human. In other words, a
computer would be considered intelligent if its conversation couldn’t be easily
distinguished from a human’s. The whole conversation would be limited to a text-
only channel such as a computer keyboard and screen.
He also proposed that by the year 2000 a computer “would be able to play the
imitation game so well that an average interrogator will not have more than a 70-
percent chance of making the right identification (machine or human) after five
minutes of questioning.” No computer has come close to this standard.
But in the year 1980, Mr. John Searle proposed the “Chinese room argument“. He
argued that the Turing test could not be used to determine “whether or not a
machine is considered as intelligent like humans”. He argued that any machine

29
like ELIZA and PARRY could easily pass the Turing Test simply by manipulating
symbols of which they had no understanding. Without understanding, they could
not be described as “thinking” in the same sense people do.

Advantages of the Turing Test in Artificial Intelligence:

1. Evaluating machine intelligence: The Turing Test provides a simple and

well-known method for evaluating the intelligence of a machine.
2. Setting a benchmark: The Turing Test sets a benchmark for artificial
intelligence research and provides a goal for researchers to strive
towards.
3. Inspiring research: The Turing Test has inspired numerous studies and
experiments aimed at developing machines that can pass the test,
which has driven progress in the field of artificial intelligence.
4. Simple to administer: The Turing Test is relatively simple to administer
and can be carried out with just a computer and a human judge.

Disadvantages of the Turing Test in Artificial Intelligence:

1. Limited scope: The Turing Test is limited in scope, focusing primarily on

language-based conversations and not taking into account other
important aspects of intelligence, such as perception, problem-solving,
and decision-making.
2. Human bias: The results of the Turing Test can be influenced by the
biases and preferences of the human judge, making it difficult to obtain
objective and reliable results.
3. Not representative of real-world AI: The Turing Test may not be
representative of the kind of intelligence that machines need to
demonstrate in real-world applications.

30
What is Data Science?

Data science combines math and statistics, specialized programming, advanced

analytics, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning with specific subject
matter expertise to uncover actionable insights hidden in an organization’s data.
These insights can be used to guide decision making and strategic planning.

The accelerating volume of data sources, and subsequently data, has made data
science is one of the fastest growing field across every industry. Organizations are
increasingly reliant on them to interpret data and provide actionable
recommendations to improve business outcomes.

The data science lifecycle involves various roles, tools, and processes, which
enables analysts to glean actionable insights. Typically, a data science project
undergoes the following stages:

 Data ingestion: The lifecycle begins with the data collection--both raw
structured and unstructured data from all relevant sources using a variety
of methods. These methods can include manual entry, web scraping, and
real-time streaming data from systems and devices. Data sources can
include structured data, such as customer data, along with unstructured
data like log files, video, audio, pictures, the Internet of Things (IoT), social
media, and more.
 Data storage and data processing: Since data can have different formats
and structures, companies need to consider different storage systems
based on the type of data that needs to be captured. Data management
teams help to set standards around data storage and structure, which
facilitate workflows around analytics, machine learning and deep learning
models. This stage includes cleaning data, deduplicating, transforming and
combining the data using ETL (extract, transform, load) jobs or other data
integration technologies. This data preparation is essential for promoting
data quality before loading into a data warehouse, data lake, or other
repository.
 Data analysis: Here, data scientists conduct an exploratory data analysis to
examine biases, patterns, ranges, and distributions of values within the
data. This data analytics exploration drives hypothesis generation for a/b
testing. It also allows analysts to determine the data’s relevance for use
within modeling efforts for predictive analytics, machine learning, and/or
deep learning. Depending on a model’s accuracy, organizations can
become reliant on these insights for business decision making, allowing
them to drive more scalability.

31
  Communicate: Finally, insights are presented as reports and other data
visualizations that make the insights—and their impact on business—easier
for business analysts and other decision-makers to understand. A data
science programming language such as R or Python includes components
for generating visualizations; alternately, data scientists can use dedicated
visualization tools.

The image represents the five stages of the data science life cycle: Capture, (data
acquisition, data entry, signal reception, data extraction); Maintain (data warehousing, data
cleansing, data staging, data processing, data architecture); Process (data mining,
clustering/classification, data modeling, data
summarization); Analyze (exploratory/confirmatory, predictive analysis, regression, text
mining, qualitative analysis); Communicate (data reporting, data visualization, business
intelligence, decision making).

Data science versus data scientist

Data science is considered a discipline, while data scientists are the practitioners
within that field. Data scientists are not necessarily directly responsible for all the
processes involved in the data science lifecycle. For example, data pipelines are
typically handled by data engineers—but the data scientist may make
recommendations about what sort of data is useful or required. While data
scientists can build machine learning models, scaling these efforts at a larger

32
level requires more software engineering skills to optimize a program to run more
quickly. As a result, it’s common for a data scientist to partner with machine
learning engineers to scale machine learning models.

Data scientist responsibilities can commonly overlap with a data analyst,

particularly with exploratory data analysis and data visualization. However, a data
scientist’s skillset is typically broader than the average data analyst.
Comparatively speaking, data scientist leverage common programming
languages, such as R and Python, to conduct more statistical inference and data
visualization.

To perform these tasks, data scientists require computer science and pure
science skills beyond those of a typical business analyst or data analyst. The data
scientist must also understand the specifics of the business, such as automobile
manufacturing, eCommerce, or healthcare.

In short, a data scientist must be able to:

Know enough about the business to ask pertinent questions and identify
business pain points.
 Apply statistics and computer science, along with business acumen, to
data analysis.
 Use a wide range of tools and techniques for preparing and extracting
data—everything from databases and SQL to data mining to data
integration methods.
 Extract insights from big data using predictive analytics and artificial
intelligence (AI), including machine learning models, natural language
processing, and deep learning.
 Write programs that automate data processing and calculations.
 Tell—and illustrate—stories that clearly convey the meaning of results to
decision-makers and stakeholders at every level of technical
understanding.
 Explain how the results can be used to solve business problems.
 Collaborate with other data science team members, such as data and
business analysts, IT architects, data engineers, and application
developers.
Data science tools

Data scientists rely on popular programming languages to conduct exploratory

data analysis and statistical regression. These open source tools support pre-
built statistical modelling, machine learning, and graphics capabilities. These
languages include the following :

33
  R Studio: An open source programming language and environment for
developing statistical computing and graphics.
 Python: It is a dynamic and flexible programming language. The Python
includes numerous libraries, such as NumPy, Pandas, Matplotlib, for
analyzing data quickly.

To facilitate sharing code and other information, data scientists may use GitHub
and Jupyter notebooks.

Here are a few representative use cases for data science and artificial
intelligence:

 An international bank delivers faster loan services with a mobile app using
machine learning-powered credit risk models and a hybrid cloud
computing architecture that is both powerful and secure.
 An electronics firm is developing ultra-powerful 3D-printed sensors to
guide tomorrow’s driverless vehicles. The solution relies on data science
and analytics tools to enhance its real-time object detection capabilities.
 A robotic process automation (RPA) solution provider developed
a cognitive business process mining solution that reduces incident
handling times between 15% and 95% for its client companies. The solution
is trained to understand the content and sentiment of customer emails,
directing service teams to prioritize those that are most relevant and
urgent.
 A digital media technology company created an audience analytics
platform that enables its clients to see what’s engaging TV audiences as
they’re offered a growing range of digital channels. The solution employs
deep analytics and machine learning to gather real-time insights into
viewer behavior.
 An urban police department created statistical incident analysis tools to
help officers understand when and where to deploy resources in order to
prevent crime. The data-driven solution creates reports and dashboards to
augment situational awareness for field officers.
 Shanghai Changjiang Science and Technology Development used IBM®
Watson® technology to build an AI-based medical assessment
platform that can analyze existing medical records to categorize patients
based on their risk of experiencing a stroke and that can predict the
success rate of different treatment plans.

