The Mobility Revolution in The Automobile Industry - : Electric Cars and Battery Management

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THESIS - BACHELOR'S DEGREE PROGRAMME

TECHNOLOGY, COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
THE MOBILITY REVOLUTION IN

THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY -
ELECTRIC CARS AND BATTERY MANAGEMENT
Final Thesis
Author: Aneta Chodakowska

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SAVONIA UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES THESIS

Abstract
Field of Study
Technology, Communication and Transport
Degree Programme
Degree Programme in Industrial Engineering and Management
Author
Aneta Chodakowska
The mobility revolution in the automobile industry - electric cars and battery management
Date 04.05.2018 Pages/Appendices 47/0

Supervisor(s)
Pertti Varis, Tiina Salli
Client Organisation /Partners
Abstract
The decrease of fossil fuels and the increase of available renawable energy make the electric vehicles (EV) the
future of tranportation. This thesis is dedicated to analysing the electric vehicle industry and battery management
systems. Different electric vehicles, battery systems and charging methods will be examined, as well as the whole
market research including SWOT and PESTLE analyses and the electric vehicle situation in Finland and Norway,
based on the current literature.
Various aspects including electric vehicle range, driving technique, loading problems, battery weight, dimensions
and drawbacks and electrification will be discussed.To show benefits of electric vehicles, effects on environment
and predictions for the future will be analysed. Some real examples of the most popular electric vehicles and
battery management systems will be presented as well.
This work can be interesting and useful for everyone who wants to gain or broaden understanding of electric
vehicle industry.
Keywords
automotive industry, automobile revolution, clean cars, EV, ICE, HEV, PHEV, FCEV, BEV, AC, DC, PESTLE, SWOT
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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLE.............................................................................. 6
1.1 Electric vehicle definition ........................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Electric vehicle history ............................................................................................................... 6
2 TECHNOLOGY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES ............................................................................... 7
2.1 Key parts of an electric car ........................................................................................................ 8
2.2 Battery types .......................................................................................................................... 10
3 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE ...........................................................................................11
3.1 Internal combustion engine car................................................................................................ 11
3.2 Hybrid electric vehicle parallel .................................................................................................. 11
3.3 HEV series .............................................................................................................................. 12
3.4 HEV series-parallel .................................................................................................................. 13
3.5 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle .................................................................................................. 14
3.6 Battery electric vehicle ............................................................................................................ 15
3.7 Fuel cell electric vehicle ........................................................................................................... 16
3.8 Comparison between HEV, PHEV, BEV and FCEV ...................................................................... 17
4 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING......................................................................................... 18
4.1 Parts of EV Charger ................................................................................................................. 18
4.2 AC Charging ........................................................................................................................... 18
4.3 AC Connectors ........................................................................................................................ 19
4.4 DC Connectors ........................................................................................................................ 20
5 ELECTRIC VEHICLE.......................................................................................................... 21
5.1 Driving technique .................................................................................................................... 21
5.2 Range .................................................................................................................................... 21
5.3 Loading problems ................................................................................................................... 21
5.4 Battery weight, dimensions and drawbacks .............................................................................. 22
5.5 Battery service and exploation ................................................................................................. 22
5.6 Driving economies .................................................................................................................. 23
5.7 Batteries and safety ................................................................................................................ 23
5.8 Superiority of electric vehicles .................................................................................................. 24
5.9 Electrification .......................................................................................................................... 25

