History of Migration

o Humans have been migrating throughout history, starting from ancient times.

o Many early human societies were nomadic or hunter-gatherer communities. These groups
moved from place to place in search of resources like food, water, and shelter.

o Migration also occurred due to trade and exploration. Ancient civilizations like the
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans established trade routes and colonies. This led to the
movement of people across regions and continents.

o The period of European colonization from the 15th to the 20th century resulted in large-
scale migrations. European powers established colonies in various parts of the world. This
led to the forced migration of enslaved Africans, indentured laborers, and settlers.

o The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries brought significant changes to
migration patterns. People moved from rural areas to cities in search of employment in
industries.

o In the 20th and 21st centuries, migration has been influenced by various factors. This
includes globalization, political conflicts, economic disparities, and advancements in
transportation and communication.

REASONS FOR MIGRATION

It is important to know why some migrate while others do not. The important

factors, therefore, which cause migration or which motivate people to move

may broadly be classified into four categories: economic factors, demographic

factors, socio-cultural factors, and political factors.

5.3.1 Economic Factors

The major reason of voluntary migration is economic. In most of the developing

countries, low agricultural income, agricultural unemployment and

underemployment are the major factors pushing the migrants towards areas

with greater job opportunities. Even the pressure of population resulting in a

high man-land ratio has been widely recognised as one of the important causes

of poverty and rural outmigration. Thus, almost all studies indicate that most

of the migrants have moved in search of better economic opportunities. This is

true of both internal as well as international migration.

The most important economic factors that motivate migration may be termed
as ‘Push Factors’ and ‘Pull Factors’. In other words it is to see whether people

migrate because of the compelling circumstances at the place of origin which

pushed them out, or whether they are lured by the attractive conditions in the

new place. Now we shall discuss these factors.

Migration

35

i) Push Factors

The push factors are those that compel or force a person, due to various reasons,

to leave that place and go to some other place. For example, adverse economic

conditions caused by poverty, low productivity, unemployment, exhaustion

of natural resources and natural calamities may compel people to leave their

native place in search of better economic opportunities. An ILO study reveals

that the main push factor causing the worker to leave agriculture is the lower

levels of income, as income in agriculture is generally lower than the other

sectors of the economy. According to the estimates of the Planning Commission

over one-third of the rural population is below the poverty line. Due to rapid

increase in population, the per capita availability of cultivable land has declined,

and the numbers of the unemployed and the underemployed in the rural areas

have significantly increased with the result that the rural people are being pushed

to the urban areas. The non-availability of alternative sources of income in the

rural area is also another factor for migration. In addition to this, the existence

of the joint family system and laws of inheritance, which do not permit the

division of property, may also cause many young men to migrate to cities in

search of jobs. Even sub division of holdings leads to migration, as the holdings

become too small to support a family.

ii) Pull Factors

Pull factors refer to those factors which attract the migrants to an area, such as,

opportunities for better employment, higher wages, better working conditions

and better amenities of life, etc. There is generally cityward migration, when

rapid expansion of industry, commerce and business takes place. In recent years,

the high rate of movement of people from India as well as from other developing
countries to the USA, Canada and now to the Middle-East is due to the better

employment opportunities, higher wages and better amenities of life, variety of

occupations to choose from and the possibility of attaining higher standard of

living. Sometimes the migrants are also attracted to cities in search of better

cultural and entertainment activities or bright city lights. However, pull factors

operate not only in the rural-urban migration, but also in other types of internal

as well as international migration.

Sometimes a question is asked which factors are more important, push or pull?

Some argue that the push factor is stronger than the pull factor as they feel that

it is the rural problems rather than the urban attractions that play a crucial role

in the shift of the population. On the other hand, those who consider the pull

factors as more important emphasise high rates of investment in urban areas

leading to more employment and business opportunities and greater attraction

for the city way of life.

This classification of motives for migration into push and pull factors is very

useful in analysing determinants of migration, but all migratory movements

cannot be explained by these factors alone. Moreover, sometimes migration

may occur not by push or pull factors alone but as a result of the combined

effect of both.

iv) Push Back Factors

In India, and in some other developing countries also, another important factor

which plays crucial role in migration is ‘push back factor’. In India, according

to Asish Bose, the urban labour force is sizeable, and the urban unemployment

rates are high, and there also exist pools of underemployed persons. All these

factors acts in combination as deterrents to the fresh flow of migration from the

rural to urban areas. He calls this as a ‘push back factor’. He further adds that

if new employment opportunities are created in the urban areas, the first persons

to offer themselves for employment are the marginally employed already residing

in those areas, unless of course special skills are required.

