CLIMATE RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE

A CASE STUDY OF QUEENS HALL OF RESIDENCE WITHIN

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, NIGERIA

BY

OLAYIWOLA, OMOYEMI TITILAYO

ARC/2006/039

BEING A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCEIENCES,
OBAFEMI AWOLOW UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, OSUN STATE,
NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

DECEMBER 2009
CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this dissertation was written by OLAYIWOLA T.O. It has been carried

out under my supervision as part pf the fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) (Hons) Degree in the Department of Architecture, Faculty of

Environmental Design and Management, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

……………………………… ………………………………

ARC. ADUNOLA A.O DATE

(Project Supervisor)

……………………………. …………………………….

PROF. K. AJIBOLA DATE

H.O.D

………………………… ………………………………

OLAYIWOLA T.O DATE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Title page i

Letter of certification ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Table of contents v

List of Tables viii

List of Figures ix

List of Plates x

List of Appendices xii

Abstract xiii
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of terms

1.2 Aims and Objectives of study

1.3 scope of Study

1.4 Research Methodology

1.5 Limitations of Study

1.6 Significance of the study

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Architecture and climate

2.2 Climatic classifications

2.3 Climatic elements

2.4 Specifics of climatic types

2.5 Tropical architecture

2.6 Factors influencing tropical architecture

2.6.1 People and their needs

2.6.2 Climate and its effects

2.6.3 Materials and construction techniques

2.7 Emergence of tropical architecture

2.8 Tropical architecture in Nigeria

2.9 Characteristics of tropical architecture

2.9.1 Site planning

2.9.2 Ventilation

2.9.3 Location of openings

2.9.4 Courtyards

2.9.5 Building form and orientation

2.9.6 Shade and shading device

2.9.7 Vegetation and glare

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 NIGERIA CLIMATE ZONES AND BUILDING DESIGN GUIDELINES

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Climate of the tropical region

3.3 Nigeria and its climatic zones

3.4 Climatic description of each zone

3.5 Climatic data

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, OYO STATE

4.1 Ibadan and its climate

4.2 General description and historical background of the university of Ibadan

4.3 The university campus layout

4.4 Queen’s Elizabeth Hall II

4.4.1 The architects

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 BIOCLIMATIC ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Mahoney’s table

5.3 Deduced design recommendations for University of Ibadan

5.4 Comparism of the selected building situations with the acceptable standards and

recommendations

5.5 Result and data analysis of the questionnaires administered to the users

5.6 Analysis of thermal comfort through the use of simulation of climatic parameters

5.7 Bioclimatic chart analysis

Conclusion
References

Appendices
LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: climatic zones of Nigeria

Table 3.2: climatic data of some Nigerian cities

Table 3.3: temperature and humidity data

Table 3.4: rainfall and wind data

Table 5.21: monthly weather data for Ibadan (2004)

Table 5.22 air temperature

Table 5.23: humidity, rain and wind

Table 5.24: diagnosis

Table 5.25: indicator

Table 5.5.1: respondent’s marital status

Table 5.5.2: age group

Table 5.5.3: how many occupants are there in this room?

Table 5.5.4: how many windows are there in this room?

Table 5.5.5: is your room cross – ventilated?

Table 5.5.6: how do you open your windows?

Table 5.5.7: do you make use of fan in your room?

Table 5.5.8: do you have protecting windows in your room?

Table 5.5.9: how do you feel about the temperature in the room at the moment?

Table 5.5.10: do you feel comfortable now?

Table 5.5.11: how will you like to be?

Table 5.5.12: how will you rate the overall acceptability of the temperature at this moment?

Table 5.5.13: do you think the materials used in constructing this hostel have made it climate

– responsive?
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.5.1: respondents marital status

Figure 5.5.2: age group

Figure 5.5.3: how many occupants are there in this room?

Figure 5.5.4: how many windows are there in this room?

Figure 5.5.5: is your room cross – ventilated?

Figure 5.5.6: how do you open your windows?

Figure 5.5.7: do you make use of fan in your room?

Figure 5.5.8: do you have protecting windows in your room?

Figure 5.5.9: how do you feel about the temperature in the room at the moment?

Figure 5.5.10: do you feel comfortable now?

Figure 5.5.11: how will you like to be?

Figure 5.5.12: how will you rate the overall acceptability of the temperature at this moment?

Figure 5.5.13: do you think the materials used in constructing this hostel have made it

climate – responsive?
LIST OF PLATES

Plate 2.1: showing courtyard

Plate 2.2: showing horizontal shading devices

Plate 2.3: showing vertical shading devices

Plate 2.4: showing vegetation

Plate 3.1: showing the map of Nigeria

Plate 4.1: showing the map of Ibadan

Plate 4.3: aerial view of the university, showing queens hall and oduduwa road

Plate 4.4: entrance hall beneath C- block

Plate 4.5 : student’s seating area outside C – block

Plate 4.6: queen’s Elizabeth II hall car park, with access from oduduwa road

Plate 4.7: showing the back of A-block and the open field

Plate 4.8: showing the raised walkway leading FROM BLOCK A TO BLOCK B and also

showing the open field behind block A.

Plate 4.9: showing the raised walkway, B block to the far right and D block behind it, with the

reading room tucked between the two blocks, to the left.

Plate 4.10: showing the entrance hall flanked by circular columns of about 450mm diameter.

Plate 4.11: showing the E block, behind the C-block, the cafeteria, buttery and well –

landscaped areas

Plate 4.12: showing the back view of the E – block

Plate 4.13: showing the cafeteria. The senior common room is located to the left of the

cafeteria

Plate 4.14: showing the F block

Plate 4.15: showing the covered walkway linking block F AND G

Plate 4.16: showing the newly constructed I – block to the right and H – BLOCK TO THE

LEFT

Plate 5.41: showing the rectilinear form of the building

Plate 5.42: showing the open space around the hostel area

Plate 5.43: showing the different types of shading devices used

Plate 5.44: showing the type of windows used – LOUVRES

Plate 5.45: showing the light internal walls used around the stair hall area

Plate 5.46: showing the asbestos roofing sheet been used on all the hostel buildings

Plate 5.47: showing the barrel roof used for the walkways
ABSTRACT

Today we live in an energy intensive built environment with the hope for a

better quality of life. Architecture developed in this industrial age is highly

dependent on mechanical controls resulting in high level of energy

consumption.

Buildings, as they are designed and used today, contribute to the serious

environmental problems because of the excessive consumption of energy and

other natural resources.

The close connection between energy use in buildings and environmental

damage arises because energy intensive solutions sought to construct a building

and meet its demand for heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting which causes

severe depletion of invaluable environmental resources.

The overall building form, the extent of glazed and unglazed surface area, the

building orientation and the proximity of other buildings determine solar heat

gains to the building.

In the past, people built their houses in harmony with the environment as well

as with optimal utilization of the available of the available local building

materials. The use of natural and passive means in traditional houses was more

effective in providing a thermally comfortable space, which was warm in the

wet season and cool in the dry season.

The strength of traditional architecture, is that it blends buildings into various

settings so that there is a natural harmony between climate, architecture and

people : an architectural heritage that survived for centuries because of

geometric, technical and constructive principles that worked for the society; is

being sadly destroyed under the guise of modernization.

In this study, various natural and passive design features and techniques that

have been employed in the student dwelling places – Queen’s hall, located in

the Univeristy of Ibadan; have been identified and the thermal performance of

this building have been studied and comaparative analysis has been done with

standards and principled guidelines so as to enable some of these design

features to be used in the changed cultural context of the present day urban

areas.
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

Climate is clearly one of the prime factors in culture,

and therefore built form. It is the mainspring of all

the sensual qualities that add up to a vital tropical

architecture.

Tan Hock Beng

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Since the beginning of time, man has been affected by climate and its influence

over the earth – since the earth’s climate is majorly dependent on solar energy.

The first humans built shelters and lived in caves to protect themselves from the

harsh weather elements and thereby became aware of the advantages of finding

a cave or placing wall openings in the direction of the sun’s path to capture its

warmth during winter days and the unique ability of certain materials to retain

the sun’s warmth and release it later after the sun had set. However, the first

documentation of architectural design with climate interests in mind dates back

to fourth century B.C. in Greece.

Climate Responsive Architecture or Tropical Architecture takes advantage of

free energy in the form of heat and light and it is a classic aspect of

Architectural design or profession, which occurred as a result of melding of

both Architectural theory and History and the Architectural science-

climatology.

According to ‘A1: case study of climate responsive architecture’, each region of

the world employs its own techniques and designs in its buildings that are best

suited to that particular region and that encompass the region’s cultural patterns.

This is known more commonly as vernacular architecture, or “building forms

which grow out of the practical needs of the inhabitants of a place, environment

or locality and the constraints of the site and climate (Oktay).”

Climate-responsive building design is about taking advantage of natural energy

sources such as sun and wind that affect our built environment. The basic idea is

that comfort is provided in close interaction with the dynamic conditions of the

environment Vernacular architecture varies for regions of hot climate and

regions of cold climate. Many of the same techniques are employed, but it is the

way they are used in each respective climate that makes them unique.