34
 Distance function :
A distance function provides distance between the elements of a set.
A metric or distance function is a function d which takes pairs of points
or objects to real numbers and satisfies the following rules:

· The distance between an object and itself is always zero.

· The distance between distinct objects is always positive.

· Distance is symmetric: the distance from x to y is always the same as

the distance from y to x.
d(x,y)=d(y,x) for all x,y
· Distance satisfies the triangle inequality: if x, y, and z are three objects,
then d(x,z)≤d(x,y)+d(y,z)

In order to calculate the distance between data points A and B

Pythagorean theorem considers the length of x and y axis.

35
A distance function provides distance between the elements of a set. If the
distance is zero then elements are equivalent else they are different from
each other.

Distance function(vector norm):

Let’s take a n-dimensional vector

A general vector norm ǀxǀ, sometimes written as ǁxǁ is a non-negative

norm defined as
· ǀxǀ>0 when x≠0, and ǀxǀ=0 iff x=0
· ǀkxǀ=ǀkǀǀxǀ for any scalar k
· ǀx+yǀ≤ǀxǀ+ǀyǀ

The vector norm ǀxǀ p=1,2,…. Is defined as

p

Some examples of different norms---

X=(1,2,3)

Name Symbol value Approx

L -norm ǀxǀ
1
1 6 6.000

L -norm ǀxǀ
2
2 √14 3.742

L -norm ǀxǀ
3
3 3.302

L -norm ǀxǀ
4
4 3.147

Euclidean Norm
The most commonly encountered vector norm(often simply called the
norm of a vector or sometimes called the magnitude of a vector) is the
L2 norm given by

36
It is commonly known as Euclidean Norm.
The n-dimensional Euclidean space ,the intuitive notion of length of the
vector x=(x ,x ,…,x ) is
1 2 n

This is the Euclidean norm, which gives the ordinary distance from the
origin to the point X — a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem.
Distance between two points in 2D
If the points X=(x1, y1) and Y=(x2, y2) are in 2-dimensional space, then the
Euclidean distance between them is

Distance between two points in 3D

If the points in 3-dimensional space are

Distance between two points in n-dimension

If the points in n dimensional space are

37
38
Correlation in Statistics
Methods of correlation summarize the relationship between two
variables in a single number called the correlation coefficient. The
correlation coefficient is usually represented using the symbol r, and it
ranges from -1 to +1.
A correlation coefficient quite close to 0, but either positive or negative,
implies little or no relationship between the two variables. A correlation
coefficient close to plus 1 means a positive relationship between the two
variables, with increases in one of the variables being associated with
increases in the other variable.
A correlation coefficient close to -1 indicates a negative relationship
between two variables, with an increase in one of the variables being
associated with a decrease in the other variable.
For example, there exists a correlation between two variables X and Y,
which means the value of one variable is found to change in one
direction, the value of the other variable is found to change either in the
same direction (i.e. positive change) or in the opposite direction (i.e.
negative change). Furthermore, if the correlation exists, it is linear, i.e.
we can represent the relative movement of the two variables by drawing
a straight line on graph paper.
Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient, r, is a summary measure that describes the
extent of the statistical relationship between two variables. The
correlation coefficient is scaled so that it is always between -1 and +1.
When r is close to 0 this means that there is little relationship between
the variables and the farther away from 0 r is, in either the positive or
negative direction, the greater the relationship between the two
variables.
Types of Correlation
The scatter plot explains the correlation between the two attributes or
variables. It represents how closely the two variables are connected.
There can be three such situations to see the relation between the two
variables –
 Positive Correlation – when the values of the two variables move
in the same direction so that an increase/decrease in the value of
one variable is followed by an increase/decrease in the value of
the other variable.

For example-One example of positive correlation is the relationship

between employment and inflation. High levels of employment
require employers to offer higher salaries in order to attract new
workers, and higher prices for their products in order to fund those

39
 higher salaries. Conversely, periods of high unemployment
experience falling consumer demand, resulting in downward
pressure on prices and inflation.

 Negative Correlation – when the values of the two variables move

in the opposite direction so that an increase/decrease in the value
of one variable is followed by decrease/increase in the value of the
other variable.

For example-Examples of negative correlation are common in the

investment world. A well-known example is the negative correlation
between crude oil prices and airline stock prices. Jet fuel, which is
derived from crude oil, is a large cost input for airlines and has a
significant impact on their profitability and earnings.
If the price of crude oil spikes up, it could have a negative impact
on airlines' earnings and hence on the price of their stocks. But if
the price of crude oil trends lower, this should boost airline profits
and therefore their stock prices.

 No Correlation – when there is no linear dependence or no relation

between the two variables.

40
Correlation Formula
Correlation shows the relation between two variables.
Correlation coefficient shows the measure of correlation. To
compare two datasets, we use the correlation formulas.
Pearson Correlation Coefficient Formula
The most common formula is the Pearson Correlation
coefficient used for linear dependency between the data sets.
The value of the coefficient lies between -1 to +1. When the
coefficient comes down to zero, then the data is considered as
not related. While, if we get the value of +1, then the data are
positively correlated, and -1 has a negative correlation.

41
Where n = Quantity of Information
Σx = Total of the First Variable Value
Σy = Total of the Second Variable Value
Σxy = Sum of the Product of first & Second Value
Σx = Sum of the Squares of the First Value
2

Σy = Sum of the Squares of the Second Value

2

Linear Correlation Coefficient Formula

The formula for the linear correlation coefficient is given by;

When using the Pearson correlation coefficient formula, you’ll need to consider
whether you’re dealing with data from a sample or the whole population.The sample
and population formulas differ in their symbols and inputs. A sample correlation
coefficient is called r, while a population correlation coefficient is called rho, the
Greek letter ρ.
Sample Correlation Coefficient Formula-
The formula is given by:

Population Correlation Coefficient Formula

The population correlation coefficient between two random variables X,Y
with expected values and and standard deviations and is defined as:

42
Where E is the expected value, cov is the covariance and corr is
correlation coefficient.
Examples using Correlation Coefficient Formula
Example 1. Given the following population data. Find the Pearson
correlation coefficient between x and y for this data. (Take 1√7
as 0.378)

x 600 800 1000

y 1200 1000 2000

Solution:
To simplify the calculation, we divide both x and y by 100.

x/100 y/100 xi−¯x yi−¯y (xi−¯¯¯x) 2

(yi−¯¯¯y) 2
(xi−¯x)(yi−¯y)

6 12 -2 -2 4 4 4

8 10 0 -4 0 16 0

10 20 2 6 4 36 12

¯x=8 ¯y=14 Σ(xi−¯x) =8

2
Σ(yi−¯y) =56
2
Σ(xi−¯x)(yi−¯y)=16

43
Using the correlation coefficient formula,

Pearson correlation coefficient for population =

r = 0.756

Answer: Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.756

Example 2. A survey was conducted in your city. Given is the following sample data

containing a person's age and their corresponding income. Find out whether the

increase in age has an effect on income using the correlation coefficient formula.