5.3.2 Socio-Cultural and Political Factors

Besides these push and pull factors, social and cultural factors also play an
 important role in migration. Sometimes family conflicts also cause migration.

Improved communication facilities, such as, transportation, impact of the radio

and the television, the cinema, the urban-oriented education and resultant change

in attitudes and values also promote migration.

Sometimes even political factors encourage or discourage migration. For

instance, in our country, the adoption of the jobs for ‘sons of the soil policy’ by

the State governments will certainly affect the migration from other states. The

rise of Shiv Sena in Bombay, with its hatred for the migrants and the occasional

eruption of violence in the name of local parochial patriotism, is a significant

phenomena. Even in Calcutta, the Bengali-Marwari conflict will have farreaching implications.
And now Assam and Tamil Nadu are other such examples.

Thus the political attitudes and outlook of the people also influence migration

to a great extent. There have also been migrations from Kashmir and Punjab

because of the terrorist activities.

TYPES OF MIGRATION

 Internal migration (moving within a state, country, or continent) and external migration
(moving outside of a state, country, or continent) are two types of human migration (moving
to a different state, country, or continent.

Internal Migration

 Internal migration is the movement of people within a country from one defined area to
another.

 It is generally divided into the following:

o Rural to Rural (47%)

o Rural to Urban (32%)

o Urban to Urban (15%)

o Urban to Rural (6%)

External Migration

India's external migration can be divided into three categories:

 Emigration: India's emigration to various parts of the world.

  Immigration: People from various countries are immigrating to India.

 Refugee Migration: Involuntary or forced migration to India in the form of refugees has also
been a significant trend.

Migration can have significant impacts on the host country, which can vary depending on the scale,
characteristics, and types of migrants. Here's a detailed look at some of these impacts:

1. Economic Impact:

 Labor Market: Migration can affect the host country's labor market dynamics.
Migrants often fill gaps in the labor force, particularly in sectors with labor shortages
or in jobs that locals are unwilling to take. This can contribute to economic growth
and productivity.

 Skills and Innovation: Skilled migrants can bring new skills, knowledge, and
innovation to the host country, enhancing its competitiveness and capacity for
technological advancement.

 Consumption and Demand: Migrants contribute to local consumption patterns,

boosting demand for goods and services in the host country, thus stimulating
economic activity.

 Remittances: Migrants often send remittances to their home countries, which can
have positive impacts on the economy of the host country through increased
consumption and investment.

2. Social Impact:

 Cultural Diversity: Migration enriches the cultural fabric of the host country by
introducing new languages, cuisines, customs, and traditions. However, cultural
diversity can also lead to social tensions and conflicts if not managed properly.

 Social Cohesion: Successful integration efforts can foster social cohesion by

promoting interactions and understanding between migrants and the native
population. Conversely, lack of integration can lead to social fragmentation and
marginalization.

 Healthcare and Education: Increased migration can put pressure on healthcare and
education systems in the host country, particularly in areas with high concentrations
of migrants. Adequate provision of services is crucial to ensure the well-being and
integration of migrant populations.

 Housing and Infrastructure: Migration can strain housing markets and public
infrastructure in the host country, leading to increased demand and potential
shortages. This may result in rising property prices and overcrowding in certain
areas.

3. Political Impact:

 Policy Responses: Migration often becomes a politically charged issue, with debates
surrounding immigration policies, border controls, and national identity. Host
 countries may implement stricter immigration laws or adopt measures to manage
migration flows.

 Integration Policies: Government policies and programs aimed at facilitating the

integration of migrants into society can have long-term implications for social
cohesion and political stability.

 Public Opinion: Attitudes towards migration vary among the host population,
ranging from acceptance and support to skepticism and hostility. Public opinion can
influence political decisions and shape the discourse on migration-related issues.

4. Economic Sectors:

 Agriculture: Migrant labor is often crucial in agricultural sectors, especially for

seasonal or low-skilled work such as harvesting crops.