Therefore, the designs, materials and orientation that exploited the natural

energy flows, around the inhabitants were chosen. Basic forms and materials

were carefully refined to introduce solar heat or to keep out the sun as relating

to the required specification for the building.

The idea of using solar energy to heat and cool our buildings is not new because

in earlier days, sun was used to temper the indoor climate of any building;

which was considered to be a critical component of any facility, since it both

protects the building occupants and also plays a major role in regulating the

indoor environment

Architects who use climate-responsive architecture build their creations with the

intent of taking advantage of the surrounding environment and the average

climate conditions of the region. Around the world, architects are continuously

expanding and inventing new ideas that make use of the natural environment

and its extraordinary effects on the way humans live comfortably in their homes

and workplaces.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The study is aimed at examining the climate – responsiveness of the Queen’s

Hall, University of Ibadan. It is aimed at measuring the factors that affect this

building in relation to its physical occupants.

The objectives of this study include the following:-

 To identify and examine the factors of climate responsiveness in the

building.
  To examine the students responses to the thermal comfort of their study

bedrooms.

 To compare the user’s responses with the standards in relation to human

thermal comfort.

1.3 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

The method of research used in this project dissertation includes an overview of

the design requirements for the building typology, taking due consideration of

the state of the art, and then an evaluation of the building’s design in response to

the effectiveness of its thermal comfort.

The job carried out on this project will include the documentation of the

building in terms of its design, form, characteristics and functions through

collection of relevant construction drawings, study and analysis of the building

plans, actual site visitation, taking pictures, on the spot assessment of the

building and its environment, documenting with photographs, Internet surfing

and conducting interviews etc. Alongside these, the meteorological data for the

study area will be obtained.

Also, questionnaires will be administered to the users of these study bedrooms

in order to use their responses for further analysis and to draw concise

conclusions.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses majorly on the level of comfort been experienced by the

occupants of this female hostel within the four-walls of their various rooms and

to really test for parameters based on the assertion that the building is climate –

responsive.

Also, a look will be taken at the building envelope or fabric, which serves as a

filter between the exterior environment and the interior of the building by

evaluating the materials used in relation to climate, the building form and roof

alike, the use of sun shading devices and the general site layout.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of post occupancy evaluation is to appraise an existing

building in order to obtain information about its effectiveness; based upon its

design principles.

It is to ascertain if the building has met with the requirements of the users in

terms of functionality which includes academic and administrative purposes.

This study can also be used as a source of information for the design of other

buildings with cultural significance by future architects and designers. As

regards this, some of the defects and good points of the building are highlighted;

making it easier for architects and builders to easily note, tackle these problems

and ultimately resolve them on their own.

CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW

Several authors have researched into the various theories of climate responsive

Architecture, and these have undergone a lot of modification.

Different definitions have been given to Climate Responsive Architecture by

different authors and researchers studying the peculiar nature of tropical climate

and its effect on the Architecture.

In this chapter, a review of the literature giving relevant information on the

subject mailer will be made, laying emphasis on climate as it affects the

Architecture in the tropics in terms of plan forms, components, materials,

building orientation and the construction techniques used.

The review is presented starting with the definition of key terms, namely:
Architecture, Climate, Tropical Architecture, and other related concepts.

This is followed by a discussion of the historical background detailing the

emergence and evolution of tropical Architecture up to contemporary times.

Also, psychological processes that are involved in its formation will be

considered.

In addition, the various degree of Architectural responsiveness of designs to the

climate will be defined flirter, with an aim of explaining the evolution of

Tropical Architecture as a relevant style in the tropics. Recent and suitable

trends in the design and form will be studied from existing projects of some

renowned Architects or designers.

An exploration into existing theories and concepts is required to adequately

explain the subjects of this research works. These include:

2.1 ARCHITECTURE AND CLIMATE

Different parts of the world have different climates, which have varying impacts

on both the natural and built environments in their different localities - only

those plants, animals and edifice that finds the climate of a place suitable, live

and exist there (Turner, 2003).

The Climate of a given region is determined by the pattern of variations of

several elements and their combinations. ‘Climate is defamed as the average

atmospheric conditions of a place regularly observed and recorded over a long

period of time minimum of thirty five (35) years.’(B.O. Adeleke 1980). The

Oxford dictionary 5th edition) defames climate as the regular pattern of weather

conditions of a reticular place.’ A more scientific definition is integration in

time of the physical additions of atmosphere of a certain place.

As weather is the momentary state of atmosphere of a certain location, climate

integrates weather conditions for a period of year (Koenigsberger et al 1978).

It can be interpreted that information about climate could be gotten from

weather information constantly observed and documented for minimum of

thirty five (35) years by finding the mean average of relevant data.

Weather and climate are the result of the interaction of the radiation coming

directly from the sun and the gases and water vapor present in the lower layer of

atmosphere called the troposphere; which is a layer that is 16Km from the

earth’s surface - B.O. Adeleke (1980).

However, climate is not static. It varies across the globe. The reason for

variations is said to be the difference in the percentage of water vapor present in

the atmosphere contrary to the percentages of nitrogen, Oxygen and Carbon IV

oxide which are respectively 78%, 21% and 0.003% (B.O. Adeleke, 1980).

Climate and its influences on the earth’s surface affect man’s living and

activities. It affects the food we eat, the cloth we wear, crop to grow, building
materials and finally it presents a challenge for the architect not to be satisfied

with substituting mechanical equipment for good design (Koenigsberger et al,

1978, pg 101).

The level of comfort that man experiences within a building envelope depends

on how well the architect is able to blend climate and structure together (Peter

Kirberry, 1975). This accounts for climate responsive architecture which varies

depending on the geographical location. There occurs the messo and micro

climate if the regional climate (macro-climate) is altered through human action.

These usually result in climate variation within region and city/locality. The

term “Mesoclimate” is used in describing the climate of city within climate

region while Micro-climate on the other hand is used in describing the climate

of a town within city or a place within a town (Koenigsberger et al, 1978).

2.2 CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATIONS

Climate can be classified into similar regimes to describe the weather. Modem

climate classification methods can be broadly divided into

• Genetic methods, which focus on the causes of climate, and

• Empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate.

Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative

frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather

disturbances.

Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant

hardiness, evapotranspiration, or more generally the Kuppen climate

classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated

with certain biomes.

A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce

distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual

transition of climate properties more common in nature.

The most generic classification is that involving the concept of air masses - the

Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass

classification. Air mass classification involves three letters. The first letter

describes its moisture properties, with c used for contmental air masses (dry)

and In for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal

characteristic of its source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A for Arctic or

Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air

formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). The third letter is

used to designate the stability of the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder than

the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground

below it, it is labeled w. While air mass identification was originally used in
weather forecasting during the l950s, climatologists began to establish synoptic

climatologies based on this idea in 1973.

Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic

Classification system (SSC). There are six categories within the SSC scheme:

• Dry Polar (similar to continental polar)

• Dry Moderate (similar to maritime superior)

• Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical)

• Moist Polar (similar to maritime polar)

• Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical) and

• Moist Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime

equatorial).
2.2.1 KOPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION

The Koppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature

and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Koppen classification

has five primary types labeled A through F. Specifically, the primary types are

A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The

five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications

such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid

continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate,

tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.

2.2.1.1 RAIN FORESTS

They are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions selling minimum

normal annual rainfall between 1,750 millimeters (69 in) and 2,000 millimeters

(79 in). Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of

the year.

2.2.1.2 MONSOON

A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months,

ushering in a region’s rainy season. Regions within North America, South

America. SubSaharan Africa, Australia and East Asia are monsoon regimes.

2.2.1.3 TROPICAL SAVANNAH

A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid

climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with average temperatures

remain at or above 18 °C (64 °F) year round and rainfall between 750

millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimeters (50 in) a year. They are widespread on

Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America,

Malaysia, and Australia.

2.2.1.4 THE HUMID SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE

The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes

snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to

east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional

tropical cyclones. Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents,

roughly between latitudes 200 and 40° degrees away from the equator.

2.2.1.5 HUMID CONTINENTAL

A humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large

seasonal temperature variance. Places with more than three months of average

daily temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F) and a coldest month temperature below;

-3 °C (26.6 °F) and which do not meet the criteria for an arid or semiarid

climate, are classified as continental.

2.2.1.6 THE OCEANIC CLIMATE

An oceanic climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle

latitudes of all the world’s continents, and in southeastern Australia, and is

accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round.

2.2.1.7 THE MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the

Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and

South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The

climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.

2.2.1.8 STEPPE

A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of

up to 40 °C (104 °F) and during the winter down to 40 °C (-40.0 °F).

2.2.1.9 THE SUBARTIC CLIMATE

A subarctic climate has little precipitation, and monthly temperatures which are

above 10 °C (50 °F) for one to three months of the year, with continuous

permafrost due to the very cold winters. Winters within subarctic climates

include up to six months of temperatures averaging below 0 °C (32 °F).

2.2.1.10 TUNDRA

Tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt, including

vast areas of northern Russia and Canada.

2.2.1.11 POLAR ICE CAP

A polar ice cap, or polar ice sheet, is a high-latitude region of a planet or moon

that is covered in ice. Ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less

energy in the form of solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions,

resulting in lower surface temperatures.