(Use 1√181 as 0.074 and 1√2091 as 0.07)

Age 25 30 36 43

Income 30000 44000 52000 70000

Solution:
To simplify the calculation, we divide y by 1000.

Age (x )
i Income/10 xi−¯ yi−¯ (xi−¯¯¯x) 2
(yi−¯¯¯y)
2
(xi−¯x)(yi−¯y)
00 x y
(y /1000)
i

44
25 30 - -19 72.25 361 161.5
8.5

30 44 - -5 12.25 25 17.5
3.5

36 52 2.5 3 6.25 9 7.5

43 70 9.5 21 90.25 441 199.5

¯x=33. ¯y=49 Σ(xi−¯x) =

2
Σ(yi−¯y) =8
2
Σ(xi−¯x)(yi−¯y)=
5 181 36 386

Pearson correlation coefficient for sample

Therefore r=0.9923

Answer: Yes, with the increase in age a person's income

increases as well, since the Pearson correlation coefficient

between age and income is very close to 1.

Example 3: Calculate the Correlation coefficient of given data

45
x 41 42 43 44 45

y 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Solution:

Here n = 5

Let us find ∑x , ∑y, ∑xy, ∑x , ∑y 2 2

x y xy x2
y2

41 3.2 131.2 1681 10.24

42 3.3 138.6 1764 10.89

43 3.4 146.2 1849 11.56

44 3.5 154 1936 12.25

45 3.6 162 2025 12.96

∑x = 215 ∑y = 17 ∑xy = 732 ∑x = 9255

2
∑y = 57.9
2

X values:
∑x = 215
∑x = 9255
2

46
x̄ = 43
∑(x - x̄) =10
2

Y values:
∑y = 17
∑y = 57.9
2

∑(y - ȳ) = 0.1
2

X and Y combined
N=5
∑((x - x̄)(y - ȳ)) = 1
∑xy = 732
R calculation:
r = = 1/√((10)(0.1)) = 1
Since r = 1, this indicates a significant relation between x and y.
Regression Analysis
Regression analysis refers to assessing the relationship between
the outcome variable and one or more variables. The outcome
variable is known as the dependent and co-founders are
known independent variables. The dependent variable is shown
by “y” and independent variables are shown by “x” in regression
analysis.
Linear Regression
Linear regression is a linear approach to modelling the
relationship between the scalar components and one or more
independent variables. If the regression has one independent
variable, then it is known as a simple linear regression. If it has
more than one independent variable, then it is known as
multiple linear regression.

· A regression is a statistical technique that relates a

dependent variable to one or more independent
(explanatory) variables.

47
· A regression model is able to show whether changes
observed in the dependent variable are associated with
changes in one or more of the explanatory variables.
· It does this by essentially fitting a best-fit line and seeing how
the data is dispersed around this line.
· Regression helps economists and financial analysts in things
ranging from asset valuation to making predictions.
· In order for regression results to be properly interpreted,
several assumptions about the data and the model itself
must hold.

Formula for linear regression equation is given by:

y=a+bx
a and b are given by the following formulas:

Where,
x and y are two variables on the regression line.
b = Slope of the line.
a = y-intercept of the line.
x = Values of the first data set.
y = Values of the second data set.

Solved Examples
Question: Find linear regression equation for the following two
sets of data:

48
 x 2 4 6 8

y 3 7 5 10

Solution:

x y x2
xy

2 3 4 6

4 7 16 28

6 5 36 30

8 10 64 80

∑x= 20 ∑y= 25 ∑x = 120 ∑xy= 144 2

b=
b=0.95

a=
a = 1.5
Linear regression is given by:
y = a + bx
y = 1.5 + 0.95 x

49
Correlation and Regression Differences

There are some differences between Correlation and regression.

 Correlation shows the quantity of the degree to which two variables are
associated. It does not fix a line through the data points. You compute a
correlation that shows how much one variable changes when the other
remains constant.
 Linear regression finds the best line that predicts y from x, but Correlation does
not fit a line.
 Correlation is used when you measure both variables, while linear regression is
mostly applied when x is a variable that is manipulated.

Comparison Between Correlation and Regression

Basis Correlation Regression

Meaning A statistical measure that Describes how an independent

defines co-relationship or variable is associated with the
association of two variables. dependent variable.

50
Dependent and No difference Both variables are different.
Independent
variables

Usage To describe a linear To fit the best line and estimate

relationship between two one variable based on another
variables. variable.

Objective To find a value expressing the To estimate values of a

relationship between random variable based on the
variables. values of a fixed variable.

References

 https://towardsdatascience.com
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org
 https://www.javatpoint.com
 https://www.simplilearn.com

Introduction to Linear Algebra and statistics for AI :

 Basic matrix operations like matrix addition , subtraction , multiplication ,
transpose of matrix , identity matrix.---refer to any standard Maths text
book of Class XI,XII.
 Brief introduction to vectors , unit vector , normal vector , Euclidean space.-
--refer to any standard Maths text book of Class XI,XII
 Probability distribution , frequency , mean , median and mode , variance
and standard deviation , Gaussian distribution.------refer to any standard
Maths text book of Class XI,XII

51
What is a Uniform Distribution?

The uniform distribution is a symmetric probability distribution where all

outcomes have an equal likelihood of occurring. All values in the
distribution have a constant probability, making them uniformly
distributed. This distribution is also known as the rectangular distribution
because of its shape in probability distribution plots.

Uniform Distribution Examples

o Rolling dice and coin tosses.

o The probability of drawing any card from a deck of cards.
o Random sampling because that method depends
on population members having equal chances.
o P-values in hypothesis tests follow the uniform
distribution when the null hypothesis is true under certain
conditions.
o Random number generators use the uniform distribution
because no number should be more common than other
numbers.
o Radioactive decay of particles over time

Analysts can use the uniform distribution to approximate new processes

when there is insufficient data to estimate the actual distribution of
outcomes.

Uniform distributions come in both discrete and continuous varieties of

probability distributions.

Discrete: Each discrete value has an equal probability. For example, the
chances of obtaining any of the six values on a die are equal.

For discrete uniform distributions, finding the probability for each

outcome is 1/n, where n is the number of outcomes. Rolling dice has six
outcomes that are uniformly distributed. Therefore, each one has a
likelihood of 1/6 = 0.167. The bar chart below displays the rectangular-
shaped distribution.

52
Continuous: continuous data where all equal sized ranges have the
same probability. For example, values are equally like to fall in the range
of 0.1 – 0.2 as they have probability value within 0.4 – 0.5.

Both forms of the uniform distribution have two parameters, a and b.

These values represent the smallest and largest values in the
distribution.

In the example below, the distribution ranges from 5 to 10, which covers
5 units. The shaded area is one unit out of five or 1 / 5 = 20% of the total
area. Hence, the probability for a value falling between 6 and 7 is 0.2. In
fact, all one-unit ranges in this distribution have the same likelihood of
0.2.

The mean of the uniform distribution is (a + b) / 2.

53
 What is a Random Variable?

A random variable is a variable where chance determines its value. They

can take on either discrete or continuous values.

While randomness defines both discrete and continuous variables, their

values are not entirely unpredictable. The probability of each value is
well-defined and quantifiable using probability functions. By
understanding the properties of these probability functions, we can make
predictions and draw conclusions about real-world phenomena. These
quantifiable properties make random variables a useful concept in
statistics.