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6 ELECTRIC VEHICLES MARKET ANALYSIS ........................................................................... 26
6.1 Electric vehicles in Finland ....................................................................................................... 26
6.2 Electric vehicles in Norway ...................................................................................................... 27
6.3 SWOT analysis ........................................................................................................................ 28
6.4 PESTLE analysis ...................................................................................................................... 29
6.5 Usage rate analysis ................................................................................................................. 31
7 ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES ................................................. 32
7.1 London type smog .................................................................................................................. 33
7.2 Los Angeles type smog ............................................................................................................ 33
7.3 The greenhouse effect ............................................................................................................ 33
7.4 Lithium resources ................................................................................................................... 34
8 ELECTRIC VEHICLE AND BATTERY MANAGEMENT ............................................................. 36
8.1 Jaguar I-PACE ........................................................................................................................ 36
8.2 BMW i3s ................................................................................................................................. 38
8.3 Nissan Leaf II ......................................................................................................................... 39
8.4 Tesla Model 3 ......................................................................................................................... 40
8.5 Bus Volvo 7900 Electric ........................................................................................................... 41
9 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 42
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 44
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1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLE
Electric vehicles are the future of transportation. Electric mobility has become an essential part of the
energy transition, and will imply significant changes for vehicle manufacturers, governments, companies
and individuals.The government announced in 2017 that there will be no more new petrol or diesel cars
for sale after the year 2040. This relates to pure petrol and pure diesel cars. Therefore electric cars will in
near future become a commonplace thanks to certain financial advantages, including government
grants and the lower cost of filling up compared to a tank of petrol. Electric cars are considered better for
the environment due to the fact they emit no exhaust gases. The electric car market today is about 0.2 %
of all vehicles on the roads. For now, combustion cars are still cheaper and seemingly easier to use. A
breakthrough in the field of energy storage is waiting for us. It should popularize technology and allow
rapid sales growth. In June 2017, 28000 new electric cars were registered in Europe. This is a 54 percent
growth compared to 2016.
The target of this thesis is to present electric car industry, vehicle types, battery system and charging
methods, as well as market reseach, effect on environment and forecasting of the future of mobility.
Different aspects will be analysed, such as electric vehicle range, driving technique, loading problems,
battery weight, dimesions and drawbacks and electrification. There will be given examples to popularise
electric vehicle indistry to protect environment and future generations. Market analysis will include SWOT
and PESTLE analyses, as well as electric vehicle situation in Finland and Norway. In the last chapter real
examples of electric vehicles and battery management will be presented.
1.1 Electric vehicle definition
Electromobility is a phenomenon that affects many areas of life. However, in the current opinion, the term
refers to electric transport.
Electric vehicle is any vehicle propelled by an electric drivetrain taking power from a rechargeable battery
or from a portable, refillable, electrical energy source like fuel cell or solar panels, which is manufactured
for use on public roads. The electric drivetrain differentiates an electric vehicle from conventional fossil-
fuelled vehicle where the drivetrain is mechanical. [1]
1.2 Electric vehicle history
The interesting fact is that the first cars in the end 19th and the early 20th century were electric. In the
meanwhile, fossil fuel-powered cars with internal combustion engines became available in early 20th
century. There has been an intense competition that began between the two types of vehicles. As it
occured, fossil fuel powered cars won this competition due to three main reasons. The first reason was
due to poor battery technology. Electric vehicles had a low range in those days and could never travel the
long distances reached by a gasoline powered car. Further, charging them took much longer than
refueling gasoline. The second reason was that the mass production of cars like the Ford Model-T made
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gasoline cars affordable. The third reason was price of vehciles. In 1912 there were 6000 EV and 80000
Ford Model T. EV costed approximately 1110$ and Ford Model-T 590$.
With a cheap fuel, fossil fuel powered cars became the winner over electric cars. As a result, the internal
combustion engine car has gradually dominated the market since then, until this day. However, decades
of research and development in batteries, motor & power electronics technologies have helped bring back
electric vehicles to the forefront. In 2014 numerous 100% electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
were introduced to the market from BMW, BYD, Cadillac, Chevy, Citroen, Ford, Fiat, Honda, Kia, Mer-
cedes-Benz, Mia, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Opel, Peugeot, Porsche, Renault, Smart, Tesla, Toyota, Via, Volvo
and Volkswagen.
Nowadays, there are affordable EVs with a 200-mile range that can be charged in less than an hour. In
2016 there were over 2 million electric cars already on the road globally. This number is expected to
exponentially rise in the future. [2]
EV
ICE
EV
FIGURE 1. History of EV and ICE
2 TECHNOLOGY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Figure 2 shows the typical electrical layout of the components in an electric car. The power is delivered
from the AC grid to charge the battery via the on-board AC/DC rectifier and DC/DC battery converter.
When the car is in the driving mode, the power provided by the battery goes through the battery DC/DC
converter to the high voltage DC bus. Then the DC to AC inverter of the motor drive sends the power to
the motor. The motor converts the electrical energy to mechanical energy, and it is forwarded to the
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wheel via the transmission. Furtermore, a DC/DC uni-directional converter steps down the voltage from
the high voltage DC bus to charge the auxiliary battery, which in turn powers cars' accessories.
A key role in the operation of an electric car plays the traction battery, the electric motor and the power
electronics.
The power is exchanged between these components electrically using cables. This ensures great flexibility
in the design of the car. On the contrary, flexibility is not possible when using cars with a mechanical
drivetrain due to large size and weight of the mechanical components. [3]
FIGURE 2. Electric car power flow (TU Delft)
2.1 Key parts of electric car
Figure 3 shows the key parts of an electric car and their function. First, there is a charging port with
the connector and cable, then the high voltage traction battery and the low voltage auxiliary battery.
There are electric motor and a transmission system which are used for propulsion. Finally, there are
several power electronic converters that are used for battery charging, for driving the motors and for
regenerative braking. Electric vehicle key parts are [4]:
FIGURE 3. Key parts of a battery electric vehicle [4]

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Charging port: It is a connector present on the electric vehicle, which allows it to be connected to
an external source of electricity for charging.The charging port together with the connector and ca-
ble provides the electric car to connect to an external power supply in order to charge the traction
battery pack. The charging port is often reffered as the vehicle inlet.
Power electronic converter: A power electronic converter is made of high power fast-acting sem-
iconductor devices, which act as high-speed switches. Different switching states change the input
voltage and current through the use of capacitive and inductive elements. The result is an output
voltage and current, which is at a different level to the input.
On-board charger: It is an AC-to-DC power electronic converter (often referred to as a rectifier)

that takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and converts it to DC power for
charging the traction battery. Using the battery management system, it regulates the battery charac-
teristics such as voltage, current, temperature, and state of charge. It is required if the car is
charged from the conventional electrictity grid.
Traction battery pack: It is a high voltage battery used to store energy in the electric car and pro-
vide power for use by the electric traction motor. It is a heart of any electric vehicle.The battery is
located at the bottom of the car, but it can differ depending on the manufacturer. The role of the
battery is to store energy for the propulsion of the vehicle. The battery has a battery management
system, which monitors and regulates the battery charging characteristics such as voltage, current,
stage of charge and temperature. The energy content in a battery is expressed is kilo-watt hours.
Nowadays, electric cars have battery sizes in the range of 10-100 kWh. There are many different
battery technologies, such as lead-acid.
Battery power converter: It is a DC-to-DC power electronic converter that converts the voltage of
the traction battery pack to the higher-voltage of the DC-bus used for power exchange with the trac-
tion motor. When the electric car is drived then the power flows from the battery to the motor and
to the vehicle accessories, such as light and audio system. A power electronic converter is used to
regulate the power between these devices.
Motor drive: It is a DC-to-AC or a DC-to-DC power electronic converter, used to convert power
from the high voltage DC bus to AC (or at times DC) power for the operation of motor. The converter
is bidirectional. It operates both in driving and regenerative braking mode. The motor drive controls
the speed, torque and rotational direction of the motor.
Traction electric motor/generator: It is the main propulsion device in an electric car that con-
verts electrical energy from the traction battery to mechanical energy for rotating the wheels. It also
generates electricity by extracting energy from the rotating wheels while braking, and transferring
that energy back to the traction battery pack.
Transmission: For an electric car, usually a single gear transmission with differential is used to
transfer mechanical power from the traction motor to drive the wheels.
Power electronics controller: This unit controls the flow of electrical power in the different power
electronic converters in the electric car. It directly controls the different power converters and indi-
rectly the operation of the battery, motors and the vehicle. It uses the driver accelerator and brake
pedals to control the power flow and select the operating mode between driving and regenerative
braking. It controls the onboard charger and the battery charging together with the battery man-
agement system.
Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides electricity to start the
car before the traction battery is engaged and is also used to power the vehicle accessories. The
auxiliary battery is usually 12V for current vehicles, but maybe increased to 48V for the future vehi-
cles. [4]
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2.2. Battery types
There is no clear choice which battery technology is the most suitable for all BEVs. Below all battery
technologies will be discussed [5]:
Lead acid:
The possibility of using lead acid batteries in electric cars are limited. They suffer from low specific
energy due to the weight of its lead collectors, low energy density, limited cycle life, high cut-off
voltage, and lack of long-term storage due to low energy densities, sensitivity to temperature and
life cycle. [5]
Nickel based:
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)
The main advantages of the Ni-MH battery include its high specific energy and energy density, which
are twice that of lead-acid batteries. These batteries also offer fast recharge capacity, long cycle life,
wide operation temperature ranges, and environmental friendlyness due to their recyclability [5].
Nickel-Cadium (NiCd)
Regardless of its high initial cost and low specific energy, this battery has the advantage of a lonng
cycl life, as well as rapid recharge rate, excellent long-term storage, and a variety of sizes and
designs. Despite the recyclability, cadmium in the battery can pollute the environment if not properly
disposed of. [5]
Lithium based:
Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
Lithium-polymer (Li-poly)
Lithium batteries are classified by the type of active material into Lithium-ion liquid electrolyte and Li-
ion-polymer electrolyte batteries. For electric cars applications, the Lithium-ion type are generally
preferred.
20kWh Li-ion battery has a much lower weight than its competitors.
Li-ion battery technology offers very high energy density, good high-temperature performance, high
specific power, high specific energy, and long cycle life. Additionally, the Li-ion battery is recyclable,
and thus an environmental-friendly. The high costs and high self-discharge rates are two
disadvantages of Li-ion batteries. Currently, Li-ion batteries are superior to other battery
technologies in terms of applications to BEVs. [5]
Table 1. Different weight of 20KWh batteries [5].