A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation.

Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high

daytime temperatures (in summer up to 45 °C or 113 °F), and low night-time

temperatures (in winter down to 0 °C; 32 °F) due to extremely low humidity.

Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, as mountains block the path of

moisture and precipitation to the desert.

2.2.2 TI-IORNTH WAITE CLASSIFICATION

Devised by the American climatologist and geographer C. W. Thornthwaite,

this climate classification method monitors the soil water budget using the

concept of evapotranspiration. It monitors the portion of total precipitation used

to nourish vegetation over a certain area. It uses indices such as a humidity

index and an aridity index to determine an area’s moisture regime based upon

its average temperature, average rainfall, and average vegetation type. The

lower the value of the index in any given area, the drier the area is.

The moisture classification includes climatic classes with descriptors such as

hyperhumid, humid, sub humid, sub arid, semi-arid (values of -20 to -40), and

arid (values below -40). Humid regions experience more precipitation than

evaporation each year, while arid regions experience greater evaporation than

precipitation on an annual basis. A total of 33 percent of the Earth’s landmass is

considered either arid of semi-arid, including southwest North America,

southwest South America, most of northern and a small part of southern Africa,

southwest and portions of eastern Asia, as well as much of Australia. Studies

suggest that precipitation effectiveness (PE) within the Thornthwaite moisture

index is overestimated in the summer and underestimated in the winter. This

index can be effectively used to determine the number of herbivore and

mammal species numbers within a given area. The index is also used in studies

of climate change.
Thermal classifications within the Thornthwaite scheme include microthermal,

mesothermal, and megathermal regimes.

2.2.2.1 MICROTHERMAL

A microthermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures, generally

between 0 °C (32 °F) and 14 °C (57 °F) which experiences short summers and

has a potential evaporation between 14 centimeters (5.5 in) and 43 centimeters

(17 in).

2.2.2.2 MESOTHERMAL

A mesothermal climate lacks persistent heat or persistent cold, with potential

evaporation between 57 centimeters (22 in) and 114 centimeters (45 in).

2.2.2.3 MEGATHERMAL

A mega thermal climate is one with persistent high temperatures and abundant

rainfall, with potential evaporation in excess of 114 centimetres (45 in).

2.3 CLIMATIC ELEMENTS

Climatology is the study of the long-term state of the atmosphere, or climate.

The long-term state of the atmosphere is a function of a variety of interacting

elements, known as climatic elements.

Climatic elements can be defined as the different constituents that make up

climate as a whole. These elements are very important, in that they affect human

comfort in buildings and also make the building conducive for the user or

inhabitants.

Climatic elements include air temperature, humidity, wind, pressure, solar

radiation and records about these elements and what they translate into can be

obtained from meteorological stations and also from airports.

It is the designer’s task to analyze climatic information and present it in a form

that allows him to identify features that are beneficial or harmful to the future

occupants of his building (Peter Burberry 1975).

These elements are:

• Solar radiation (sunlight)

• Air masses

• Pressure systems and winds

• Ocean Currents
• Topography

2.3.1 SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation is probably the most important element of climate. Solar

radiation is an electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun and, fir st and

foremost it heats the Earth’s surface which in turn determines the temperature of

the air above. The receipt of solar radiation drives evaporation, so long as there

is water available. Heating of the air determines its stability, which affects cloud

development and precipitation.

The sofas spectrum is broadly divided into three regions:

- The ultra-violet,

- The visible and

- The infra-red.

Only a small section of the spectrum between 0.4 and 0.76 micron is light

visible to the eye; waves shorter than 0.4 micron are ultra-violet radiation and

waves longer than 0.76 micron are infra-red. As radiation penetrates the earth’s

atmosphere, its intensity is decreased and the spectral distribution is altered by

absorption, reflection and scattering. Radiation is selectively absorbed in the

atmosphere, according to wavelength. Reflection takes place mainly from water

droplets and is effectively non-selective; thus the spectral distribution of

reflected radiation is similar to that of the source radiation, and hence the

reflected light is white. When impinging on molecules and particles of

dimensions similar to or smaller than the wavelength, radiation is refracted and

diffused in space. Thus light is diffused, providing illumination even in the

absence of direct sunlight.

Clouds reflect back a significant fraction of the solar radiation to outer space,

but the remainder reaches the earth’s surface in a diffused form.

However, the amount of solar energy actually reaching the earth depends also

on the sky clearance with respect to cloud, and the purity of the air with respect

to dust, carbon dioxide and water vapor: these are factors which have to be

estimated rather than calculated exactly.

The thickness of air through which the rays penetrate to reach a point on the

earth depends on the angle of the sun above the horizon, or the altitude of the

sun and on the height of the point above sea level. The altitude of the sun varies

with the geographical latitude of the point, from a maximum in the tropics,

decreasing towards the north and south poles.

2.3.2 AIR MASSES

Air masses, as an element of climate subsume the characteristics of temperature,

humidity, and rainfall. Location relative to source regions of air masses in part

determines the variation of the thy-to-day weather and long-term climate of a

place. For instance, the stormy climate of the mid latitudes is a product of lying

in the boundary zone of greatly contrasting air masses called the polar front.

2.3.2.1 AIR TEMPERATURE

Air temperature is the measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of ambient

air (R Thomas, 1982). The instrument used in measuring the temperature of a

place, is called a “Thermometer”, which may be maximum and minimum

thermometer or dry and wet bulb thermometer. These instruments are kept

inside an enclosure called “Stevenson screen” to ensure the accuracy of the

reading. The maximum and minimum thermometer gives the maximum

readings of temperature during the day and minimum readings at night (R

Thomas, 1982).

The rate of heating and cooling of the surface of the earth is the main factor

determining the temperature of the air above it. The air is transparent to almost

all solar radiation, which therefore has only an indirect effect on air

temperature.
The human body responds to slight changes in temperature and in order to

ensure comfort, body temperature needs to be kept within limit. It should

neither be two hot nor too cold.

The comfort of human being in relation to the air temperature depend on how

well the body is able to dissipate excessive heat from the body when the air

temperature is high and conserve the available when the air temperature is cold.

Because of this, man uses various means of dissipating and conserving heat

energy in hot and cold region respectively. If these could be achieved

structurally with little or no emphasis on mechanical means, we can talk of

climate responsive architecture.

The air layer in contact with the warm ground is heated by conduction; this heat

is transferred to the upper layers mainly by convection and with the turbulence

and eddies in the air. Currents and winds bring large masses of air into contact

with the earth’s surface, to be warmed in this way.

The annual and diurnal patterns of air temperature thus depend on the variations

in surface temperature. In this respect, wide differences exist between land and

water surfaces. Great bodies of water are affected more slowly than land masses
under the same conditions of solar radiation. Therefore land surfaces are

warmer in summer and colder in winter than sea surfaces on the same latitude.

The air masses originating over these surfaces differ accordingly. The average

temperature of air is higher in summer and lower in winter over land than over

the sea.

A change in altitude also alters the temperature of the air. When a mass of air

rises, it moves from a higher to a lower pressure region and so expands and is

cooled. Conversely, when an air mass descends, it is compressed and heated.

These are known as adiabatic heating and cooling processes.

Air temperatures are affected by slope and orientation as slopes facing into the

Sun will be warmer than those facing away. Temperature also decreases as one

moves toward higher elevations. Mountains have nearly the same effect as

latitude does on climate. On tall mountains a zonation of climate occurs as you

move towards higher elevation.

2.3.2.2 HUMIDITY

Humidity is defmed as the measure of moisture content in the atmosphere which

varies greatly from place to place at different times of the day (B.O. Adeleke,

1980).
The actual amount of moisture present in the air which is expressed in grams

per cubic meter is called the absolute humidity. When the percentage of

moisture content of the atmosphere is compared with percentage it can actually

hold at a given temperature. We talk of relative humidity expressed as a

percentage. The moisture content of the air determines its evaporative efficiency

and hence its cooling affect. The higher the temperature, the lower the humidity

and vice-versa. Also, the lower the temperature the more the evaporation and

vice-versa. During the day, as the lowest layer of air is being heated by the

ground surface, its relative humidity rapidly decreased. With a lower relative

humidity, the rate of evaporation is increased if there is moisture available to be

evaporated causing cooling. At night, reverse is the case. Especially on a clear

night with still air, as the lowest layer cools, its relative humidity increases. This

reduces the rate of evaporation causing discomfort (koenigsberger et al 1978).

The evaporation efficiency of the air is determined by the difference between

the moisture pressures of the skin and that of ambient air. If that of ambient air

less that of skin by considerable amount, evaporation and cooling result, thereby

ensuring human comfort. High humidity reduces the excessive heat lost from

the body leading to discomfort by making people hotter. On the other hand, low

humidity causes evaporative cooling, thereby ensuring comfort in warm

environment. Excessive heat production from the body coupled with high

humidity causes discomfort. Also, low body temperature couples with low

humidity causes discomfort.

2.3.2.3 RAINFALL

Rainfall is a form of precipitation. It is define as the amount of rain received in

certain location. The instrument use in measuring this is called “Rainguage”.