Discrete Random Variable

A discrete random variable has distinct values that are countable and finite or
countably infinite. This data type often occurs when you are counting the number of
event occurrences. For example, discrete random variables include the following:

o The number of heads that come up during a series of coin tosses.

o The number of library books checked out per hour.

Analysts denote the variable as X and its possible values as x1, x2, …, xn.

The probability of X having a value of x for its ith observation equals pi: P (X = xi) = pi.

Using this notation, discrete random variables must satisfy these conditions:

o All possible discrete values must have probabilities between zero and one:
0 < pi ≤ 1.
o The total probability for all possible k values must equal 1:

p1 + p2 + p3 + . . . + pk = 1.

When these conditions are satisfied, one of the possible values will occur during
every opportunity. The probability distribution of a discrete random variable is called
a probability mass function (PMF).

Example of Discrete random sample

The number of heads that appear during a series of five coin tosses is a discrete
random variable that follows the binomial distribution. We can use that distribution to
determine the likelihood of obtaining 0 to 5 heads. The graph below displays the
probability for each possible outcome.

54
Continuous Random Variable
A continuous random variable has values that are uncountably infinite and form a
continuous range of values. They can take on any value within a range. In fact, there
are infinite values between any two values.

This data type often occurs when we measure a quantity on a scale. For example,
continuous random variables include the following:

o Height and weight.

o Time and duration.
o Temperatures.

Probabilities greater than zero only exist for ranges of values, such as P(a ≤ X ≤ b),
where a and b are the lower and upper bounds of the range.

A probability density function (PDF) describes the probability distribution of a

continuous random variable. These functions use a curve displaying probability
densities, which are ranges of one unit.

Continuous random variables must satisfy the following:

 Probabilities for all ranges of X are greater than or equal to zero:

P(a ≤ X ≤ b) ≥ 0.
 The total area under the curve equals one: P(-∞ ≤ X ≤ + ∞) = 1.

The likelihood of X falling within a particular range of values corresponds to the

range’s area under the PDF curve, which requires using an integral.

55
Example of continuous random sample

Body fat percentage is a continuous random variable. In preteen girls, it follows a

lognormal distribution. Suppose a researcher needs to find participants with a body
fat percentage between 20 and 24 percent. What is the likelihood that the next
candidate will fall within that range?

The lognormal distribution graph indicates that the probability of body fat falling in the
range of 20 to 24% is 0.1864. This information can help the researcher determine
how many candidates they’ll need to assess to obtain a sufficient sample size.

Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis Testing is a tool to detect significant differences by

comparing sample statistics with population parameters. It is used to
infer the result of a hypothesis performed on sample data from a larger
population.

Steps of Hypothesis Testing

1. State the Null hypothesis(H0) and Alternate hypothesis (Ha)

2. Choose the level of significance(∝)
3. Determine the rejection area
4. Calculate test statistics and compare it with critical value

56
 5. State the conclusion(reject the null hypothesis/failed to reject the
null hypothesis)
Statistical Tests
Statistical Tests are conducted to test the hypothesis and to find the
inferences about the population. For that samples are selected and
various tests are performed on them to find the inference about the
population under study.
Statistical tests are of two types:
1. Parametric Test
2. Non-Parametric Test

Parametric Tests
 Parametric tests are applied under the circumstances where the
population is normally distributed or is assumed to be normally
distributed.
 Parameters like mean, standard deviation etc are used.
 For example, T-test, Z-test, F-test, ANOVA, Pearson’s Coefficient
correlation.
 These are applied where the data is quantitative
 These are applied where the scale of measurement is either a
interval or a ratio scale.
Non-Parametric Tests
 Non-Parametric tests are applied under the circumstances where
the population is not normally distributed(skewed distribution) or is
not assumed to be normally distributed.
 These texts are also called as Distribution free tests.
 Parameters like mean, standard deviation etc are not used.
 For example Chi-square test, U Test(Mann Whitney test) H-Test(
Kruskal Wallis Test),Spearman’s Rank Correlation Test.
 These are applied where the data is qualitative.
 These are applied where the scale of measurement is either an
ordinal(ordered) or a nominal (name)scale.

57
Difference between Parametric Test and Non-Parametric Test
Parametric Test Non-Parametric Test
1.Assumes the distribution to be normal 1.Does not assume the distribution to
be normal
2.Make assumptions about he 2.Does not make any
population assumptions about the population
3.Parameters such as mean, 3.No such Parameters are used
standard deviation etc. are used
4. Applied in case of Quantitative 4. Applied in case of qualitative
data data
5. Scale of measurement is either 5. . Scale of measurement is
interval or ratio either ordinal or nominal
6. Uses mean as central tendency 6. Uses median as central
value tendency value
7.More powerful as the possess 7. Less powerful than parametric
the ability to reject the null tests
Hypothesis, when it is false
8. Less robust 8. More robust as they are valid in
a broader range of situations
9. For example, Z-test, T-test, 9. For example, Chi-square test,
ANOVA, F-test U-test, H-test

58
Student’s T-distribution hypothesis testing

Student’s T-Distribution is a probability distribution that is used

to calculate population parameters when the sample size is
small and when the population varience (σ)is unknown.

Student’s t-distribution was given by W.S.Gosset. he has

published his studies under the name “Student”. That’s why it is
called as Student’s t-test.

Student’s T-distribution is a continuous probability distribution

that generalizes the standard normal distribution.

When to use T-distribution?

 Sample size<=30
 Population standard deviation(σ) is unknown
 Population distribution is unimodal

Properties of T-distribution

 Ranges from -∝ to +∝
 Bell shaped curve
 Student T distribution is different for different sample size
 Mean is zero
 Symetrical about mean

59
  Total area under T curve is equal to 1

Types of T-test

T test One sample T test When Population mean is not equal to

the sample mean

Two sample paired T test Between two dependent groups at two

different point of time

Two sample independent T test Between two independent group

Test Statistics for hypothesis testing of one sample T test

t= where, x= 𝑠ample mean

√
𝜇= Population mean

n= Sample size

s= Sample standard
deviation
Acceptance Criteria

tcritical<=tTest Statistic -------- Reject Null Hypothesis

tcritical>tTest Statistic -------------- Failed to Reject NULL Hypothesis

The accommodation of the sample size is done through the concept

of degrees of freedom (commonly abbreviated to df). The degrees of freedom
represent the number of values in a statistical calculation that are free to vary.
In the case of the t-distribution, the degrees of freedom are N-1 .

The significance level is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.
For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a
difference exists when there is no actual difference. Lower significance levels
indicate that you require stronger evidence before you will reject the null hypothesis.

60
Example:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgDlRSp-Olk

Test Statistics for hypothesis testing of two sample paired T test

t= where, 𝑥 ,𝑥 = Two sample points

√ n= Sample size

Sd= Sample standard

deviation

Test Statistics for hypothesis testing of two sample independentT test

𝑥 = first sample mean

t= where,
𝑥 = second sample mean

n1= First sample size

n2= second sample size

S1= first Sample standard

deviation

S2= Second Sample

standard deviation

Z-Test

Z-test is the statistical test used to analyze whether two population means are
different or not when the variances are known, and the sample size is large.

61
The z-test is based on the normal distribution.

The assumptions for Z-test are:

 All observations are independent.

 The size of the sample should be more than 30.

 The Z distribution is normal when the mean is 0, and the variance is 1.

