M1412

Deep within the cells nucleus, there's our DNA.
DNA is made up of genes, and each

gene is basically a specific part of the DNA that codes for a protein. And genes
become proteins in two steps, transcription and translation. Transcription is the
first step in creating a protein, during which a specific gene is red and copied on
an individual mRNA, or messenger RNA molecule, which is like a blueprint with
instructions on what protein to build. Translation is the second step, and it's
when organelles called ribosomes assemble the protein from amino acids lying around
in the cytoplasm. Each mRNA has a direction, running from the 5 prime end toward
the 3 prime end. mRNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides, which are the
individual letters or building blocks of mRNA. These are made out of a ribose,
which is a five carbon sugar, a phosphate, and one of four nucleobases, guanine,
uracil, adenine and cytosine, or commonly GUAC for short. Mmm, guac. These
nucleotides are the actual information carried within the RNA. Each three letters
is one amino acid. In total, these four nucleotides can be arranged into 64
combinations. The freshly made mRNA floats out of the nucleus through a pore, and
hooks up with an idle ribosome to start getting translated into a protein. Right
away there's a process called initiation, which is where the ribosome grabs the
mRNA. Groups of three letters are called codons, and each codon codes for one amino
acid, or gives a certain signal, like to start or stop. So for the ribosome to
start, it needs to find a start codon. That's usually a sequence of AUG, which
simultaneously codes for the amino acid methionine. So most proteins actually start
with methionine. When the ribosome runs into this, it knows that from here on out,
every subsequent codon represents one amino acid in the protein. Now while each
codon codes for a single amino acid, each amino acid can be coded for by one or
more codons. For example, while only the UGG codon codes for the amino acid
tripdaphane, as many as six codons code for the amino acid loosing, UUA, UUG, CUU,
CUC, CUA, and CUG. Translation continues until the ribosome runs into a stop codon,
which is a sequence of UAA, UAG, or UGA. The stop codons don't code for anything
else, except for stopping, which is also known as termination. But mRNA is only a
blueprint of which amino acid goes where in order to get a protein. The actual job
of ferrying the amino acids to the ribosome is done by another type of RNA, called
transfer RNA, or TRNA. TRNA is a very short RNA sequence and is specialized for
finding a specific type of amino acid within the cytosol, and bringing it to the
ribosome. TRNA only has a three-letter coding sequence, called the anti-codon,
which is complementary for what's written in the mRNA. It means that it can briefly
bind to the corresponding mRNA codon and deposit the amino acid within the
ribosome. So the ribosome has three sites for TRNA to bind. They're the amino acid
site, or A, the peptidal site, or P, and the exit site, or E. The A side binds the
incoming TRNA with the complementary codon on the mRNA. The P side holds the TRNA
with a growing polypeptide chain, and the E side holds the TRNA without its amino
acid. So how this all works is TRNA, carrying an amino acid, initially binds to its
corresponding codon on the mRNA at the A side. Then a peptide bond, which is the
bond that holds the growing protein together, forms between the amino acid of the
TRNA and the A side and the amino acid of the charged TRNA and the P side. The
growing polypeptide chain is transferred to the TRNA and the A side. After that,
everything moves by one side. The now empty TRNA and the P side moves to the E
side. The TRNA with the polypeptide chain moves from the A side to the P side. The
A side becomes open for a new TRNA to bring another amino acid. Finally, the TRNA
and the E side leaves. Grab another amino acid in the site is all, and returns to
float around the A side to repeat the process when needed. So as the ribosome
slides down the length of mRNA, it leaves behind a polypeptide tail, which is our
growing protein. So if the mRNA says the following, 5 prime end, AUGGA, CCC, UGA, 3
prime end, that means that AUG is the start codon. And immediately it requires a
complimentary TRNA with sequence UAC, which carries a methionine. Next codon, GUA,
requires the TRNA with the sequence CAU, which brings a valine. The next CCC needs
an anti-codon GGG, which carries glycine. Finally, there's UGA, which is a stop
codon, and translation is done. Our tiny little protein is made out of just three
amino acids, methionine, valine, and glycine. The final part of the process is the
ribosome ferrying its freshly made protein to an organelle called the endoplasmic
reticulum. That can get further prepared for whichever role the cell might have for
it. Alright, as a quick recap, translation is a process of reading the mRNA within
a ribosome, and assembling a protein based on the instructions found within. mRNA
is made out of codons, which are triplets of nucleotides that either provide start
and stop information, or are coding for a certain amino acid in a protein sequence.
The amino acids are supplied by the TRNA, which contains an anti-codon, which is a
complementary sequence to the mRNA codon. The translation is finished upon reaching
the stop codon, which is the signal that the protein is done.

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Deep within the cells nucleus, there's our DNA.

DNA is made up of genes, and each

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