When moisture laden wind occurs frequently from the same direction, the effect

of hills on rainfall patterns can be very pronounced. Where the ground changes

level by more than 300 meters, the windward slope can receive more rainfall

than the regional average and the leeward slope is correspondingly less. The

cause of the above phenomenon is that, the moisture laden air is forced to

ascend the mountain as it does, its temperature reduces causing cooling and can

no longer support the moisture carried. Conversely, a descending air mass

increases in temperature as it descends the mountain/hill and can still absorb

more moisture rather than precipitating any (koenigsberger et al 1978). Rainfall

should not be too much; neither should it be too low. Too much or low rainfall

affects human comfort.

2.3.3 PRESSURE SYSTEMS AND WINDS

The distribution and characteristics of the winds over a region are determined

by several local and global factors. The principal determinants are the seasonal

global distribution of air pressure, the rotation of the earth, the daily variations

in heating

and cooling of land and sea and the topography of the given region and its

surroundings.

Pressure systems have a direct impact on the precipitation characteristics of

different climate regions and the main cause of the pressure belts and centres is

the uneven distribution of solar radiation over the earth and the resulting

variation in surface heating.

In general, places dominated by low pressure tend to be moist, while those

dominated by high pressure are dry. Also, over each hemisphere of the earth’s

surface; there are belts and centres of high and of low atmospheric pressure,

where some of these are permanent while others only exist for part of the year.

The equatorial belt is the principal region of low pressure which is maintained

throughout the year. Here, the air mass which is lifted in this belt; divides the

upper atmosphere and flows towards the poles. The polar high pressure regions

result from the chilling of the lower air layers over the ice surface.
Air flows from high pressure to lower pressure zones. The permanent and semi

permanent regions of high pressure are sources of large masses of air which,

because they remain for some time in a region under relatively constant

conditions, acquire specific physical characteristics, considerably uniform

within the mass, according to the nature of the surface on which they rest. The

main regions of sufficient size and uniformity of conditions to generate such air

masses are:

a) The polar region (throughout the year)

b) The cold land masses of Asia, North Africa, Australia and North America

c) The sub tropical high pressure belt, particularly over the oceans

2.3.4 WIND

Wind is air in motion and has both direction and speed (B.O. Adeleke, 1980).

The instruments use in measuring the wind speed and direction are respectively

an anemometer and wind vane. In architecture, three prevailing winds need to

be considered prior to design to ensure human comfort. Their characteristics

majorly depend on their direction of traveling.

The wind systems exist as three global belts of wind in each hemisphere and

they are:

• The trade winds

• The westerlies

• The polar winds

2.3.4.1 THE TRADE WINDS

They travel to the equator from approximately 300 latitude in both hemispheres.

It originates in the sub tropical high pressure region of the two hemispheres and

converge at the region forming the low pressure equatorial belt.

At the equator, the air rises, returns to latitude 30°, thereby creating a cycle.

They flow to the south west in the northern hemispheres and to the north west in

the southern hemisphere.

The characteristics of trade winds depend on the surfaces in which they travel.

Trade winds travel with a constant direction and wind.

The trade winds are divided into three. They are;

- North East Trade Wind (NETW)

- South East Trade Wind (SETW)

- Local Wind

2.3.4.1.1 NORTH EAST TRADE WIND (NETW)

As the name implies, North East Trade Wind travels in North East direction. As

it moves, it passes through the Sahara desert given up much of its moisture

content and carries dust. This account for the reason why it is: dry, dusty,

destructive, uncomfortable and brings dry season. Architects shield this wind by

planting trees along its direction. They also minimize its effect by using climate

responsive design approach.

2.3:4.1.2 SOUTH EAST TRADE WIND (SETW)

As the name implies, South West Trade Wind (SWTW) travels in North East

direction. As it moves, it passes through continental region gaining more

moisture. This account for the reason why it is: hot, humid, comfortable and

brings rainfall. All obstructions to its usage in building are usually removed by

architects.
2.3.4.1.3 LOCAL WINDS

Information about local wind could be gotten from the local meteorological

stations or airports. (B.O. Adeleke, 1980)

2.3.4.2 THE WESTERLIES

These also have their origins in the sub-tropical regions but flows towards the

subattic pressure region i.e. they abort the trade wind belts in both hemispheres.

The westerlies move to the negative pressure zones at 600 latitude from the

positive pressure areas at 300 latitude.

A wind system known as monsoons also exist and they are as a result of annual

differences in heating of land and sea areas.

The seasonality of precipitation is affected by the seasonal movement of global

and regional pressure systems. Climates located at 100 to 150 of latitude

experience a significant wet period when dominated by the Intertropical

Convergence Zone and a dry period when the Subtropical High moves into this

region. Likewise, the climate of Asia is impacted by the annual fluctuation of

wind direction due to the monsoon. Pressure dominance also affects the receipt
of solar radiation. Places dominated by high pressure tend to lack cloud cover

and hence receive significant amounts of sunshine, especially in the low

latitudes.

2.3.5 OCEAN CURRENTS

Ocean currents greatly affect the temperature and precipitation of a climate.

Those climates bordering cold currents tend to be drier as the cold ocean water

helps stabilize the air and inhibit cloud formation and precipitation. Air

traveling over Cold Ocean currents lose energy to the water and thus moderate

the temperature of nearby coastal locations. Air masses traveling over warm

ocean currents promote instability and precipitation. Additiorally, the warm

ocean water keeps air temperatures somewhat warmer than locations just inland

from the coast during the winter.

2.3.6 TOPOGRAPHY

Topography affects climate in a variety of ways. The orientation of mountains

to the prevailing wind affects precipitation (rainfall). Windward slopes, those

facing into the wind, experience more precipitation due to orographic uplift of

the air.

Leeward sides of mountains are in the rain shadow and thus receive less

precipitation.
2.4 SPECIFICS OF CLIMATIC TYPES

As stated earlier, each climate has its own specific features and levels of impact

on both the natural and built environments. In this research work, focus will be

laid more on the hot-humid climate (tropics).

2.4.1 HOT-HUMID CLIMATE (TROPICS)

This is defmed as a “region that receives more than 20 inches of annual

precipitation” and either has 3,000 or more hours of 67 degree F temperature or

1,500 or more hours of 73 degree F temperature during the warmest six months

of the year (Building science corporation, 2003). In this type of climate, the

main function of the buildings is to simply moderate daytime heating effects of

the external air (Givoni, 1976). In other words, it is important to design

buildings whose structure and interior are best able to keep warm air out. Living

in a hot climate can quickly become uncomforfable for its inhabitants with the

extreme heat that is built up by midday. That is why it is important for the

buildings structure to have effective ventilation and an internal temperature

below the outdoor level (Givoni, 1976). The ventilation keeps air moving

through the environment and therefore keeps the inhabitant cooler.

In many arid, desert regions, buildings are designed with flat roofs, small

openings and heavy weight materials. These materials include dried mud in
rural areas and reinforced concrete in the urban areas (Givoni, 1976). The thick

exterior roof and walls help to absorb temperature from rising above the outside

surface temperature. One function of the small openings is to prevent dust a

huge problem in Africa, West Asia and West Australia from entering buildings.

Windows are arranged so that equal areas are open on the windward and

leeward sides of the building, so that the air stream can be directed into the

spaces that need constant ventilation.

Courtyards, patios and verandas are other common features of buildings in the

tropics-hot climate. With high walls, these outside areas provide shade and a

relaxing environment to their inhabitants for social gatherings, evening

entertainment, food preparation and domestic work such as laundry (Oktay,

1993).

Concrete is the most common material used in the walls because it has low cost

and high thermal capacity which in turn reduces internal temperature (Givoni,

1976). Another way to provide shade in a more aesthetically pleasing way is

through greenery. For example, trees, shrubs and bushes provide natural shade

form the sun while giving the courtyard area a pleasing look.
In summary, a typical hot climate (tropical) building possesses three main

sections, a main building, a service building and an inner courtyard (Oktay,

1993). To deal with ventilation the windows is preferable to have a North-South

Orientation. The outside areas provide relief from heat with thick, concrete

walls.

2.4.2 COLD CLIMATE (TEMPERATE)

This is the other type of the climatic region defined with approximately 5,400 to

9,000 heating degree (Building Science Corporation, 2003). This climate type

will not be discussed further, because it is beyond the context of this research

work.

2.5 TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE

“Many Architects working in the region today have forgotten how to design

bearing in mind the climate and landscape. They are now caught in the

homogenizing forces of mass media and are repeating the built mediocrities of

international fashion. Each commission is seen as vehicle for egoistic self-

expression while little importance is attached to memory and continuity”.Tan

Hock Beng (1994)

Tropicality has become an integral style of Architectural practice in the tropical

countries around the world. It has been traditionally taken to mean the

architecture adapted to the climate (Liane Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis 2001).
This has been the case since the late eighteenth century, when the British

transformed the peasant Bangali banggolo into the colonial bungalow and

diffused it all over the British Empire.

Maxwell Fry, Jane Drew and others in their works conceived the architecture

not only in terms of sun shading and ventilation devices but also as an extension

of mind.