The test statistic is defined by:

Z-test=
√

𝜘̅ is the sample mean

σ is the population standard deviation
n is the sample size
μ is the population mean

Example
Let's say that the mean score of students in a class is greater than 70 with
a standard deviation of 10. If a sample of 50 students was selected with a mean
score of 80, calculate the Z-value to check if there is enough evidence to support this
claim at a 0.05 significance level.

Solution:

Here, the sample size is 50 and we know the standard deviation. This is a case of a
right-tailed one-sample z test.

The Null hypothesis is the mean score is 70

The Alternative hypothesis is mean score is greater than 70

From the z-table, the critical value at alpha = 0.05 is 1.645

𝜘̅ = 80

62
μ = 70
n = 50
σ = 10
Substituting the values in the formula, you will get the Z value to be equal to 7.09.

Since 7.09 > 1.645 thus, the null hypothesis is rejected and there is enough to
support that the mean of the class is greater than 70.

Difference between T test and Z test

63
Data Science Tools: Python vs R vs Excel

Python
Python is a very popular data science tool to support all four stages of the data
lifecycle. Firstly, you can easily execute a collection of huge data. Even in an
unstructured format, Python can help you to bring it in the right shape.

Secondly, data modelling is easy with Python. Proper modelling can always help
you to observe patterns in the data. This helps business organizations to make
proper decisions for the future.

Finally, Python gives way to clear data visualization. As a result, any business entity
can make proper reports for the outcome. Furthermore, Python has numerous sub
tools for each of the stages discussed above. Some of them are given below:

 Data Collection: In data collection, you can use the Python tools, such as
Data APIs, Beautiful Soup, and Wget.
 Data Modelling: Spicy Ecosystem- NumPy, Imbalanced- learn, and Pandas,
some data modelling tools that you can access while using Python.
 Data Visualization: With Python, you can use the tools like Matplotlib,
MoviePy, and Seaborn. All these tools can provide you with the support for
data visualization.
 NLP Tool: Python provides you with a bonus tool for string matching. It is
known as FuzzyWuzzy, and it helps you to execute token ratios and
comparison ratios. So, if you are looking to become a data scientist and an
expert in Python, find a genuine online course in data science. Many of these
courses are quite affordable and provide you with proper education.

R
Like Python, R is also a data science tool. It has been launched in the market by the
R Foundation. Continuous development of R is active as the R Project is still
ongoing. Some crucial facts about R are given here:-

R is mainly used for data analysis in the field of data science. As a result, you can
handle the data or store it. Finally, you can analyze it too. As open-source software,
it is quite adaptive. If you are new to data science as an expert, you can easily
work with R. However, it depends on which industry you are working for and what
type of data you are dealing with. The standard quality of R is also high as it is
open-source software.

64
R is a convenient tool to use in statistical analysis. It can provide the analyzed
report regarding the data graphically. Although other tools also allow this, the
representation of R is simpler to understand.

The community of R is quite responsive. Many experts have in-depth knowledge

about the computer language. In the community, 20 contributors work
continuously fixing bugs and improving the tool according to the suggestions by
the users.

Excel
Excel is a basic software most people learn while they are in school. However, it
allows dealing with huge amounts of data. If you are a data scientist who deals
with 2D data, Excel is the best tool for you.

As you learn Excel, you can edit and format the data easily. Moreover, documents
in Excel can be easily shared. The Analysis ToolPak in Excel can be activated for
accessing the advanced powers.

The Analysis ToolPak enables machine learning, and any data professional can
easily carry out data analysis. A few data professionals might find Analysis ToolPak
a bit outdated, but it can still be used in the present time.

Another fact why people find data analysis to be tricky is due to the type of coded
functions it supports, especially with Excel. While working with data on Excel, you
can only use functions like SAS and SPSS, which are quite tough. One good thing
about Excel as a data science tool is that it enables users to use Python. However,
you can only use it while accessing Excel on a Windows system.

Detailed Comparisons

Excel
When it comes to Excel as a data science tool, you should keep some usage
scenarios, advantages, and disadvantages in mind.

Usage Scenarios
Excel can only support medium and small-scale business organizations as a data
science tool. It is not suitable for large-scale business organizations as the volume
of data remains quite high.

Simple data analysis can be executed on Excel. It can be the best data science
tool for a school or bank. It allows the data scientist to execute regression analysis,

65
variance analysis, etc. So, it is clear that Excel can be used the best for dealing with
the data generated from a general office.

Excel does not provide the user with a platform to create data analysis reports as
a data science tool. While using Excel for data analysis, you have to use Word and
PowerPoint to create reports. It is convenient for data visualization. You can easily
make charts on it. So, concluding can be an easy task.

Advantages of Excel
Excel is a well-known software, and it has many advantages. The most significant
ones are:-

 Easy Learning: All operations on Excel are quite easy to learn. A beginner
who wants to be a successful data scientist can start learning Excel at first.
In the data analytics course from XLRI, you can learn the ways to handle
data on Excel.
 Enables Multiple Operations: Excel allows the users to do a lot of things with
data. As mentioned earlier, data visualization is easy in Excel. Moreover, you
can make dynamic charts on it too. Simple reports can be made on Excel,
while the complicated ones need support.
 Learning the Basic Operations: You can learn all basic operations related to
data science on Excel. This can ease your Python and R learning process.

Disadvantages of Excel

Despite the advantages of Excel mentioned above, there are some disadvantages
too. Have a look:-

 Chances of Data Stuttering: You know that Excel can only fit medium and
small organizations. This fact is quite right, as data stuttering is normal in its
case. Excel might not be the right option when it comes to dealing with huge
amounts of data.
 VBA is Necessary: To apply data science on a tool like Excel, VBA (Visual
Basic Applications) is necessary. It is a tough programming language that
might take a lot of time to learn. So, most data science professionals avoid
using Excel as a tool.

The usage scenarios, advantages, and disadvantages of R as a tool of data

science are discussed below. Take a look if you strive to have a basic idea about R
as compared to Excel.

66
 Usage Scenarios
R has complete coverage in any area where there is a necessity for data. The
functions of R can help the user cover the areas of both general and academic
data analysis.

While you use R, you can work on multiple aspects of data science. R mainly helps
a user with the cleansing of data. Moreover, it allows web crawling and data
visualization too. Report output can also be done with R. The ‘R markdown’ enables
the user to get the data analysis report output.

Both statistical modelling and statistical hypothesis testing can be done easily
with R. There are different types of algorithms that come under both of these. They
are given below:

 t-test.
 Variance analysis.
 Chi-square test.
 Logistic regression.
 Linear regression.
 Neural network.
 Tree model.

Advantages of R
Here are the key advantages you can get while learning the usage of R. In a data
analytics course from XLRI, you can study R in depth and enjoy the following
advantages:

 Easy to Learn: The primary advantage of R is the ease it provides the user to
learn the usage.
 Centralized Learning: Centralized learning can make a student know all the
basics of R in a mere 10 to 12 classes. You can learn about structuring,
importing, exporting, and visualizing data after completing the basic course.
 Quicker Approach to Solving Problems: R has several help files on the
network. These files can help the user solve particular problems in no time.

Disadvantages of R

As a data science tool, R has only a few disadvantages. They are:

 Less Speed: In data analytics, R as a data science tool is quite slower than
other options.

67
  Complicated language: To some data science professionals, R is quite a
complicated language to deal with. However, it is simpler than VBA, which is
necessary for working with Excel.