Weight of 20KWh battery
Lead acid 550 kg
Nickel Cadmium 500 kg
Nickel Metal Hydride 350 kg
Lithium Ion 180 kg

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3 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE [6]
3.1 Internal combustion engine car
Figure 4 presents internal combustion engine car. The purpose of a gasoline car engine is to convert
gasoline into motion so that car can be moved. Currently the easiest way to create motion from
gasoline is to burn the gasoline inside an engine. Therefore, a car engine is an internal combustion
engine - combustion takes place internally.
There are different kinds of internal combustion engines. Diesel engines are one form and gas
turbine engines are another. Based on drive-train and fuel type electric vehicles can be classified as
the conventional internal combustion engine vehicle and the alternative fuel internal combustion
engine vehicle, and the electric vehicle. The conventional ICE vehicle includes the gasoline and diesel
vehicles. The alternative fuel ICE Vehicle refers to vehicles that run on a fuel other than gasoline or
diesel like: autogas, natural gas, biofuel or hydrogen. [7]
FIGURE 4. Internal Combustion engine car (TU Delft)
3.2 Hybrid electric vehicle
Figure 5 shows hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). It is a type of vehicle that uses both an electric engine
and a conventional internal combustion engine. This type of vehicle is considered to have better
performance and fuel economy compared to a conventional one.
An electric motor can propel the vehicle by using energy stored in the batteries. The battery is in
turn charged by drawing energy from the engine by using the electric motor as an electric generator.
To operate the motor and generator mode, a clever power electronic motor drive is used. The extra
power provided by the electric motor allows for a smaller engine. The motor allows the engine to be
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operated in its optimal efficiency point, resulting in better fuel economy. Both the engine and the
motor can power the wheels at the same time. [8]
FIGURE 5. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (TU Delft)
3.3 HEV series
Series drivetrains are the simplest hybrid configuration. Figure 6 presents series hybrid. In this
vehicles the electric motor is the only means of providing power to the wheels. The motor receives
electric power from either the battery pack or from a generator run by a gasoline engine.
A computer determines how much of the power comes from the battery or the engine/generator.
Both the engine/generator and the use of regenerative braking recharge the battery pack. Series
hybrids perform at their best during stop-and-go traffic, where gasoline and diesel engines are
inefficient.
The internal combustion engine is used to drive a generator and provide electrical power for the
traction motors and to charge the battery. This is a common propulsion method which has been
used in locomotives for many years. The traction motor is the only power supply unit with a direct
connection to the wheels. The advantage is that the internal combustion engine can be operated at
its most efficient point to generate the necessary current for driving the traction motor or charging
the battery. [9]
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FIGURE 6. HEV series (TU Delft)
3.4 HEV series-parallel
Figure 7 presents parallel hybrid drivetrain. In this vehicles the engine and electric motor work in
tandem to generate the power that drives the wheels. Parallel hybrids tend to use a smaller battery
pack than series drivetrains, relying on regenerative braking to keep it recharged. When power
demands are low, parallel hybrids also utilize the motor as a generator for supplemental recharging,
much like an alternator in conventional cars.
This has the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode by using a powersplit. It has a
generator to charge the battery as seen in a series hybrid.
And it has an engine and motor simultaneously powering the wheels as seen in a parallel hybrid.
Although this type of architecture is more flexible in terms of driving modes, it is also more complex
and, of course, costly. The Toyota Prius is an example of a Hybrid electric vehicle based on the
series-parallel architecture. [9]
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FIGURE 7. HEV series-parallel (TU Delft)
3.5 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
Figure 8 shows plug-in hybrid electric vehicles known as PHEVs combine a gasoline or diesel engine
with an electric motor and a large rechargeable battery. Unlike conventional hybrids, PHEVS can be
plugged-in and recharged from an outlet, allowing them to drive extended distances using just
electricity. When the battery is emptied, the conventional engine turns on and the vehicle operates
as a conventional, non-plug-in hybrid. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are similar to hybrid electric
vehicles in that they have both an engine and motor for propulsion. The main difference lies in the
fact that PHEV batteries are larger and can be externally charged using the on-board charger. The
battery can be charged using the internal combustion engine while driving. This enables the PHEV to
use the electric motor during larger periods of time when driving. That means for larger distances.
A PHEV can drive electric for most city commutes and switch to fossil fuels for long highway rides,
removing any range anxiety. A PHEV can be built based on series and series-parallel architectures as
well. The Chevrolet Volt is an example of a Plug-in Hybrid electric vehicle based on the seriesparallel
architecture. The disadvantage of the HEV and PHEV is that they continue to use fossil fuels and
hence have tail-pipe emissions. [10]
FIGURE 8. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (TU Delft)