 Services: Many migrants work in service industries such as hospitality, healthcare,

and construction, filling gaps in the labor market and supporting economic growth.

 Technology and Innovation: Skilled migrants contribute to the host country's

technological advancement and innovation, particularly in sectors such as
information technology, engineering, and research.

Canada's immigration system has had significant social, economic, cultural, political, and religious
impacts over the years. Here's a case study highlighting these impacts:

1. Social Impact:

 Diversity and Multiculturalism: Canadian immigration policies have led to a diverse

society with people from various ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. This
diversity enriches Canadian society by fostering cross-cultural understanding,
tolerance, and appreciation for different perspectives.

 Social Cohesion and Integration: While Canada promotes multiculturalism, ensuring

social cohesion and integration remains a challenge. Efforts to promote inclusive
policies, support immigrant communities, and combat discrimination are crucial for
fostering a cohesive society where all individuals have equal opportunities and
rights.

 Demographic Changes: Immigration has played a crucial role in shaping Canada's

demographic profile, particularly in addressing aging populations and labor market
needs. Immigration contributes to population growth, workforce diversity, and the
sustainability of social programs such as healthcare and pensions.

2. Economic Impact:

 Labor Market Contribution: Immigrants make significant contributions to Canada's

economy by filling labor market gaps, particularly in sectors experiencing skill
shortages. Skilled immigrants bring expertise, innovation, and entrepreneurial spirit,
driving economic growth and competitiveness.
  Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Many immigrants start businesses, create jobs,
and contribute to innovation and technological advancement in Canada. Immigrant
entrepreneurs play a vital role in driving entrepreneurship and stimulating economic
activity.

 Remittances: Immigrants may send remittances to their home countries, providing

financial support to their families and contributing to economic development in their
countries of origin.

3. Cultural Impact:

 Cultural Enrichment: Immigration has enriched Canada's cultural landscape by

introducing diverse traditions, cuisines, languages, and artistic expressions. Cultural
exchange and cross-cultural collaboration contribute to Canada's vibrant cultural
scene and global reputation as a multicultural society.

 Language Diversity: Canada is officially bilingual (English and French), but

immigration has also led to linguistic diversity with the presence of numerous
languages spoken across the country. Efforts to promote language learning and
multilingualism support cultural integration and communication among diverse
communities.

4. Political Impact:

 Policy Debates: Immigration policies are often the subject of political debate and
public discourse in Canada. Discussions may center on issues such as immigration
levels, refugee resettlement, integration programs, and border security.

 Public Opinion: Attitudes towards immigration vary among Canadians, ranging from
support for multiculturalism and diversity to concerns about economic competition,
social cohesion, and security. Political parties may adopt different stances on
immigration to appeal to their electoral base.

5. Religious Impact:

 Religious Diversity: Immigration has contributed to religious diversity in Canada,

with adherents of various faiths coexisting and practicing their beliefs freely. This
diversity enriches Canada's religious landscape and promotes interfaith dialogue and
understanding.

 Integration Challenges: While Canada upholds freedom of religion, ensuring the

integration of religious minorities remains an ongoing challenge. Efforts to combat
religious discrimination, promote religious tolerance, and accommodate diverse
religious practices are essential for fostering social cohesion and respect for religious
rights.

Impact of migration in India:

 1. Economic impact: Migrants contribute to the India’s gross domestic product (GDP). Their
ambition and enthusiasm to improve their livelihood help in economic growth. Migration
could affect the overall economy of the city through remittances.

2. Social impact: The tendency to live within own group and community is responsible for
establishment of enclaves within cities. While diversity is healthy for a city, it can also pose a
risk to social cohesion, cultures and traditions, and to a certain extent to the safety and
security of residents. It can lead to social tension associated with xenophobia and
discrimination.

3. Political impact: Transnationalism allow global connectedness. Transnational migrants have

the capacity to transform cities into global centres through the impact they have on
individuals, firms and other organizations via their worldwide connections. It also allow
responsible government due to increased global awareness of rights. This help political
maturity in the nation.