Python
Like R, Python has more or less identical usage scenarios. As you use Python, you
can work on similar aspects of data as R. What outshines Python than R is that you
can execute data mining. In this aspect, it has already taken the lead in
comparison to R. Similar to R, Python also demands proper programming from the
user. The advantage of Python is that it allows a professional to take the scientific
computing approach. It is just a branch of this language.

Apart from data science, Python is largely used in web designing. Game
developers also use this language to design modern game interfaces. Lastly, all
work related to operations and maintenance can be done with Python.

68
What is R

R is a popular programming language used for statistical computing and

graphical presentation.

Its most common use is to analyze and visualize data.

Why Use R?

 It is a great resource for data analysis, data visualization, data science and
machine learning
 It provides many statistical techniques (such as statistical tests,
classification, clustering and data reduction)
 It is easy to draw graphs in R, like pie charts, histograms, box plot, scatter
plot, etc++
 It works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux)
 It is open-source and free
 It has a large community support
 It has many packages (libraries of functions) that can be used to solve
different problems

How to Install R

To install R, go to https://cloud.r-project.org/ and download the latest version of R

for Windows, Mac or Linux.
When you have downloaded and installed R, you can run R on your computer.
The screenshot below shows how it may look like when you run R on a Windows
PC:

69
Syntax

To output text in R, use single or double quotes:

Example

"Hello World!"

Example

5+5

---- [1] 10

Print

Unlike many other programming languages, you can output code in R without
using a print function:

Example

"Hello World!"

However, R does have a print() function available if you want to use it. This might
be useful if you are familiar with other programming languages, such as Python,
which often uses the print() function to output code.

Example

print("Hello World!")

And there are times you must use the print() function to output code, for example
when working with for loops (which you will learn more about in a later chapter):

Example

for (x in 1:10) {
print(x)
}

Conclusion: It is up to you whether you want to use the print() function to output
code. However, when your code is inside an R expression (e.g. inside curly
braces {} like in the example above), use the print() function to output the result.

Creating Variables in R

Variables are containers for storing data values.

70
R does not have a command for declaring a variable. A variable is created the
moment you first assign a value to it. To assign a value to a variable, use the <-
sign. To output (or print) the variable value, just type the variable name:

Example

name <- "John"

age <- 40

name # output "John"

age # output 40

From the example above, name and age are variables,

while "John" and 40 are values.

In other programming language, it is common to use = as an assignment

operator. In R, we can use both = and <- as assignment operators.

However, <- is preferred in most cases because the = operator can be forbidden
in some context in R.

Print / Output Variables

Compared to many other programming languages, you do not have to use a

function to print/output variables in R. You can just type the name of the variable:

Example

name <- "John Doe"

name # auto-print the value of the name variable

However, R does have a print() function available if you want to use it. This might
be useful if you are familiar with other programming languages, such as Python,
which often use a print() function to output variables.

Example

name <- "John Doe"

print(name) # print the value of the name variable

And there are times you must use the print() function to output code, for example
when working with for loops (which you will learn more about in a later chapter):

71
Example

for (x in 1:10) {
print(x)
}

Conclusion: It is up to your if you want to use the print() function or not to output
code. However, when your code is inside an R expression (for example inside curly
braces {} like in the example above), use the print() function if you want to output
the result.

Concatenate Elements

You can also concatenate, or join, two or more elements, by using

the paste() function.

To combine both text and a variable, R uses comma (,):

Example

text <- "awesome"

paste("R is", text)

You can also use , to add a variable to another variable:

Example

text1 <- "R is"

text2 <- "awesome"

paste(text1, text2)

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

Example

num1 <- 5
num2 <- 10

num1 + num2

If you try to combine a string (text) and a number, R will give you an error:

Example

72
num <- 5
text <- "Some text"

num + text

Result:

Error in num + text : non-numeric argument to binary operator

Multiple Variables

R allows you to assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:

Example

# Assign the same value to multiple variables in one line

var1 <- var2 <- var3 <- "Orange"

# Print variable values

var1
var2
var3

Variable Names

A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age,
carname, total_volume). Rules for R variables are:

 A variable name must start with a letter and can be a combination of

letters, digits, period(.)
and underscore(_). If it starts with period(.), it cannot be followed by a digit.
 A variable name cannot start with a number or underscore (_)
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)
 Reserved words cannot be used as variables (TRUE, FALSE, NULL, if...)

Data Types

In R, variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even
change type after they have been set:

Example

my_var <- 30 # my_var is type of numeric

my_var <- "Sally" # my_var is now of type character (aka string)

73
R has a variety of data types and object classes. You will learn much more about
these as you continue to get to know R.

Basic Data Types

Basic data types in R can be divided into the following types:

 numeric - (10.5, 55, 787)

 integer - (1L, 55L, 100L, where the letter "L" declares this as an integer)
 complex - (9 + 3i, where "i" is the imaginary part)
 character (a.k.a. string) - ("k", "R is exciting", "FALSE", "11.5")
 logical (a.k.a. boolean) - (TRUE or FALSE)

We can use the class() function to check the data type of a variable:

Example

# numeric
x <- 10.5
class(x)

# integer
x <- 1000L
class(x)

# complex
x <- 9i + 3
class(x)

# character/string
x <- "R is exciting"
class(x)

# logical/boolean
x <- TRUE
class(x)

---- [1] "numeric"

[1] "integer"
[1] "complex"
[1] "character"
[1] "logical"

74
R Numbers

There are three number types in R:

 numeric
 integer
 complex

Variables of number types are created when you assign a value to them:

Example

x <- 10.5 # numeric

y <- 10L # integer
z <- 1i # complex

Numeric

A numeric data type is the most common type in R, and contains any number
with or without a decimal, like: 10.5, 55, 787:

Example

x <- 10.5
y <- 55

# Print values of x and y

x
y

# Print the class name of x and y

class(x)
class(y)

Integer

Integers are numeric data without decimals. This is used when you are certain
that you will never create a variable that should contain decimals. To create
an integer variable, you must use the letter L after the integer value:

Example

x <- 1000L
y <- 55L

75
# Print values of x and y
x
y

# Print the class name of x and y

class(x)
class(y)

Complex

A complex number is written with an "i" as the imaginary part:

Example

x <- 3+5i
y <- 5i

# Print values of x and y

x
y

# Print the class name of x and y

class(x)
class(y)

Type Conversion

You can convert from one type to another with the following functions:

 as.numeric()
 as.integer()
 as.complex()

Example

x <- 1L # integer
y <- 2 # numeric

# convert from integer to numeric:

a <- as.numeric(x)

# convert from numeric to integer:

76
b <- as.integer(y)

# print values of x and y

x
y

# print the class name of a and b

class(a)
class(b)

---- [1] 1
[1] 2
[1] "numeric"
[1] "integer"

Simple Math

In R, you can use operators to perform common mathematical operations on

numbers.

The + operator is used to add together two values:

Example

10 + 5

And the - operator is used for subtraction:

Example

10 - 5

Built-in Math Functions

R also has many built-in math functions that allows you to perform mathematical
tasks on numbers.

For example, the min() and max() functions can be used to find the lowest or
highest number in a set:

Example

max(5, 10, 15)

min(5, 10, 15)

77
sqrt()

The sqrt() function returns the square root of a number:

Example

sqrt(16)

abs()

The abs() function returns the absolute (positive) value of a number:

Example

abs(-4.7)

ceiling() and floor()

The ceiling() function rounds a number upwards to its nearest integer, and
the floor() function rounds a number downwards to its nearest integer, and
returns the result:

Example

ceiling(1.4)

floor(1.4)

String Literals

Strings are used for storing text.