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3.6 Battery electric vehicle
Figure 9 shows battery electric vehicles, which run exclusively on electricity via on-board batteries
that are charged by plugging into an outlet or charging station. These vehicles have no gasoline
engine, longer electric driving ranges and never produce tailpipe emissions. The vehicle uses a large
traction battery pack to power the electric motor and the battery must be charged from a power
outlet when it is parked. The Tesla Model S is an example of a battery electric vehicle. [11]
FIGURE 9. Battery electric vehicle (TU Delft)
3.7 Fuel cell electric vehicle
Figure 10 presents Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV), which use an electric motor like a battery
electric vehicle, but stores energy quite a bit differently. Instead of recharging a battery, fuel cell
electric vehicle store hydrogen gas in a tank. The fuel cell in FCEVs combines hydrogen with oxygen
from the air to produce electricity. The electricity from the fuel cell then powers an electric motor,
which powers the vehicle just like a battery electric vehicle. There is no smog-forming or climate-
changing pollution from tailpipe - the only byproduct is water. The fuel cells are recharged by
refilling with hydrogen, which can take as little as 5 minutes at a filling station. A fuel cell electric
vehicle substitutes the large battery of a battery electric vehicle for a fuel cell stack to generate
electricity from the hydrogen fuel. A fuel cell is not a storage device, but a component that produces
direct current from a chemical reaction. A small battery is still used as an energy buffer and to power
the electric motor using the motor drive. A fuel cell vehicle has the advantage of short refuelling
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times and extended driving range when compared with battery-electric vehicles. The Hyundai Tucson
and the Toyota Mirai are the examples of fuel cell electric vehicles. [12]
FIGURE 10. Fuel cell electric vehicle (TU Delft)

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3.8 Comparison between HEV, PHEV, BEV and FCEV
Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles are powered by both an internal
combustion engine and an electric motor that uses energy stored in a battery. The battery is
charged by the internal combustion engine for both. For a PHEV, the vehicle can be plugged into an
electric power source to charge the battery. Battery Electric Vehicles use no fossil fuel and have zero
tail-pipe emissions. Like a PHEV, the EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle into an
electric power source. Finally, an FCEV uses fuel cell powered by hydrogen and battery to power
vehicle using an electric drivetrain. [13]
Table 2. Comparison of HEV, PHEV, BEV and FCEV (TU Delft)[13]

HEV PHEV BEV FCEV
Battery size Around 1-2 kWh 5-10 kWh 15-100 kWh 1-2 kWh
Driving with a 400-700 km on 30 to 100 km bat- 100-400 km bat- 400-700 km on

nearly empty fossil fuel tery electric driv- tery electric driv- hydrogen fuel
battery ing range: 400- ing range
700km on fossil
fuel
Charge & fuel Battery charging Battery charging Battery charging Refill hydrogen
refilling only during driv- from the grid and only from the fuel tank from fuel
ing; refill fuel tank during driving; electricity grid stations
from fuel stations Refill fuel tank
from fuel stations
Fuel economy & Higher fuel econ- Higher fuel econ- Higher fuel econ- Higher fuel econ-
efficiency omy than similar omy than ICEVs; omy than similar omy than similar
ICE vehicles Higher fuel econ- HEVs &ICEVs; ICEVs
(ICEVs) omy than similar Comparable fuel
HEVs for electric economy as
driving from the PHEVs for electric
battery charged driving from the
from the grid. battery charged
from the grid
Emission Less than similar Less than similar Zero tailpipe Zero harmful
ICE vehicle HEV emission emission, water is
by-product
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4 EV CHARGING
4.1 Parts of EV Charger
To charge an electric car from the AC grid, the power has to be converted from AC to DC. An EV
charging system has three main parts. The first part is the AC-DC power electronic converter. This
converts the power from AC to DC. The second part is the charging cable with a connector that is
used to feed power from an external power supply to the electric car via the vehicle inlet. Third part
is a charge controller on the external power supply side and a battery management system on the
vehicle side. These are responsible for the communication, protection, and control of the charging
process. They control the charging current and stop the charging in case of overcharging, complete
draining short circuit or overvoltage of the battery. It also ensures that the temperature and
balancing between the cells are optimal for long battery life. To charge an electric car, AC power
from the electricity grid is fed to the car via the vehicle inlet using the charging cable and connector.
[14]
Figure 11 shows mode 1. This mode requires slow AC charging via a regular electrical socket. There
is no connection between the vehicle and the charging point. It is needed to provide an earth wire to
the EV and have an external means of protection against faults. In many countries, this form of
charging is viewed to be unsafe. [14]
4.2 AC Charging
Figure 11. Mode 1 (TU Delft)
Figure 12 shows mode 2: This mode entiles for slow AC charging from a regular electricity socket. In
addition, the charging cable is equipped with an In-Cable Control and Protection Device (IC-CPD),
that is responsible for control, communication and protection (including residual current protection).
Figure 12. Mode 2 (TU Delft) [14]

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Figure 13 shows Mode 3: This mode entails both slow or semi-fast charging via a dedicated electrical
socket for EV charging. The charger (or the charging station) has an EV specific socket, generally
corresponding to Type 1 or Type 2. A charging cable with an EV plug on both sides is used to
connect the EV to the charger. The charging station is responsible for the control, communication
and protection of the charging process (including residual current protection). This mode is
commonly used for public charging stations and can facilitate integration with smart grids. [14]
Figure 13: Mode 3 (TU Delft)
Figure 14 shows Mode 4: uses a dedicated electrical socket for EV charging like Mode 3. The charger
typically has a charging cable with an EV charging plug. Mode 4 is specifically used for DC charging,
which is recommended for fast charging of an electric vehicle. In the case of DC. [14]
4.3 AC Connectors
AC and DC charging are characterized by the connector type and the charging power levels that can
be reached. For AC charging, Type 1 connector is commonly used in USA and Japan, while the Type
2 and the less common Type 3 connectors are used in Europe. Tesla uses its proprietary connector
in USA-Japan while it uses the type 2 connector in Europe. Other parts of the world are often
adopting the Type 2 connector as it can work with both 230V single phase and 400V three phase
connections. [15]
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Table 3. AC Connectors (TU Delft)