4. Impact on urban infrastructure and services: Migrants move to cities, can put further
pressure on the already stressed infrastructure. Migration affects the demands on urban
infrastructure and services in both the place of origin and the place of destination. The rapid
population growth results in difficulty to cope with insufficient infrastructure and the needs
of all the people.

o Education and employment: Soaring immigration directly affects the availability of

places in primary schools, and lead to increase in class sizes and adding classrooms.
Lack of such resources poses big issues for their governments, undermining efforts to
keep class sizes down and to provide school places for all children.

o Healthcare: The presence of infectious diseases in migrants causes concern for cities.
Migrants with pre-existing health conditions can strain cities’ healthcare systems.
Further poor slum conditions lead to health issues and epidemic like dengue in
urban areas.

o Transportation: One of migrants’ primary concerns is how to avail themselves of

public transportation services. In developing cities, where a significant portion of
migrants lives in slums, streets are not even wide enough to accommodate vehicles,
including emergency vehicles.

o Energy: Migration also affects energy consumption and CO2 emissions. It put stress
on electricity and fuel demand.

o Sanitation and waste: Migration can exacerbate the challenges of managing sewage
in a city given the growth of the population, but the city cannot always meet the
demand due to insufficient capacity.

Migration Pattern in World and India

 Over the last five decades, the estimated number of international migrants has increased.

 In 2020, there were an estimated 281 million people living in countries other than their birth
countries, up 128 million from 1990 and more than three times the estimated number in
1970.
  Around 87 and 86 million international migrants ended up living in Europe and
Asia, respectively, accounting for 61 % of the global migrant stock.

 These were followed by North America, which will account for nearly 59 million international
migrants in 2020, or 21% of the global migrant stock, Africa, which will account for 9%, Latin
America and the Caribbean, which will account for 5%, and Oceania, which will account
for 3%.

World Migration Report

 The United Nations' International Organisation for Migration publishes the World Migration
Report.

 The International Organisation for Migration releases it every two years.

 The eleventh report in the series was recently released.

 According to the World Migration Report, 30.7 million people were forcibly displaced in 145
countries.

Issues Related to Migration

Poor Implementation of Protections

 Inter-state migrant workers are afforded certain protections under the ISMW Act.

 According to a report released in December 2011 by the Standing Committee on Labour,

worker registration under the ISMW Act is low, and the Act's protections are poorly
implemented.

Lack of Portability of Benefits

 Migrants who have registered to claim benefits in one location lose access when they move
to another.

 This is especially true when it comes to PDS entitlements.

 The ration card required to access PDS benefits is issued by state governments and is not
transferable between states.

Lack of Affordable Housing and Basic Amenities in Urban Areas

 Migrants account for 47 per cent of the urban population.

 Migrants in urban areas were identified as the largest population in need of housing in cities
by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs in 2015.

 Low-income housing options, both for purchase and rental, are in short supply. As a result,
slums and informal settlements spread.

Marginalised Groups
  People who are economically well-off and widely accepted sociologically (for example, upper
caste in India or white in Western countries) find it much easier to move and integrate into
other societies.

 People who are poor or belong to a marginalised group, on the other hand, find it difficult to
enter many of these countries.

 Even if they move, they may not be able to mix up.

Socio- and Psychological Issues

 Migrants are frequently rejected by host countries, and they are treated as second-class
citizens.

 As a result, the level of interaction confidence is affected.

 Migrating to a new country comes with a slew of challenges, ranging from cultural
adaptation to language barriers to homesickness and loneliness.

Exclusion from Political Rights and Social Benefits

 Migrant workers are denied many opportunities to exercise political rights, such as the right
to vote.

 Furthermore, the requirement to provide proof of address, ration cards, voter IDs, and
Aadhaar cards, which is difficult for them to obtain due to the fluidity of their lives, prevents
them from benefiting from welfare schemes and policies.

Creation of Slums

 Uncontrolled migration to India's metropolitan areas has resulted in overcrowding.

 Overcrowding leads to increase in population and reduced housing facilities and eventually
lead to the creation of slums.

 Slums are growing in industrialised states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
and Delhi as a result of uncontrolled migration within the country.

Demographic Imbalances

 The population of a country is redistributed as a result of migration.

 One of the major factors contributing to city population growth is rural-urban migration.

 Out Migration from rural areas based on age and skill has a negative impact on the rural
demographic structure.

 High outmigration from Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Eastern Maharashtra,
on the other hand, has resulted in serious age and sex imbalances in these states.

 In the recipient states, similar imbalances are introduced.