A string is surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation

marks:

"hello" is the same as 'hello':

Example

"hello"
'hello'

---- [1] "hello"

[1] "hello"

Assign a String to a Variable

78
Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable followed by the <-
operator and the string:

Example

str <- "Hello"

str # print the value of str

Multiline Strings

You can assign a multiline string to a variable like this:

Example

str <- "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."

str # print the value of str

However, note that R will add a "\n" at the end of each line break. This is called an
escape character, and the n character indicates a new line.

If you want the line breaks to be inserted at the same position as in the code, use
the cat() function:

Example

str <- "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."

cat(str)

---- Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.

String Length

There are many usesful string functions in R.

79
For example, to find the number of characters in a string, use the nchar() function:

Example

str <- "Hello World!"

nchar(str)

Check a String

Use the grepl() function to check if a character or a sequence of characters are

present in a string:

Example

str <- "Hello World!"

grepl("H", str)
grepl("Hello", str)
grepl("X", str)

Combine Two Strings

Use the paste() function to merge/concatenate two strings:

Example

str1 <- "Hello"

str2 <- "World"

paste(str1, str2)

Booleans (Logical Values)

In programming, you often need to know if an expression is true or false.

You can evaluate any expression in R, and get one of two answers, TRUE or FALSE.

When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and R returns the
logical answer:

Example

10 > 9 # TRUE because 10 is greater than 9

10 == 9 # FALSE because 10 is not equal to 9
10 < 9 # FALSE because 10 is greater than 9

80
You can also compare two variables:

Example

a <- 10
b <- 9

a>b

You can also run a condition in an if statement, which you will learn much more
about in the if..else chapter.

Example

a <- 200
b <- 33

if (b > a) {
print ("b is greater than a")
} else {
print("b is not greater than a")
}

Operators

Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

Example

10 + 5

R divides the operators in the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Miscellaneous operators

R Arithmetic Operators

81
Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division

^ Exponent

%% Modulus (Remainder from division)

%/% Integer Division

R Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Example

my_var <- 3

my_var <<- 3

82
3 -> my_var

3 ->> my_var

my_var # print my_var

Note: <<- is a global assigner. You will learn more about this in the Global Variable
chapter.

It is also possible to turn the direction of the assignment operator.

x <- 3 is equal to 3 -> x

R Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name

== Equal

!= Not equal

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than or equal to

<= Less than or equal to

83
R Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description

& Element-wise Logical AND operator. It returns TRUE if both elements

are TRUE

&& Logical AND operator - Returns TRUE if both statements are TRUE

| Elementwise- Logical OR operator. It returns TRUE if one of the

statement is TRUE

|| Logical OR operator. It returns TRUE if one of the statement is TRUE.

! Logical NOT - returns FALSE if statement is TRUE

R Miscellaneous Operators

Miscellaneous operators are used to manipulate data:

Operator Description

: Creates a series of numbers in a sequence

84
%in% Find out if an element belongs to a vector

%*% Matrix Multiplication

The if Statement

An "if statement" is written with the if keyword, and it is used to specify a block of
code to be executed if a condition is TRUE:

Example

a <- 33
b <- 200

if (b > a) {
print("b is greater than a")
}

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as a part of the if
statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know
that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

R uses curly brackets { } to define the scope in the code.

Else If

The else if keyword is R's way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true,
then try this condition":

Example

a <- 33
b <- 33

if (b > a) {
print("b is greater than a")
} else if (a == b) {

85
 print ("a and b are equal")
}

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the else
if condition is true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

You can use as many else if statements as you want in R.

If Else

The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding
conditions:

Example

a <- 200
b <- 33

if (b > a) {
print("b is greater than a")
} else if (a == b) {
print("a and b are equal")
} else {
print("a is greater than b")
}

In this example, a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the else
if condition is not true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen that "a is
greater than b".

You can also use else without else if:

Example

a <- 200
b <- 33

if (b > a) {
print("b is greater than a")
} else {
print("b is not greater than a")
}

86
Nested If Statements

You can also have if statements inside if statements, this is

called nested if statements.

Example

x <- 41

if (x > 10) {
print("Above ten")
if (x > 20) {
print("and also above 20!")
} else {
print("but not above 20.")
}
} else {
print("below 10.")
}

---- [1] "Above ten"

[1] "and also above 20!"

AND

The & symbol (and) is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example : Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:

a <- 200
b <- 33
c <- 500

if (a > b & c > a) {

print("Both conditions are true")
}

OR

The | symbol (or) is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional

statements:

Example : Test if a is greater than b, or if c is greater than a:

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a <- 200
b <- 33
c <- 500

if (a > b | a > c) {
print("At least one of the conditions is true")
}

Loops

Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.

Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code
more readable.

R has two loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops

R While Loops

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is
TRUE:

Example

Print i as long as i is less than 6:

i <- 1
while (i < 6) {
print(i)
i <- i + 1
}

In the example above, the loop will continue to produce numbers ranging from 1
to 5. The loop will stop at 6 because 6 < 6 is FALSE.

The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need to
define an indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.

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Break

With the break statement, we can stop the loop even if the while condition is TRUE:

Example

Exit the loop if i is equal to 4.

i <- 1
while (i < 6) {
print(i)
i <- i + 1
if (i == 4) {
break
}
}

The loop will stop at 3 because we have chosen to finish the loop by using
the break statement when i is equal to 4 (i == 4).

Next

With the next statement, we can skip an iteration without terminating the loop:

Example

Skip the value of 3:

i <- 0
while (i < 6) {
i <- i + 1
if (i == 3) {
next
}
print(i)
}

When the loop passes the value 3, it will skip it and continue to loop.

To demonstrate a practical example, let us say we play a game of Yahtzee!

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Example

Print "Yahtzee!" If the dice number is 6:

dice <- 1
while (dice <= 6) {
if (dice < 6) {
print("No Yahtzee")
} else {
print("Yahtzee!")
}
dice <- dice + 1
}

If the loop passes the values ranging from 1 to 5, it prints "No Yahtzee". Whenever it
passes the value 6, it prints "Yahtzee!".

For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence:

Example

for (x in 1:10) {
print(x)
}

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more
like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming
languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a
vector, array, list, etc..

Example : Print every item in a list:

fruits <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for (x in fruits) {
print(x)
}

Example : Print the number of dices:

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dice <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

for (x in dice) {
print(x)
}

The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand, like
with while loops.

Break

With the break statement, we can stop the loop before it has looped through all
the items:

Example

Stop the loop at "cherry":

fruits <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for (x in fruits) {
if (x == "cherry") {
break
}
print(x)
}

The loop will stop at "cherry" because we have chosen to finish the loop by using
the break statement when x is equal to "cherry" (x == "cherry").

Next

With the next statement, we can skip an iteration without terminating the loop:

Example

Skip "banana":

fruits <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for (x in fruits) {
if (x == "banana") {
next

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 }
print(x)
}

When the loop passes "banana", it will skip it and continue to loop.

To demonstrate a practical example, let us say we play a game of Yahtzee!

Example : Print "Yahtzee!" If the dice number is 6:

dice <- 1:6

for(x in dice) {
if (x == 6) {
print(paste("The dice number is", x, "Yahtzee!"))
} else {
print(paste("The dice number is", x, "Not Yahtzee"))
}
}

If the loop reaches the values ranging from 1 to 5, it prints "No Yahtzee" and its
number. When it reaches the value 6, it prints "Yahtzee!" and its number.