USA - Japan Europe China
4.4 DC Connectors
In terms of DC charging, the CHAdeMO Type 4 connector is used by Japanese car manufacturers
globally, while the American and European car manufacturers have adopted a combined AC/DC
connector called the CCS-COMBO. Interestingly, Tesla uses the same connector meant for AC
charging as well as for DC charging. In the case of China, they have their own DC connector. [15]
Table 4. DC Connectors ( TU Delft)
USA- Japan Europe USA-Japan-Europe China
The main difference is that in DC charging the AC-to-DC power converter is placed outside the
vehicle in an off-board charger and hence the charging power can be as high as 350kW. In case of
AC charging, the onboard charger is used which is usually restricted to less than 22kW.
The conclusion is that EV industry has not agreed on one specific connector, so depending on the
car brand, country and whether it is AC or DC charging, the connector varies in shape, size, and pin
configuration. [15]
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5 ELECTRIC VEHICLES
5.1 Driving technique
The technique of driving an electric car is the same as when moving an internal combustion vehicle
with an automatic electronic transmission. Certain differences can be seen while increasing the
speed. The electric motor has a maximum torque from the start. As a result, it accelerates evenly
from any speed. A common mistake is to assume that all electric cars have autonomous driving sys-
tems. Technologies are interrelated only with the fact that their popularization took place at the
same time. As a result, many manufacturers of electric cars use some autonomous facilities - similar
to the new models of internal combustion cars. There are some indications that in the next years the
service of electric cars will change significantly. One of the announcements may be a new, electric
Nissan Leaf. Talking about a car controlled with only one pedal. Pressing the pedal drives the vehicle,
and releasing results in braking. The system was called e-Pedal. If it is accepted by the purchasers of
the Leaf model, it can be expected that in a short time it will also reach other models. [16]
5.2 Range
Many people pay attention to the low ranges of electric cars. The latest generation of Nissan Leaf
can travel 380 km. The competitive Renault ZOE will travel 400 km. The slightly larger Volkswagen
e-Golf will stop after traveling a maximum of 300 km. Against this background, Tesla S positively
distinguishes itself with the range declared at a level exceeding 550 km. The record achieved on this
model is 900 km. However, it was achieved in quite specific conditions at a speed of 40 km/h.
The results declared by producers are generally heavily inflated. However, this practice is no
different from that used in internal combustion cars that are really unable to reach catalog ranges.
All thanks to synthetic test conditions. In the meantime, dozens of factors influence the range of
everyday driving, including driving technique, weather conditions, surface, used tires, the degree of
exhaustion of the car, and even the weight of the driver. The range of electric cars can clearly
decrease during severe frosts when energy consumption is higher. In addition to heating the driver's
cabin, low temperatures also require reheating the batteries. Currently, when deciding to buy an
electric car, one must bear in mind that it will be a vehicle created primarily for urban driving. [17]
5.3 Loading problems
A lot of emotions and questions are also raised by the issue of charging electric cars. First of all, to
use this vehicle effectively, it is worth having a charging point at the house. At the same time,
specialized infrastructure is not necessary. The classic 230 V electrical socket in the garage is a
source of energy compatible with all electric cars. The charging time in this way mean an additional
range at a level slightly exceeding 10 km. During the night it is possible to get a range of about 100
km. For most users this will be a sufficient result for commuting to work. It's definitely better if we
have at least one 16A / 400V socket in the house. They can be found in many garages, workshops
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and industrial buildings. Its use allows to increase the efficiency of charging up to five times. Thanks
to this, its possible to fully charge the batteries overnight. Sockets with 32A protection are an even
better solution. They can be found at special recharging points located in city centers and on parking
lots of office buildings or shopping malls. They allow to charge many models of electric cars in less
than 2 hours.
Maps with marked charging points are available on the Internet. Unfortunately, such a list must be
approached with reserve. Many stations offer low charging efficiency or require specific services
located in the station to use the charger free of charge. In addition, some stations located on washes
or gas stations may be closed when there is no qualified employee responsible for their service on
site. The vision of loading the car during rain or snow arouses some anxiety. Fortunately, plugs for
charging electric cars are properly protected and even heavy rain will not lead to a short circuit. [18]
5.4 Weight, dimensions and drawbacks
The batteries have slightly larger dimensions and weight than the fuel tank. It can be assumed that
an electric car will usually be 200-300 kg heavier than its combustion equivalent. For example, e-Golf
has a total weight of 1585 kg, of which the weight of accumulators and accessories is 318 kg. The
equivalent of the 1.4 TSI engine weighs 1268-1290 kg, depending on the equipment version. Theo-
retically, the use of an electric motor can negatively affect the size of the vehicle or passenger cabin.
However, this problem is not as severe as it may seem. Most manufacturers have already developed
solutions that allow the electric drive to be deployed in places where exhaust models have exhaust
system components or fluid reservoirs. Thanks to this, electric models can have identical dimensions
as combustion equivalents. If the car is designed from the ground up as an electrical construction, it
gives even more possibilities to arrange the vehicle. The transmission of electricity is less demanding
than the hydraulics and mechanics of internal combustion cars. [19]
5.5 Service and exploitation
One of the basic questions posed in the context of electric cars is the durability of batteries. Most
manufacturers provide an eight-year cell guarantee. The first brand that had to face the problem of
used batteries was Nissan. New batteries for the Leaf model have been priced at over 5,500 Euro.
A slightly cheaper solution will be the replacement of batteries for regenerated cells; in this case, the
costs should not exceed 2,5000 euro. The Japanese brand also took care of the processing of used
elements and together with Sumitomo Corporation created the venture 4R Energy Corporation,
which is the world's first factory specialized in the recycling of batteries from electric cars.
One of the concepts developed by Nissan and Sumitomo is the The Reborn Light project. Its purpose
is to build public lighting in the city of Namie, which suffered as a result of a tsunami seven years
23
ago. Batteries with Nissan Leaf will be used for independent power supply of new road lanterns.
They will replace the existing, destroyed infrastructure, while protecting the network in the event of
an earthquake and flood. Some brands use a different concept of battery operation. A good example
is Renault, offering the purchase of a car in two options. The user can buy a vehicle with a battery or
lease the batteries from the manufacturer. New links were valued at 7,000 euro, while the rent is
around 100 euro per month, depending on the distance covered. [19]
5.6 Driving economies
The most often considered issue related to the economy of electric cars is fuel savings. Electric cars
charged in the night tariff can cover 100 km for about 1 euro, which is the amount close to the price
of a liter of fuel. This means, in fact, that even the most economical combustion cars will cost us five
times more. Skeptics point out that electric cars are much more expensive to buy. For example, an
electric Smart Fortwo costs about 22,600 euros. The combustion model is about 12,000 euros. Even
larger price differences occur with larger models. The disproportion of purchase prices will be difficult
to reduce in a few years on the fuel itself. Fortunately, the price of electricity is not the only factor
generating savings. Electric cars are definitely easier to build. They do not burn, they use less fluid
and mechanical elements. It is estimated that an electric motor fails 200-1000 times less often than
an internal combustion equivalent. The fuel, air and oil filters replaced annually are an expense that
we will not experience in an electric vehicle. In addition, for the sake of energy recovery systems,
brake pads for cars on the road wear up to 10 times slower. The annual savings on repairs and
exchanges can thus reach up to several thousand euros.
It is also worth paying attention to additional financial benefits flowing from driving an electric car.
They can be an important asset if someone regularly travel abroad. Drivers can enjoy free parking in
the city and even subsidies and tax exemptions. [20] [21]
5.7 Batteries and safety
Concerns about the dangers of using electric cars do not only apply to charging. After all, most users
of conventional cars travel with a tank filled with a flammable substance, located just under the
seats. Meanwhile, the most anxious situation seems to arise when the electric car suffers an
accident. However, electric cars, similarly to combustion structures, are subject to homologation
requirements and undergo crash tests. Following the assurance of producers, the batteries should
not be ignited or spilled in the event of an accident. [19]
24
5.8 Superiority of electric vehicles
Many people, perhaps even most people in the world, do not realize that cars can drive "electric" in-
stead of on petrol, oil, or gas. This is not surprising, because for decades, electric cars were on the
sidelines and they did not get much attention. Unfortunately, those who know about the existence of
electric cars do not always believe that they are better than currently used cars with internal com-
bustion engines. This is also not surprising, as most people try to apply proven, well-known solutions
and avoid major changes.
If only we have available electricity, the electric vehicle will be driving almost for free compared to
the combustion vehicle. It is true that for decades people have been unable to store enough energy
in batteries to allow electric cars to overcome long distances. This lack of knowledge, technology and
materials was the main reason for the marginalization of electric cars. Currently, however, everything
has changed. With the development of batteries (many varieties) that can accumulate a very large
amount of energy and which can be recharged in just a few minutes, no one will stop electric cars
from taking a dominant position in the market over the next several decades.
Some manufacturers of combustion cars have known for a long time about the superiority of electric
cars over diesel. Initially, they implemented hybrid cars for production, which were combustion cars
with an additional electric motor (the main task of the electric part of the drive was to recover ener-
gy from braking and reuse it when starting off). Today, new hybrid cars and plug-in hybrid can be
recharged from an electrical outlet. Thus, there is a clear tendency to move away from the use of
self-propelled internal combustion engines and the growing importance of the electric part in hybrid
cars.
However, hybrid vehicles are not a target, but only an intermediate one, because they have several
disadvantages. Hybrid cars are more complicated than combustion cars, and they are usually from
1.5 to 2 times more expensive. When driving a hybrid car, usually only one of the drive parts is used
- electric or diesel, and the other is then a ballast. It is an indisputable fact that a hybrid car traveling
for example 400 km will burn more fuel than a traditional internal combustion car (with identical die-
sel engine) due to its smaller mass and simpler construction. [22]
25
5.9 Electrification
Electrification is the most viable way to achieve clean and efficient transportation that is crucial to
the sustainable development of the whole world. In the near future, electric vehicles will dominate
the clean vehicle market. As shown in Table 5., the current major battery technology used in EVs in
Li-ion batteries because of its mature technology. Due to the potential of obtaining higher specific
energy and energy density, the adoption of Li-ion batteries is growing fast in EVs, particularly in
PHEVs and BEVs. It should be noted that there are several types of Li-ion batteries based on similar
but certainly different chemistry. [23]
Table 5. Batteries used in electric vehicles of selected car manufacturers. [23]