Richard Hyde, 2000) defined Tropical Architecture as the Architecture of the

Tropics. This is a particular problem for developing countries of the tropics,

where the tide of industrialization and westernization has swept away the

traditional architecture.

The (Yales, 1996) have also referred to the Architecture as a unique type of

‘TRUE ARCHITECTURE’ in their book, Green Architecture (l996p.5)

advocating for a more focus on architecture that is more holistically oriented to

its environmental role.

As said earlier, this simply means the modern architecture adopted into the

tropics. It refers to the style of Architecture that was evolved with patterns

taking on a flavour associated with the tropics and having a definite local

character, which appears unseeming but has the main purpose of suiting the hot
humid climate. This style relies almost entirely upon natural ventilation and

high prevalent humidity.

For effect, this style meant the building were to be sited at one field orientation

which favours the influx of the regions prevailing wind e.g. the southwest

monsoon winds in the southwestern part of Nigeria and the North east trade

winds in the northern part of Nigeria as well. This style of Architecture was

purely born out of the need for better thermal insulation and ventilation which

was not properly catered for by the colonial architecture which previously had

been in use since the foreigners made vast use of air-conditioners and other

similar air coolants (Akinbogun T., 2000).

Also, the need to guard against the effect or penetration of the heavy rain which

peculiarly falls at an angle in the tropic regions. This architecture embraces a

configuration that is everywhere related to human scale and culture. It offers the

least obstruction to the passage of even the mildest of air movement. Hence, it is

a clear fact that the tropical architecture is one that enhances and emphasizes the

need for fenestration.

In highlight, tropical architecture is that which, indulges in extensive openings,

the use of louvers, large openings, east west orientation of buildings, garden

system type of architecture using landscaping as a tool for shading sun and heat

absorption at the same time serving as wind breakers, exhibits the balcony,

terrace or verandah systems i.e. single banked design, use of fins, vertical or

horizontal slits, screen walls and other shading devices, use of steeply sloping

roof pattern to allow easy drainage of rain water, wider eave projection (roof

overhang). Courtyard and quadrangle designs are also used extensively.

2.6 FACTORS INFLUENCING TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE

In creating the built environment, the architect is influenced not only by the

microclimate, but also by the work of others and by other (Cleveland Salmon,

2006) influences that make up his or her culture. Therefore, it is essential for the

architect to understand not just the climate but also the culture of the people of

the tropics when creating an environment for them. Also, the client’s desires

should be considered along with his or her immediate expressed needs, which

may result from the client’s societal status and may allow him or her to adjust to

the influences of modern world and the differences, which they are willing to

embrace.

The three main considerations influencing architecture in the tropics can be

summarized as:
(1) People and their needs

(2) Climate and its effect

(3) Materials and construction techniques which is determined by (2) above.

2.6.1 PEOPLE AND THEIR NEEDS

Individuals generally respond differently from social groups, and the

circumstances of their gathering. As well, their surrounding plays a vital role in

influencing their response.

The industrial revolution (1914) has brought about significant changes,

especially in Agriculture, where machine replaced human labor (a way of life

and source of income) is one of the dominant phenomena of tropical life, which

was very difficult to accept. New goods, materials and techniques came up. The

architects thus had the special task of providing buildings that allow their

inhabitants to accommodate the complex mechanism as of modem life without

sacrificing freedom and dignity.

Development brings with it modification and sometimes the destruction of

habits and customs stretching back many generations and often interwoven with

religious beliefs. In most cases, traders, missionaries, government, and

television have exerted strong influence (good or bad), and it is often left up to

the architect and planner to remedy past mistakes and safeguard the future.
Many changes have been accepted by the people of the tropics, who are willing

and even anxious to share in what they perceive as the modem benefits of

western civilization and culture.

Past experience has provided an understanding of the use of industrialism, since

its potential pitfalls have been recognized in other to work out satisfactory

responses that blend the social and industrial elements to provide a comfortable

and attractive life for all the classes of people in the region.

2.6.2 CLIMATE AND ITS EFFECTS

Sunshine and an even distribution of rainfall on a tropical Island brings to life

an abundance of vegetation and insect life that support a varied animal world.

Two distinct environments are produced. In one, air temperature equals or is

slightly below body temperature. In the other, air temperature is near or above

body temperature. Here under low cloud cover, the saturated air does very little

to evaporate sweat and cool the skin.

In the first environment, mere shielding from the rain and cold will suffice. In

the second, the dwelling must block the rain and sun but also cool the body with

breezes either natural or artificial. The sun raises the temperature, but the

saturated air prevents the perspiration that allows the body to adjust normally.

In the hot wet tropics, buildings should shun the hot dust-laden air while taking

advantage of the cooling effect of breezes. The tempo of life is much slower in

the hot-wet tropics because of the humidity associated with the low cloud over

the hot moist air.

Seasons vary as the clouds roll back for long periods, bringing short droughts

and intense sunshine. For the most part, clouds and sun alternate, and neither

day no night brings much alteration in the humidity level.

2.6.3 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Buildings are permanent in intent and there is need to weight the long-term

future against the present cost in selection of Building materials.

The tropical climate produces conditions that affect both people and their

buildings. Large daily temperature ranges stresses on building materials when

dry, and even more severally during the rainy season, which, though short but

can be heavy.
The design process involves thousands of decisions and choices in order to

satisfy the various needs of society. First, there is the social need for which the

building is designed. Here, since a building will last indefinitely, the future

trends of society must be weighed against its present demand. The tropical

marine climate presents the architect with a palette of design elements; giving

the right response to the climate and setting, which is aesthetically pleasing and

adds beauty to the end result. The architects’ responsibility to the culture and

climate ensures sensitivity to social and environmental issues and also provides

the basis for excellence in the design solution.

2.7. EMERGENCE OF TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE

The emergence of Tropical architecture can be traced back to the Last three

century ago, when a spirit of sort was created between Globalism and

Regionalism in Architecture based on climate.

According to Lian Lefaivre and Alexander Tzonis (2001), “It has been the case

since the late 18th century, when the British transformed the peasant Bengali

banggolo into the colonial bungalow and diffused it all over British Empire.”

However, at the dusk of the Second World War (1914), some Architects like

Otto Koenigsberger, Olygays, Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew who are building in

the tropics started to view this “Architecture adapted into the tropics’ in a
critical manner and to have a rethink on its limited and narrow scope. They

began to conceive the architecture not only in terms of sun shading and

ventilation devices but also an extension of mind, a cognitive tool that expresses

the values of a particular people and time. This critical thinking now

distinguishes tropical Architecture from tropicalist one. (Lian Lafaivre &

Alexander Tzonis, 2001).

Tropical Architecture has emerged as a response to two major challenges that

have risen since the end of Second World War (1914). The first is post

colonialism, which is the common feature unifying the highly diverse tropical

countries besides their climate. But the end of traditional colonialism has also

made the major Architects and Architecture localized thereafter, been allowed

to design and build out of specific local cultural and economic conditions to

meet the specific cultural and economic needs.

The second but one recent challenge is globalization, whose threat is felt all

over the world. For the tropicalist Architects, the problem became pressing and

trials were being made to avoid its pitfalls. To sustain a sense of place and of

halting the slide of Architecture, cities and the environment at large into

humanly, socially, environmentally devastated examples of what may be called

“glare achitecture”, ‘glurbanism” and ‘glandscape”

Confronted with these challenges of post-colonialism and globalization, tropical

architecture is now re-strategized. It has come to entail, besides issues of

climate, broader problems of space, tradition, memory, community, new hard

and soft technologies and the issue of sustainability.

Among the several Architects who have given different forms which has

brought important movements in the emergence of a tropical architecture in the

post-war period include: Minnette ciasilva in Shri Lanka, Tay Kheng soon and

William Lim in Singapore, Mick Pearce in Zimbabwe, LinaBo Bardi in Brazil,

Olygay and Olygay. Maxwell Fry, Oluwole Olumuyiwa in Nigeria, Ricard

Porvo in Cuba, Richard Neutra in Puerto Rico, Paul Rudolph in Floria, Oscar

Niemeyer, Affonso Reidy and Burle Marx in Brazil, Renzo Piano in New

Caledonia and Lewis Mumford in Honoloulu.

2.8 TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE IN NIGERIA

This refers to the contemporary Nigerian Architecture, which became

pronounced in the country barely seven decades ago, when MaxwelI Fry and his

wife - Jane Drew, designed the new buildings for the then University College,

Ibadan (now university of Ibadan). Some indigenous younger Architects whose

works begun to replace the non-descript Architecture that characterized pre-war

age in Nigeria followed their ideas on buildings in the tropics. In those days,

successful traditional solutions to the age-old tropical building problems were

ignored and architectural concept and materials associated with temperate

climates were introduced, which has been suitable to our weather, environment

and culture.

The University of Ibadan (formerly University College Ibadan) is thus a

Landmark from which to look forward. The sculpted screens and courtyards,

capture the spirit of a traditional Nigerian compound, whilst shading devices not

only control the climate but also the shadows themselves create an aesthetic

form, peculiarly tropical. In short, the buildings solve the problem of scale,

climate and the problem of providing Nigerian Identity in Architecture. (Nigeria

Magazine, June 1962, 44).