Nested Loops

It is also possible to place a loop inside another loop. This is called a nested loop:

Example : Print the adjective of each fruit in a list:

adj <- list("red", "big", "tasty")

fruits <- list("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for (x in adj) {
for (y in fruits) {
print(paste(x, y))
}
}

---- [1] "red apple"

[1] "red banana"
[1] "red cherry"
[1] "big apple"
[1] "big banana"
[1] "big cherry"

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[1] "tasty apple"
[1] "tasty banana"
[1] "tasty cherry"

R Functions

A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function

To create a function, use the function() keyword:

Example

my_function <- function() { # create a function with the name my_function

print("Hello World!")
}

Call a Function

To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis,

like my_function():

Example

my_function <- function() {

print("Hello World!")
}

my_function() # call the function named my_function

Arguments

Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can
add as many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to
print the full name:

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Example

my_function <- function(fname) {

paste(fname, "Griffin")
}

my_function("Peter")
my_function("Lois")
my_function("Stewie")

From a function's perspective:

A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function definition.

An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.

Number of Arguments

By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments.

Meaning that if your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function
with 2 arguments, not more, and not less:

Example : This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:

my_function <- function(fname, lname) {

paste(fname, lname)
}

my_function("Peter", "Griffin")

If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:

Example : This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 1 argument:

my_function <- function(fname, lname) {

paste(fname, lname)
}

my_function("Peter")

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

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If we call the function without an argument, it uses the default value:

Example

my_function <- function(country = "Norway") {

paste("I am from", country)
}

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function() # will get the default value, which is Norway
my_function("USA")

---- [1] "I am from Sweden"

[1] "I am from India"
[1] "I am from Norway"
[1] "I am from USA"

Return Values

To let a function return a result, use the return() function:

Example

my_function <- function(x) {

return (5 * x)
}

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

The output of the code above will be:

[1] 15
[1] 25
[1] 45

Data Structures in R Programming



A data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a computer so that it
can be used effectively. The idea is to reduce the space and time complexities of

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different tasks. Data structures in R programming are tools for holding multiple
values.

R’s base data structures are often organized by their dimensionality (1D, 2D, or nD)
and whether they’re homogeneous (all elements must be of the identical type) or
heterogeneous (the elements are often of various types). This gives rise to the six
data types which are most frequently utilized in data analysis.

The most essential data structures used in R include:

 Vectors
 Lists
 Dataframes
 Matrices
 Arrays
 Factors

Vectors

A vector is an ordered collection of basic data types of a given length. The only
key thing here is all the elements of a vector must be of the identical data type e.g
homogeneous data structures. Vectors are one-dimensional data structures.

Example:

# R program to illustrate Vector

# Vectors(ordered collection of same data type)

X = c(1, 3, 5, 7, 8)

# Printing those elements in console

print(X)

Output:
[1] 1 3 5 7 8

Lists

A list is a generic object consisting of an ordered collection of objects. Lists are

heterogeneous data structures. These are also one-dimensional data structures.
A list can be a list of vectors, list of matrices, a list of characters and a list of
functions and so on.

Example:

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# R program to illustrate a List

# The first attributes is a numeric vector

# containing the employee IDs which is
# created using the 'c' command here
empId = c(1, 2, 3, 4)

# The second attribute is the employee name

# which is created using this line of code here
# which is the character vector
empName = c("Debi", "Sandeep", "Subham", "Shiba")

# The third attribute is the number of employees

# which is a single numeric variable.
numberOfEmp = 4

# We can combine all these three different

# data types into a list
# containing the details of employees
# which can be done using a list command
empList = list(empId, empName, numberOfEmp)

print(empList)

Output:
[[1]]
[1] 1 2 3 4

[[2]]
[1] "Debi" "Sandeep" "Subham" "Shiba"

[[3]]
[1] 4

Dataframes

Dataframes are generic data objects of R which are used to store the tabular
data. Dataframes are the foremost popular data objects in R programming
because we are comfortable in seeing the data within the tabular form. They are
two-dimensional, heterogeneous data structures. These are lists of vectors of
equal lengths.

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Data frames have the following constraints placed upon them:

 A data-frame must have column names and every row should have a
unique name.
 Each column must have the identical number of items.
 Each item in a single column must be of the same data type.
 Different columns may have different data types.
To create a data frame we use the data.frame() function.

Example:

# R program to illustrate dataframe

# A vector which is a character vector

Name = c("Amiya", "Raj", "Asish")

# A vector which is a character vector

Language = c("R", "Python", "Java")

# A vector which is a numeric vector

Age = c(22, 25, 45)

# To create dataframe use data.frame command

# and then pass each of the vectors
# we have created as arguments
# to the function data.frame()
df = data.frame(Name, Language, Age)

print(df)

Output:
Name Language Age
1 Amiya R 22
2 Raj Python 25
3 Asish Java 45

Matrices

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns. In a

matrix, as we know rows are the ones that run horizontally and columns are the
ones that run vertically. Matrices are two-dimensional, homogeneous data
structures.
Now, let’s see how to create a matrix in R. To create a matrix in R you need to use

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the function called matrix. The arguments to this matrix() are the set of elements
in the vector. You have to pass how many numbers of rows and how many
numbers of columns you want to have in your matrix and this is the important
point you have to remember that by default, matrices are in column-wise order.

Example:

# R program to illustrate a matrix

A = matrix(
# Taking sequence of elements
c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9),

# No of rows and columns

nrow = 3, ncol = 3,

# By default matrices are

# in column-wise order
# So this parameter decides
# how to arrange the matrix
byrow = TRUE
)

print(A)

Output:
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 2 3
[2,] 4 5 6
[3,] 7 8 9

Arrays

Arrays are the R data objects which store the data in more than two dimensions.
Arrays are n-dimensional data structures. For example, if we create an array of
dimensions (2, 3, 3) then it creates 3 rectangular matrices each with 2 rows and 3
columns. They are homogeneous data structures.

Now, let’s see how to create arrays in R. To create an array in R you need to use
the function called array(). The arguments to this array() are the set of elements
in vectors and you have to pass a vector containing the dimensions of the array.

Example:

99
# R program to illustrate an array

A = array(
# Taking sequence of elements
c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8),

# Creating two rectangular matrices

# each with two rows and two columns
dim = c(2, 2, 2)
)

print(A)

Output:
,,1

[,1] [,2]
[1,] 1 3
[2,] 2 4

,,2

[,1] [,2]
[1,] 5 7
[2,] 6 8

Factors

Factors are the data objects which are used to categorize the data and store it as
levels. They are useful for storing categorical data. They can store both strings
and integers. They are useful to categorize unique values in columns like “TRUE” or
“FALSE”, or “MALE” or “FEMALE”, etc.. They are useful in data analysis for statistical
modeling.

Now, let’s see how to create factors in R. To create a factor in R you need to use
the function called factor(). The argument to this factor() is the vector.

Example:

# R program to illustrate factors

# Creating factor using factor()

100
fac = factor(c("Male", "Female", "Male",
"Male", "Female", "Male", "Female"))

print(fac)

Output:
[1] Male Female Male Male Female Male Female
Levels: Female Male

Use link for further study on R

https://www.w3schools.com/r/default.asp

Use link for study on Rstudio

https://www.datacamp.com/tutorial/r-studio-
tutorial

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