COMPANY COUNTRY VEHICLE MODEL TYPES OF BATTERY AND CAPAC-
EV ITY
Toyota Japan Prius PHV (Prime) PHEV Li-ion, 8.8 kWh,
Prius (fourth gen- HEV Ni-MH,1.31 kWh
eration)
Prius ( fourth gen- HEV Li-ion, 0.75 kWh
eration)
Aqua (Prius C) HEV Ni-MH, 0.94 kWh
Nissan Japan Leaf BEV Ni-ion, 30 kWh

Honda Japan Accord Hybrid HEV Li-ion, 30kWH
Fit (Jazz) Hybrid HEV Li-ion, 1.3 kWH
Mitsubishi Japan i-MiEV BEV Li-ion, 16 kWh
Outlander PHEV Li-ion, 12 kWh
BMW Germany i3 BEV Li-ion, 33 kWh
Mercedes-Benz Germany x5 xDrive40e PHEV Li-ion, 9.0 kWh
Audi Germany B250e HEV Li-ion, 28 kWh
Volkswagen Germany e-Golf BEV Li-ion, 35.8 kWh
Volvo Sweden XC90 T8 PHEV Li-ion, 9.0 kWh
Fiat Italy 500e BEV Li-ion, 24 kWh
Tesla The United States Model S BEV Li-ion, 60-100 kWh
General Motors The United States Chevrolet Volt PHEV LI-ion, 18.4 kWh
Ford The United States C-MAX Energi PHEV Li-ion, 7.6 kWh
Hyundai Korea Sonata Hybrid HEV Li-polymer, 1.6 kWh
26
6 ELECTRIC VEHICLES MARKET ANALYSIS [24]
6.1 Electric vehicles in Finland
In Finland, electromobility is at an early stage of development, but it is dynamic development. In