Psychological Issues

 Migrants play an important role in social change.

 People from various cultures mix as a result of migration.

  It has a positive impact on the evolution of composite culture and the broadening of
people's mental horizons by breaking through narrow considerations.

 However, it has serious drawbacks, such as anonymity, which creates a social vacuum and
a sense of despair among individuals.

 People who are depressed for a long time may be more likely to engage in anti-social
activities such as crime and drug abuse.

Environmental Issues

 Overcrowding in urban areas as a result of rural-urban migration has put a strain on the
existing social and physical infrastructure.

 Aside from that, cities are grappling with serious issues such as groundwater depletion, air
pollution, sewage disposal, and solid waste management as a result of over-exploitation of
natural resources.

Government Initiatives for Migrants

 Inter-State Migrant Workers Act: The Inter-State Migrant Workers (Regulation of

Employment and Conditions of Service) Act of 1979 was enacted to regulate the
employment and conditions of migrant workers from other states.

 It aims to address migrant workers' unfair working conditions, such as the need to find work
through middlemen contractors or agents who promise a monthly wage settlement but fail
to pay when the time comes.

 Increasing opportunities for rural residents to earn a living: From time to time, the
government has taken various initiatives to alleviate farmer distress and improve rural
livelihood opportunities.

 Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM), Mahatma

Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), and Attracting and Retaining
Youth in Agriculture are just a few examples (ARYA).

 In rural areas, infrastructure development is a priority.

 RURBAN Mission: To promote local economic development, improve basic services, and
develop well-planned Rurban clusters (cluster villages).

 One of the main goals is to bridge the economic, technological, and facility and service
divides between rural and urban areas.

 Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA) : This is a programme that provides urban
amenities to rural areas.

 It aims to address the issue of people migrating from rural to urban areas in search of work.

 It aims to improve technology in villages, improve connectivity, and increase livelihood

opportunities, among other things.

 SMART VILLAGES: It is an initiative focused on holistic rural development that has been
adopted by India's national, state, and local governments.

 The Eco Needs Foundation created the "Smart Village" concept.

  The Foundation is adopting villages as part of this project and working to ensure their long-
term development by providing basic amenities such as sanitation, safe drinking water, an
internal road, tree planting, and water conservation.

Significance of Migration

 Labour Demand and Supply: Migration fills labour supply and demand gaps, efficiently
allocating skilled, unskilled, and low-wage labour.

 Skill Development: Migrants' knowledge and skills are enhanced as a result of their exposure
to and interaction with the outside world.

 Quality of Life: Migration increases employment opportunities and economic prosperity,

which improves quality of life.

 Migrants also send extra money and remittances back home, which has a positive impact on
their home country.

 Economic Remittances: Migrants' economic well-being protects households in their home

countries from risks, increases consumer spending and investment in health, education, and
asset formation.

 Social Remittances: Migrants' social lives are improved by their exposure to new cultures,
customs, and languages, which promotes brotherhood among people and promotes greater
equality and tolerance.

Refugees and displaced persons face a multitude of challenges, stemming from

the circumstances that forced them to flee their homes as well as the conditions they encounter in
their host countries. Here's a detailed exploration of some of these problems:

The United Nations defines “a refugee as every person, who owing to well-founded fear of being
persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or
political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is
unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country.”

1. Violence, Conflict, and Persecution: Many refugees and displaced persons flee their homes
due to violence, armed conflict, persecution, or human rights violations. They may have
experienced trauma, loss of loved ones, and exposure to severe forms of violence, which can
have lasting psychological effects.

2. Lack of Legal Protection: Refugees and displaced persons often lack legal protection and may
face barriers to accessing rights and services in their host countries. Some may be at risk of
refoulement (forced return to their home country), detention, or deportation.

3. Loss of Livelihoods and Economic Opportunities: Displacement often results in the loss of
livelihoods and economic opportunities, as refugees and displaced persons may be unable to
work or face restrictions on employment in their host countries. This can lead to poverty,
dependence on aid, and vulnerability to exploitation.
 4. Limited Access to Basic Services: Refugees and displaced persons may struggle to access
basic services such as healthcare, education, clean water, and sanitation in their host
countries. Overcrowded refugee camps and informal settlements can exacerbate these
challenges, leading to inadequate living conditions and increased risks of disease outbreaks.