Since the design in Ibadan, three distinct forms of contemporary Nigeria

Architecture began to develop; first, in which climate control is the dominating

discipline; the second, whilst not ignoring climate, reflecting the spirit of the

older and more traditional Nigerian Ways of life and building and the third, the
skyscraper architecture of larger towns, reflecting the pressures of urban life and

urban organization.

The convergence of the first two ultimately led to an Architecture which has

been subtly Nigerian which is the integral part of this research work.

Design for ventilation and breeze from the prevailing winds, the use of shading

devices such as canopies and sunscreens, and the application of heat reflecting

materials and colours in a building is known as “climate control”.

Climate control requires on the part of the architect, a thorough understanding

of climatology, astronomy (of the sun) and of the thermal properties of

materials. It is the principal discipline from which many contemporary Nigerian

Architects draw inspiration in their *rork of designing for the tropics.

Perhaps the most vigorous exponents of the “climate control school of

architecture” are husband and wife Architect John Godwin and Gillian

Hopwood practicing in Lagos then, developed a climatic aesthetic, which

indelibly marks their works. In their Hanbury House in Tinubu square in Lagos

and their own house behind Lagos Museum, different sun shading devices are

used to create a pattern in both visually dynamic and economic competence.

One of their most outstanding works is the school for the blind at Surulere,

which appeared to sum up Godwin and Hopwoods’ thinking on design for the

humid tropics to date. The school has been most carefully planned in relation to

the function and immaculately finished. But the discipline of climate control

dominates, almost to the detriment of the very real charm evident in the detail

handling of the building.

In the North, where they later completed a notable house, the climate is hot and

humid for three months of the year, while the rest nine months are hot and dry.

The design problems of creating sustainable comfortable conditions are thus

much more complex than in the South. The Gottschalck house at Kano, has

been built with double walls in a concrete frame, the cavity between the walls

appearing on the elevations as a visual expression of climate control. Vertical

minimum louvers as the extension of certain other walls to shade the terrace

complete the climatic aesthetic, which dominates this elegant, almost marred,

little building.

But Vaughn Richards’ thinking goes further: In the hot, humid climate of the

South, one of the Physiological objectives is cooling by evaporation or

perspiration. He handled this aspect by opening up his rooms with venture-like

windows, pointed in the direction of the prevailing wind. The total result is a

building far removed from the popular conception of a house but much closer in

its performance to the popular desire for comfort by cooling than is usually the

case.

Also in the 20th century, an American Baptist Missionary to Nigeria Rev.

Congdon, who was the chief Architect to the Nigerian Baptist Convention,

designed and constructed many Educational, Medical and Religious buildings

around the country, which are basically tropical. These include Baptist Colleges

(Idiaba Abeokuta, Ede, Iwo), Baptist Medical Centres (Tree, Eku, Obanikoro

Lagos) and Churches (Shepherd Baptist Church Obanikoro Lagos, First Baptist

Church Kano, Oritamefa Baptist Church Ibadan).

Other noteworthy buildings designed to meet the conditions of climate in

Southern Nigeria include the library at Enugu by James Cubitt, National

Museum and theatre in Lagos by Olumuyiwa, the Nigerian College of

Technology buildings at Enugu and Ibadan, by Avis and kiorner of Hector 0.

Corfiato, the Cathedral Church of All saints, Onitsha, by Nickson, Barclays

Bank, Marina by Walker Harwood and Granswicks, Federal Public Works

Building, Tafawa Balewa Square, by Architects Co-partnership’s Investment

house, Broad Street and the great Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife by

Aaron Sharon and Company in the early 60’s.

2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE

To have a thorough assessment of the Architecture of some buildings in the

University of Ibadan, in a quintessence of Tropical Architecture in Nigeria,

general characteristics of tropical architecture need to be discussed in terms of

the design and construction techniques in the tropics. This is going to serve as a

comparative standard for the building analysis.

The design and construction techniques in the region will be considered under

site planning, Building Form and Orientation in this chapter.

2.9.1 SITE PLANNING

Radiation reflected from the ground into the building can also add to the cooling

requirements of the structure, as the solar radiation received by the ground

surface in summer is about twice that received by either the east or west walls.

Selecting exterior surface material of low reflectivity can minimize the solar

heat load. Reflection from outdoor surfaces cannot be controlled as easily as

direct radiation because it is diffused.

The main concern of the site planning is the area immediately outside the

building therefore materials that keep reflected radiation at minimum are to be

used. A good example is green lawn, which make effective sun absorbers and

cool the air by evaporation.

2.9.2 VENTILATION

In the tropics, adequate ventilation must be provided in buildings for a number

of reasons. Air movement replaces stuffy used air, eradicates smoke and odour

and evacuates unwanted warm air. Although ventilation can be used effectively

for coding, it is also needed for healing.

The direction and speed of airflow determine the coding effect of natural

ventilation. Air speed can be adjusted for comfort by opening and closing a

variety of properly placed windows. To promote ventilation, there must be an

inlet and an outlet on opposite or adjacent sides of a space or building. Airflow

into an opening on the windward side of a space is most effective when the

wind direction is within 300 of normal to the opening.

Wind scoops, vegetation type of window can be used to channel air into

openings from any direction.

On the leeward side, openings should be larger than on the windward side, to

create a maximum sunction effect, facilitating free air movement through a

space.

2.9.3 LOCATION OF OPENINGS

Doors and windows are the natual means of ventilating and lighting spaces. The

placement, size and type of openings govern the effectiveness of the elevation.

Windows can be oriented to catch or slow down prevailing breezes. Operable

skylights also make effective ventilators and allow natural lighting.

2.9.4 USE OF COURTYARDS

Many cultures have utilized the interior courtyard for cooling. This open,

shaded space can be covered by lightweight shading lattice during the heat of

the day to prevent sum intrusion and heat build-up in the interior walls.
Vegetation and fountains or ponds add evaporation to the cooling effect of the

breezes passing in one side of the building and out the other.

2.9.5 BUILDING FORM AND ORIENTATION

The amount of solar heat received by the building surface(s) m the tropics can

be minimized for any period of the year through manipulation of the

(1) shape and orientation of building plan with respect to the sun;

(2) height of the building exposed to sun; and

(3) shape and pitch of the roof.

Patios, porches, courtyards, and other protected outdoor living areas also

contribute to the indoor comfort, as well as providing pleasant private living

spaces. In summer, porches and patio covers; for example shade the house

walls, openings, surroundings and outdoor floor surfaces. This helps to keep the

outdoor temperature low, making natural ventilation more suitable and

minimizing conducive heat gam through walls.

Building elongated along the east-west axis will expose more surface area to the

South during the winter for the collection of solar radiation while minimizing

eastern and western exposure to the direct morning and evening sun.

It is also the most efficient shape in the region for minimizing cooling

requirements in the summer and heating requirements in the winter.

2.9.6 SHADE AND SHADING DEVICES

The impact of solar radiation on buildings in hot climates must be reduced, not

only by orientation and effective design of the structure but also by adequate

shading.

Although it is not always convenient or economical to shade roofs, walls lend

themselves to this treatment in a number of ways that can be invaluable for

eliminating or reducing one of the greatest sources of heat gain: solar radiation

are available for shading walls and windows. When deciding on the shading

requirements, each facade must be considered separately to achieve the most

effective solar control. Shading devices not only reflect heat onto a building but

also trap hot air, as well as conducting heat inward through the structure.

Comfort can be maintained in tropical regions through passive measures, which

is out of the context of this research work.

Shading the exterior, interior and surrounding areas of a structure is the first line

of action to reduce the temperature build-up due to ambient air or solar

incidence. A structure that is properly designed for its climate will need little.

Planting of trees, bushes, shrubs, or vines in appropriate places can adequately

shade structures in the tropical climates. Evergreen trees planted to the north of

the buildings act as buffers, helping to block winds and storms. They can further

act as evaporative coolers, lowering the temperature of air passing through the

branches and needles. They also shade the ground around build-up, preventing

the heat building in the earth and thus modi1jing the microclimate.

Horizontal Screens
Horizontal Shading Devices

Horizontal screens are most effective against high sum and are normally used

on the north or south sides of buildings in the tropics. The nearer one is to the

equator, the easier it is to screen with. a roof overhang such as those commonly

used in warm-wet regions (SHARMA, M.R. & SHARAFAT ALI 1978). The

overhang is generally to protect the interior of the dwelling from slanting sum

and driving rain, as well as to shade part of the surrounding area throughout the

day. Balconies and projecting floor slabs are also a common form of horizontal

screening.
Vertical screens is in the form of closely, spaced columns, vertical fins, or

rotating louvers are useful against the low sun on the east and west facades.

Combined vertical and horizontal screenings — the egg-crate grills, for example

— can be effective for buildings with any orientation, depending on its depth

and the dimension of the openings. Whatever the type of screening used, it

should be placed outside the glazing; should be constructed of low-thermal-

capacity material to ensure quick coding after sunset; and should be designed

not only to prevent reflection on any part of the building but also the trapping of

air.

In his book, Design with climate, (Olygay, 1976) has suggested the following

four steps for designing and examining shading devices.