2016 there were 1500 electric cars in the whole country (compared to 2015, this is a jump of
117.5%). The Finnish Ministry of Transport prioritizes the development of electric buses.
Passenger cars are in second place, however, tax incentives (excise reduced from 50% to 5%) are
used anyway.The Finns have carefully prepared for change. The EVE program is of key importance,
thanks to which the electric vehicles market and their infrastructure in Finland will grow from EUR
200 million in 2010 to EUR 2 billion in 2020. In the first phase, the car charging network will be
expanded. The Finnish authorities are supposed to encourage drivers to buy vehicles.
The components of the program are research projects that are supposed to bring solutions tailored
to users. In this regard, five specialized platforms are created, such as: Electrictraffic.fi, EUL-Eco
Urban Living, EOV - Electric Commercial Vehicles, the national research center EVELINA and WintEVE
- a platform for testing electromobility in Arctic conditions.
An important role in the development of the project is supported by IT industry. Its activities are to
combine a collective transport system, mobility as a service, individual electric cars and vehicle
charging systems.
Finland, like other countries with a similar climate, has a very large number of parking spaces, armed
with terminals to power engine heating - which at low temperatures have problem with starting. In
case of Finland, it is said that for about 3 million cars there are more than million places with
terminals.
In general, the power supply of 16 A should be sufficient for free charging with power of over 3kW
and for heating the interior.
The Finnish company Parkkisähkö is trying to use the niche by implementing a system that allows
simple authorization and billing as well as remote control of the power supply. [25] [26]
27
6.2 Electric vehicle in Norway
A model example of the development of electromobility in the Nordic countries is Norway. Over
120,000 vehicles are already on the Norwegian roads powered by plug-in. Electromobility is not new
anymore. Preparations for electrification transport in Norway are since 1992 and were limited not
only to technology or changes in law. After subsequent crises on the fuel markets, Norwegian
universities joined, among others modernization study programs in a way to educate the professions
of the future electric vehicle industry. This example shows how wide the view is required in
electromobility development. The Norwegian rise of electromobility was caused by huge amount of
subsidies but also by access to cheap energy. Norway has been firmly in favor of the disappearance
of diesel vehicles from its roads. Residents, however, expect that forcing them to give up diesel will
be connected with preferential conditions for purchasing electric cars. The government in Oslo is
considering limiting the previous benefits, and the strongest Norwegian organization of drivers of
electric vehicles postulates their preservation. In turn, Christina Bu, secretary of the Norwegian
Association Electric Vehicles, believes that the decision to buy an electric car is influenced by various
factors. One of them are subsidies, but it is also important where someone lives (access to the night
charging socket), how far someone gets to work every day, whether someone has access to
charging points in the city. In Norway, there is no national educational program to encourage or
teach Norwegians how to perceive electromobility. Recently, however, actions have been taken to
integrate the environment of users of electric vehicles through rallies, trips to distant tourist
attractions or joint trips. The non-governmental organization Norsk elbilforeni prepares these
integration activities. [27] [28]
Norwegian Ministry of Transportation and Communication has gradually developed generous
incentives to continue the development of EV market throught the country over the years.
Table 6 summarizes the national incentives and policies in Norway; Figenbaum and Kolbenstvedt [23]
Table 6. Summary of the national incentives and policies in Norway [23]

Incentives Year
Fiscal incentives reduction of purchase price
Exemption from registration tax 1990/1996
Exemption from VAT 2001
Reduction annual vehicle licence fee 1996/2004
Reduced company car tax 2000
Direct subsides users reducing usage costs and range challenges
Free toll roads 1997
Exemption from paying car ferry fees 2009
Financial support for charging stations 2009
Financial support for fast charge stations 2011
Reduction of time costs and giving relative advantages
Access to bus lanes 2003/2005
1999
Free parking
28
6.3 SWOT analysis
Table 7. SWOT analysis [29]

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
 low cost of use and servicing  higher cost of
 the use of the latest production by about
technology allows to reduce 30% compared to
the cost of usege by more conventional cars
than half  limited travel range
 environmentally friendly  one charge is enough
 high energy efficiency to drive about 400km
 efficiency of combustion (fumes ~ 900km)
engine ~ 35%, electric ~  long charging time
85%  battery life
 zero exhaust - no emission of  no noise - danger in
harmful gases pedestrian traffic
 quiet, comfortable
 raise social awareness about
environmental protection
 modern design
 prestige
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
 government support  lack of cooperation
 tax breaks when buying between car
electric cars manufacturers
 funding  over 7 different types
 free parking and charging in of chargers
some countries  not developed
 growing public awareness charging
about environmental infrastructure
protection  battery durability
 technology development  price uncertainty in
 faster charging the secondary market
 greater range
 lower costs of use and service
29
6.4 PESTLE analysis
1) Political:
Theiworldwide automobileiindustryiis an enormous, multi billion industry with several well-known