5. Food Insecurity and Malnutrition: Displacement can disrupt food production, distribution,
and access, leading to food insecurity and malnutrition among refugees and displaced
persons. Limited access to nutritious food can have long-term health consequences,
particularly for children and vulnerable groups.

6. Gender-based Violence and Discrimination: Women, girls, and LGBTQ+ individuals among
refugees and displaced populations are often at heightened risk of gender-based violence,
including sexual assault, exploitation, and forced marriage. Discrimination and
marginalization based on gender identity, sexual orientation, or other factors can further
exacerbate their vulnerability.

7. Family Separation and Unaccompanied Minors: Displacement can result in family

separation, with some individuals becoming unaccompanied minors or separated from their
caregivers. These children are particularly vulnerable to exploitation, trafficking, and abuse,
and may face challenges in accessing protection and support services.

8. Psychosocial Distress and Mental Health Issues: The experience of displacement, loss,
trauma, and uncertainty can take a toll on the mental health and well-being of refugees and
displaced persons. However, access to mental health services and psychosocial support is
often limited in humanitarian settings.

9. Legal and Administrative Barriers: Refugees and displaced persons may encounter legal and
administrative barriers that hinder their ability to access asylum procedures, obtain
documentation, or secure residency rights in their host countries. Lack of legal status can
leave them at risk of detention, deportation, or statelessness.

10. Social Stigma and Xenophobia: Refugees and displaced persons may face social stigma,
discrimination, and xenophobia in their host communities, which can affect their integration,
sense of belonging, and ability to rebuild their lives. Negative attitudes towards refugees and
migrants can contribute to social tensions and conflicts.

Globalization and migration are closely intertwined phenomena, with

globalization influencing migration patterns and processes in various ways. Here's an overview of
how globalization impacts migration:

1. Economic Factors:

 Labor Mobility: Globalization has facilitated the movement of labor across borders,
driven by economic factors such as demand for skilled workers in developed
countries and opportunities for better wages and employment in emerging
economies.
  Global Supply Chains: The integration of economies through global supply chains
has led to the movement of workers across countries to meet labor needs in
industries such as manufacturing, agriculture, and services.

 Remittances: Globalization has increased the flow of remittances, as migrants send

money back to their home countries to support their families. Remittances play a
significant role in the economies of many developing countries, contributing to
poverty reduction and economic development.

2. Technological Advances:

 Communication and Transportation: Advances in communication and transportation

have made it easier for people to migrate across borders. The internet, mobile
phones, and social media platforms facilitate communication and information
exchange among migrants, while air travel and improved infrastructure reduce the
physical barriers to migration.

 Digital Nomadism: Globalization has enabled the rise of digital nomadism, where
individuals work remotely from different locations around the world. This lifestyle
allows people to move freely across borders while maintaining employment and
income, blurring the lines between work and travel.

3. Cultural Exchange:

 Diversity and Pluralism: Globalization has led to increased cultural exchange and
interaction among people from different backgrounds. Migration contributes to
cultural diversity in host countries, enriching societies with new languages, cuisines,
traditions, and perspectives.

 Transnational Identities: Migrants often maintain ties to their home countries while
adapting to their new environments, leading to the emergence of transnational
identities. This phenomenon blurs the boundaries between nations and fosters a
sense of interconnectedness among diverse communities.

4. Political and Environmental Factors:

 Conflict and Displacement: Globalization can exacerbate political instability, conflict,

and environmental degradation, leading to forced migration and displacement.
Factors such as civil wars, environmental disasters, and human rights violations
compel people to seek refuge in other countries.

 Asylum Seekers and Refugees: Globalization has heightened awareness of human

rights issues and prompted international efforts to address the needs of asylum
seekers and refugees. However, challenges such as border controls, refugee
protection, and burden-sharing remain contentious issues in the global migration
discourse.

5. Policy Responses:

 Migration Policies: Globalization has influenced the development of migration

policies at the national, regional, and international levels. Countries may implement
policies to attract skilled migrants, regulate labor migration, manage refugee flows,
or address irregular migration.
 International Cooperation: Globalization has spurred increased cooperation and
dialogue among countries on migration issues. Multilateral agreements, such as the
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, seek to promote
collaboration and coordination in managing migration flows and protecting migrant
rights.