1. Determine the times when shading is needed.

2. Determine the position of the sum during the period when shading is needed

using sun path diagram.

3. Determine the type and position of the shading device for the overheated

period using the result from (2) above.

4. Evaluate the shading device and determine its dimensions to ensure correct

shading during the overheated period and to allow, if necessary, some sun to

penetrate during the under-heated period.

Trees and shrubs provide the simplest way of protecting low building from solar

radiation. Deciduous trees are especially valuable, as they do not block winter

sunshine. Although vegetation provides protection from glare, dust and erosion,

it also has disadvantages when planted too close to the buildings. Roots can

damage foundations and dram pipes, leaves can block gutters and desirable air

movement can be reduced or diverted over the building. Ground planting such

as row shrubs, bushes and grasses can be planted around building where a view
is desired. This reduces reflection of solar energy from roadways, walks, patios,

sand, and bodies of water. Deciduous trees, such as fruit and ornamental trees

are particularly suitable for planting on the south, east and west scales or in the

country yards of building.

2.9.8 GLARE

Other than radiant heat, glare is another problem in the hot climates.

In the arid areas, glare arises mainly when sunlight is reflected from the surface

of the ground and from light colored walls of the buildings. A traditional way of

overcoming this problem is by keeping windows on the external walls small and

few in number, with the larger, low-level windows overlooking the shaded

interior courtyard.

High humidity and typically overcast condition in the warm wet regions result

in a high proportion of solar radiation being diffused. In this case, the sky is the

main source of glare, which can become almost unbearable. Because it is usual

to have large openings for cross-ventilation, low overhanging eaves or wide

verandahs, pergola — covered verandahs are used with the roof planting to

obstruct direct view of the sky.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 NIGERIA CLIMATE ZONES AND BUILDING DESIGN

GUIDELINES

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Climate of the Tropical Region

3.3 Nigeria and its Climatic zones

3.4 Climatic Description of each zone

3.5 Climatic Data

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 NIGERIA CLIMATE ZONES AND BUILDING DESIGN

GUIDELINES

3.1 Introduction

Nigeria is a tropical country. Therefore, environmental parameters for building

design are entirely different from those of the temperate countries. Climatic data

are required for the design of buildings, which will utilize minimum energy for

the provision of a thermally acceptable indoor environment. The efficiency of

the building envelope in modifying the external extreme climate to an

acceptable level indoors depends primarily on:

(1) The severity of the outdoor climate,

(2) The physical parameters and hence thermal performance of the building

fabrics.

It is therefore, necessary to know the climatic element prevalent in a place

before an appropriate building can be designed, both in terms of structure,

materials and form to be able to give a comfortable indoor environment.

3.2 Climate of the Tropical Region

The climate of tropical regions on coastal plains is very enervating, and in

warmer seasons can be too hot for comfortable sleep at nights. The months

January to April are usually the most pleasant. In mountain areas, the conditions

are generally pleasant most of the year and the atmosphere is fairly dry.

There are two distinct climates in the tropics: the hot-dry, tropical lands climate

and the hot wet (humid) tropical climate. The hot-dry tropical lands lie between

the annual isotherms of 68oF (20°C), with vapour pressure below 25 millibar.

The temperature in the hot season of the dry tropics may reach 110°F (43.33°C).

It usually drops at the rate of 3.57°F (2°C) for every 1,000 feet increase an

altitude and the vapor pressure is usually higher over land near large areas

where humidity is high due to wind and vegetation.

The hot-dry tropics have very high daytime temperatures of 8-130°F (26.67-

54.44°C) in the summer months combined with strong sunlight reflecting

unmercifully from light, dry, and sometimes parched earth. Due to the changing

altitude of the sun, which in the winter may produce temperatures as low as

45oF (7.22oC) within shorter days. There is a great difference between summer

and winter climate. The sky is usually cloudless and clear, with a deep blue

glow at night, and the sunsets are one of the most spectacular events to behold.

There is very little rain, low vapor pressure (7.5- 20 millibar), and a relative

humidity often below 50 percent). Flash storms occasionally occur in which

where as much as 2 inches (50-80mm) of rain may fall in an hour. Total rainfall

is less than 10 inches (254mm) spread over about thirty days per year and often

leads to water shortage.

The hot-wet (humid tropical climate is very different. It is characterized by high

relative humidity (often 90 percent, heavy rainfall; and a year-round mean

temperature of more than 64oF (17.77°C), and sometimes reaching almost

100°F (37.78°C) in the hot seasons. The highland area usually varies greatly, as

both the diurnal and annual temperature ranges are far less than those in the dry

tropics. Vegetation is usually dark green all the year round, with two wet

seasons and rain concentrated in coastal areas. The glare is greater than in the

torrid zones but may

be duller when the sky is overcast. Wind speeds are generally low tempered by

the thick foliage, but may reach 80mph in open areas, with violent squalls

accompanying tropical thunderstorms. Fungus and termites are common. The

proper response calls for protection from the rain and sun while allowing the air

to move around both humans and buildings at will. Moving air helps to dry

sweating skin and thus relieves the discomfort.

In the dry tropics, heavy shade internally, exclusion of intense glare and dust

protection are primary factors in the design and orientation of buildings. The

humid zone requires shade externally by means of large overhangs and other

devices that also give protection from wind driving rain so that the main walls
of the building may be as open as possible to allow air movement through the

building. The proper response to the climate depends not only on the above

factors, but also on health, clothing, acclimatization, and one’s state of motion.

In order to design for these conditions, an architect must understand the three

ways in which the body can lose heat-by radiation, convection and evaporation.

Heat loss y radiation and convection takes place only when the air and the

surroundings are below body temperature. Heat loss by evaporation takes place

only if the air is dry enough to absorb further moisture. The rate of evaporation

depends on the humidity of the air and the rate at which the air passes over the

body. Cooling can be provided by a fan or wind if the air is below body

temperature and not moisture saturated. Activities of daily living usually take

place outside during the day and evening in the humid tropics when it is not

raining. The climate thus dictates social customs that allow large areas of bare

skin to be exposed.

The afternoon in the humid tropics is brief. The tendency in outlying rural

districts where no electricity is available is to sleep during the hours of

darkness. The day usually begins at sunrise. Safety in design is just as critical as

human comfort, as the hazards of hurricane winds, floods, earthquakes, and

lightning are frequent. The earth retains infrared radiation from the sun, some of

which is absorbed by clouds and dust. It is rapidly dissipated at night due to the

absence of clouds and the clarity of the air. This is of paramount importance in
choosing building materials. Surfaces with high thermal inertia such as mud

absorb and release heat for more slowly than those with low thermal inertia

such as metal. As a result, in the tropics, surfaces that heat up fastest and are

hottest during the day become cool more quickly at night.

Lightweight materials do very little to block heat penetration; therefore, the

tropical building is not effective in such hot dry as well as hot wet climatic

areas. What makes existence bearable there is the verandah, which shades the

walls and the interior from the intense heat.

In hot-dry regions, materials with high heat-storage capacity perform better

because they take a long time to absorb most of the heat received during the day

before passing it on the inside surface of the building. Houses built with thick

mud, brick, or concrete block walls are very cool during the day. At night, when

the temperature drops, the inside rooms often remain too warm for comfort. The

correct response is to open all the windows and doors to let the cool air in. In

Jamaica, families simply go out and sit under a tree. In Australia they go into

the spinifex cool house, and outbuilding constructed from clumps of spinifex

grass fixed to a chicken wire enclosure that is continually sprayed with water.

Because of high humidity, good cross-ventilation is necessary so that people can

feel the uninterrupted flow of a breeze across their bodies. The Australian
house, however, does not allow this, as the rooms are usually positioned back-

to-back or linked via an internal corridor (rather than placed alongside each

other in a single long row). The Australian house tends to fare much better in

warm, humid costal regions because the outside air temperature generally

remains the same during the day and night. Day temperatures in these regions

are not as high as those in inland areas due to the cooling effect of the wind. But

the houses still tend to get pretty hot unless attention is paid to proper

ventilation and shading devices.

The choice of materials in the humid zones (where the diurnal temperature

range is small) is less affected by rapid temperature changes. In damp, humid

climates, by contrast, the prevalence of insects and fungus growths are

important factors. The sun casts a shadow on the buildings, varying with the

position of the sun at different time during the day. By means of various

instruments, (e.g. the heliodam), the degree of penetration has become definite

and predictable, and the effectiveness of sunshade devices and the measurement

of daytime lighting and reflection from adjacent surfaces may be determined.

Building materials are subjected to expansion and contraction, depending on

their temperature resulting from sudden storms or diurnal changes in the range

of temperature. Cool permanent colors and smooth surfaces are preferred, and

materials such as cement plaster, coral, and limestone are useful since their high

*Roofs
Sloped roof galvanized iron, fibre-cement or alumium sheet with false ceiling.

Roof ventilation is highly desirable to avoid thermal input form the roof.

Ventilation of under ceiling is desirable.

*Walls

Walls required should not be less than 15cm thick. They should be shaded with

tress or flowers particularly East, West walls; light colour painting. Cavity walls

are desirable.

*Outdoor Sleeping

Not essential

Sun exclusion and shading devices during daytime. Provision of cross

ventilation and air movements. Fan essential. Trees, shrubs and other types of

vegetation are desirable. There should be good natural drainage.

(ii) Layout

Open spacing for breeze penetration, North South orientation for longer facades

to avoid sun. Buildings to be elongated. Dwellings to be separated to enhance

air movement. The settlement character to be scattered and loose.

iii. Plan form

Single banked building forms; permanent provision of air movement.

• Semi — detached house

• Two storeyed terrace houses

• Staircase flats with adequate provision of balconies or covered sleeping

spaces.

• Split level balcony access flats

*Sun protection

Well-designed sun breakers to avoid sun penetration; glare to be avoided;

reflective painting.

*Fenestration

Window area minimum 15 percent of wall area. Horizontal projections needed

for shading. Windows should be provided on adjacent walls for effective cross

ventilation. Openings should be provided with mosquito proof wire mesh.

* Roof Overhang

This is required for rainwater disposal from the walls. Projection from 45 to

60cm.

Hot Humid Zone

(a) Climatic Characteristics

(i) Location

This zone stretches from West to East and consists cities like Oyo, Ile-Ife,
Ibadan, Ilorin in the Western Sector and Enugu, Markurdi, Yandeu and Yola in

central

and eastern parts respectively. This is the second largest climatic zone — next

to Hot

Dry Zone.

(ii) Climate

• Temperature - not excessively high but warm due to high humidity. Mean

daily maximum temperature — 300 — 35°C

Mean Daily Minimum temperature — 20° — 25°C

• Humidity — Ranges between 70 — 80 percent during the dry months and 80

— 90 percent in the wet season.

• Wind Direction — Dry season: Southwest

Wet season: Southwest

• Rainfall—Heavy

• Sky Condition — Frequently overcast sky; sometimes very dull. Bright sky

some times when cloud cover is thin. High radiant heat. Glare problems.

(b) Planning Guidelines

(i) Essential for Comfort

As a result of the studies carried out in 1983 by the Professionals of Nigerian

Building and Road Research Institute on the varying climatic zones in the

country and their prevailing climatic elements, the following adequate design

guidelines were presented. The Hot Humid Zone is considered in detail since

Ile-Ife, which is the study area of this research work is located in this zone.

3.5 Climatic Data

Climatic data of 23 stations over the four climatic zones of the country are given

in

Tables 3.1 —3.4. The data consist the following:

A. (i) Name of station

(ii) Latitude

(iii) Longitude
 (iv) Height above mean sea level

B. (i) Maximum dry bulb temperature of February and August

(ii) Minimum dry bulb temperature of February and August

(iii) Average relative humidity of February and August

(iv) Total yearly rainfall

(v) Prevalent wind directions for number of months

The range of temperature between day and night is required, as the thermal

performance of houses cannot by decided only by means values particularly

when the difference between maximum and minimum values is quite large. The

values for February and August are representative of dry and wet seasons and

also indicate the extent of yearly variations. The most prevalent wind directions

and their frequency of occurrence within the year are given for the design of

windows and availability of cool air during the night. The number of months in

a year shows the frequency of the prevalent wind direction in that area. The total

yearly rainfall data are required for overhang design, protection against rain and

type of roof construction for the area.

Climatic Zones
An earlier study by the International Development Agency (l.D.A) Education

Project in Nigeria divided the country into seven zones, which were specifically

worked out for standardized buildings with very limited scope. The zones were

not defined basically on climatic factors. Form an analysis of the maximum and

minimum dry bulb temperatures1 relative humidity, total yearly rainfall and

prevalent wind directions of 23 stations all over the country; it seems that the

entire country may broadly be divided into the following four climatic zones for

building design. These are: see plate 3.1.

1. Hot dry

2. Temperate dry

3. hot humid

4. warm humid

It is not possible, nor necessary, to locate the exact boundaries of each zone on a

map as one zone merges gradually, and almost imperceptibly, into the next. The

area under each zone is, however fair representations of the climatic zone in that

area for building design purposes.

3.4 Climatic Description of each Zone See table I

1. Hot Dry Zone

This comprises areas where mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature during

the dry months (January, February and March) equals or exceeds 35°C and the

relative humidity does not exceed 40 percent during these dry months. The

diurnal range of the temperature is high and is of the order of 15 to 20°C during

the hot season.

The mean yearly rainfall vanes from 528mm, in Nguru to 960mm, in Yola. The

height above mean sea level (M.S.L.) is more than 300m.

2. Temperature Dry

In this zone, mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature exceeds or equals

30oC during the dry months. The relative humidity does not exceed 40 per cent

in the dry season. The diurnal range of temperature is not very high and is of the

order of l0oC. The yearly rainfall vanes from 1077mm to 1399mm in Zana and

Jos respectively. The height above mean sea level is more than 300m.

3. Hot Humid

This zone comprises areas where mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature

during the dry months (January — march) exceeds or equal 300C. The relative

humidity is of the order of 40 to 70 percent during these months. The diurnal

range of temperature is less than l0oC. Rainfall varies form 1183.0 mm to

1787.0mm in Lokoja and Enugu respectively. The height above mean sea level

lies between 100 to 300mm.

4. Warm Humid

This zone comprises region where daily mean maximum dry bulb temperature

during the dry season exceeds or equals 3OoC and relative humidity less

between 70 to 100 percent. The diurnal range of temperature is less than 8oC.

The average annual rainfall is high. It varies form 1185.0mm in Lagos to

2788.0mm in Warn. The height above mean sea level is below l00m.

The seasonal pattern of climatic conditions over Nigeria gives rise to four

seasons in south and two in the north. This is the result of annual total rainfall

occurrence distribution, which is more predominant in the south than in the

north. The amount of rainfall along the coast in the southeast is 4000mm while

it is only 500m in the east.

Southern Nigeria: The four observed seasons are:

(i) The Long Rainy Season: This starts in March and lasts to July.

(ii) The Short Dry Season: This is experienced in August i.e. August break.
(iii) The Short Rainy Season: This is experienced in the early September to

mid October.

(iv) The Long Dry Season: This period starts from late October to early March.

Northern Nigeria: The climatic condition in the northern part of Nigeria has

two different seasons, namely, a short wet season and a prolonged dry season.

Temperatures during the day remain constantly high while humidity is relatively

low throughout the year, with little or no cloud cover. There are however wide

ranges in temperature (between nights and days); particularly in the very high

mean monthly temperatures during the day exceed 36°C, while the mean

temperatures at night fall at most times, to below 22°C.

Nigeria can, thus, be broadly divided into the following climatic regions:

(a) The humid sub-equatorial, in the southern lowlands.

(b) The hot tropical continental, in the far North.

(C) The moderated sub-temperate in the high plateaus and mountains.

(d) The hot, wet tropical, in the hinterland (the middle-belt) and an extended

double rainy season. The Higher Delta area suffers from intensive rainfall

throughout the year.

Nigeria enjoys the humid tropical climate type. Because of its location just

north of the equator, Nigeria enjoys a truly tropical climate characterized by the

hot and wet conditions associated with the moving Inter-Tropical Convergence

Zone (ITCZ) north and south of the equator.

The country experiences consistently high temperatures all the year round.

Since it varies only slightly, rainfall distribution, over space and time, becomes

the most important factor in differentiating the seasons and climatic regions.

Rainfall amount and distribution are however dependent on the two air masses

that prevail over the country. Their influences are directly linked to the

movement of the ITCZ, to the south of the equator.

The two air masses are the Tropical maritime (Tm) and the Tropical continental

(Ta). The former is associated with the moisture-laden southwest winds

(southwesterly blow from the Atlantic Ocean, while the latter is associated with

the dry northeast winds (easterlies) which blow form the Sahara Desert. When

the ITCZ occurs, the convergence of the two air masses is to the south of the

equator; the northern prevail over Nigeria, thus producing the dry-season

conditions.
Conversely, with the movement of the ITCZ into the Northern Hemisphere,

bearing southwesterly prevailing wind as far inland as possible to bring rainfall

season. The implication is that there is a prolonged rainy season in the far

South; the far north undergoes long dry period annually. Nigeria therefore has

two seasons, the dry season and the wet season, the lengths of which vary from

North to South.

plasticity and thermal inertia are valuable attributes. Paints and plastics in the

dry tropics generally do not behave well and go through photochemical

changes.

The major components of tropical climate that affects architecture are:

temperature, humidity, rainfall or precipitation, sunlight and solar heat among

others.

3.3 Nigeria and its Climatic Zone

Nigeria lies within 4°N to 14°N latitudes and 2.5°E to 14.5°E longitudes. The

Southern part of the country, along the seacoast, is warm and humid; whereas

the Northern part is hot and dry. It therefore has hot dry, cool dry and humid

seasons of varying length depending on location. There are two upland areas in

the North-the Jos Plateau and Cameroon Highlands. These have the same

seasons with moderate temperatures. The South of the country has a warm to

hot humid climate with a residual harmattan season

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, OYO

STATE

4.1 Ibadan and its climate

4.2 General description and historical background of the University of Ibadan

4.3 The university campus layout

4.4 Queen’s Elizabeth hall II