brands rivaling for marketplace. It was founded in the beginning of 19th century. There are several
having an impact on auto industry. In terms of revenue this sector is an essential part of the global
economy. The growth and revenue of vehicle industry are influenced by several forces. Besides of
manufacturing of cars globally, this sector is also engaged in the marketing and sales. The Asian
market is an important market for the automotive industry. China has especially grown-up to become
the world’s largest market for cars. Vehicle manufacturers are concentrating more on environmental
friendliness. The industry has been forced to use more pollution control systems. The major car
manufacturers are trying to produce more fuel effective and low emission vehciles. The sales no
emission, electric cars all over the world is growing. The European Union has rigorous regulations
even it comes to gasoline engine vehciles.
2) Economical:
Economic factors are also of special significance in terms of of the automotive industry. In several
markets the taxes on expensive vehicles are high. If case of good economic conditions the sales of
vehicles can continue to be high. In the developed countries the sales are recorded to be superior.
All countries worldwide can produce electricity themselves, so that they will not have to import in-
creasingly expensive foreign oil. Electricity can be obtained in a variety of ways, with different fossil
fuels, biomass as well as from renevable sources thanks to this the economy becomes less vulnera-
ble. Electric cars are characterized by very high efficiency, thanks to which the distance covered is
even several times cheaper than with an internal combustion car.
3) Social:
Nowadays, people are more and more aware of the envoronment and being eco-friendly. The
automotive market is highly influenced by the social and cultural factors. At the moment almost
every car manufacturer is releasing electric vehicle model in the market. Brands are competing for
market shares. In certain cultures particular styles are liked more and in some are not accepted.
30
4) Technological:
In the automotive industry technology and innovation have become crucial factor. The most
innovative company are dominating the market. All major car manufacturers are investing huge
amounts of money in research and development, as well as in electric vehicles, which are
environmental friendly and low in emission. The electric car does not have to have a gearbox or
clutch, making it possible to travel comfortably (especially in a traffic jam). Sports electric cars do
not require changing gears, achieving very good acceleration. Electric motors are incomparably qui-
eter than combustion ones, which sometimes allows "noiseless" travel and comfortable listening to
music. The noise that arises because of moving the electric car, reaches the level of 40 dB, the same
as the operating fridge emits. For comparison, a diesel-powered car emits in urban traffic an average
of 60-70 dB, bus combustion - 90 dB.
5) Legal:
Law influence the profitability and efficiency of the car brands. Law concerning pollution rates have
been more strict in recent years. Vehicles, which are later exported overseas need to pass rigorous
emission control tests. Laws connected to product safety have also crucial impact on vehciles.In
competitive international market, car companies have to cope with several laws, such as restrictive
environmental, tax and few other laws.
6) Environmental:
Worldwide the laws connected with the environment friendly and low carbon emissions are becoming
more strict. All the automotive brands are focusing more on producing low emission cars.
Government supports those vehicle manufacturers, which produce low emissions cars. Passing
pollution test is harder and more strict. In 21st century being eco-friendly is a crucial determinant
for vehicle manufacturers. Governments have made pollution control as a priority. The extraction of
any fossil fuel, its delivery to the power plant and conversion to electricity, and then sending electric-
ity to the recipient, charging the electric vehicle batteries and converting electricity into the electric
vehicle is a more economical process than extracting foreign oil, delivering it to the refinery and con-
version to fuel, delivery of fuel to a gas station (to the customer) and use of fuel to drive the com-
bustion vehicle. Electric cars have no tail-pipe emissions. This factor helps in reduction of pollution
due to carbon di-oxide, sulphur oxides and improves the liveability and air quality in the cities. When
electric cars are charged with electricity generated from renewable energy sources such as wind tur-
bines or solar photovoltaic panels, the emissions due to the electricity generation is zero. It is be-
cause electric vehicles can store the surplus of renawable energy by charging EV with solar energy in
a day time and with wind in the night. Electric cars can recover electricity from braking, increasing
their range while driving, for example, in the city or in the mountains. The use of regenerative brak-
ing results in a significant reduction in brake wear. Energy recovery also has its ecological aspect. [30]
31
6.5 Usage rate analysis
Statistics show that in the end of 2017 China had the largest numberof plug-ins vehicles with over
1.2 million units. When it comes plug-in electric buses China also dominates this market with stock
reaching over 343, 000 units. In comparison in 2016 out of global stock in 2016 was less than
345,000 units. About 943,600 passenger vehicles had been registered in 2017 in Europe around
943,600 passenger plug-ins had been registered. Norway was a leading market with over 200,000
vehciles. In 2016 Norway had the highest market growth in the world with and over 5% of all vehi-
cles were plug-ins. In 2017 Norway was also a world's leader when it comes to new car sales plug-in
segment with 39.2%. In the end of 2017 the USA had about 765,000 plug-in cars. California was
reaching about 48% of total US plug-in sales with over 365,000 vehicles. At the end of 2017 Japan
had about 207,200 plug-ins, and about 2,250 EVs were registered in 2016. In 2016 the Finland's
government set the goal to reach the number of 250,000 plug-in vehicles and over 50,000 biogas
vehciles by 2030. In Germany there have been rise in number of plug-in electric cars with the num-
ber of 129,246 vehicles. Germany is Europe's largest passenger vehicle market and fall into category
of fifth when it comes to in plug-in vehcile sales. Around 80% of the plug-ins in Germany were reg-
istered since 2014. [31]
Table 8. Passenger plug-in vehicle market share of new car sales between 2013 and 2017 for
selected countries and selected regional markets [31]
32
7 ENVORONMENTAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
According to research, in the tunnels, multi-level car parks and near petrol stations, the concentra-
tion of pollutants is sometimes 4 to 40 times higher than the average for the entire urban area. A re-
search conducted in London showed that the concentration of some pollutants is several times
higher inside the car than the ambient concentration. Therefore, the driver of the car after driving a
given section of the city has a much higher concentration of carbon monoxide in the blood than the
cyclist who crossed the same section. A bus that emits a little more exhaust than a passenger car
transports as many as 70 cars in the city and 30 cars outside the city. In this way, collective trans-
port is much less harmful to the environment than individual transport. Bicycle is even better - it
does not emit any pollution. Most car journeys in cities take place on a stretch of up to 5 km - almost
every bicycle can cover this distance. Part of the emitted exhaust gases and dust settles near the
road. Studies have shown that, although 50 meters from the road, the level of contamination con-
tained in the soil decreases, but even soils are contaminated even at a distance of 500 meters from
the road. Automobile fumes are much more harmful to people than industrial pollutants, as automo-
tive pollution is spreading at high concentrations at low altitudes in the immediate vicinity of people.
Road transport vehicles are responsible for the following percentage of the overall emission of harm-
ful substances:
- 63% nitrogen oxides
Nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere, where they combine with water vapor, and then
return to the earth's surface in the form of acid rain. Acid rain destroys plants, causes acidification of
water and soil. Nitrogen oxides are also precursors to carcinogenic compounds. They contribute to
the formation of photochemical smog. In humans, they reduce the body's resistance to bacterial in-
fections, irritate the eyes and airways, cause breathing disorders, are the cause of asthma.
- 50% of organic chemicals
- 80% carbon monoxide
It is a highly toxic gas, contributes to the formation of photochemical smog. It connects with hemo-
globin, blocks the transport of oxygen in the blood. It causes respiratory problems, heart problems,
headaches and dizziness, nausea and sight problems. At higher concentration it causes death. In
places of high car traffic, in tunnels, in the car parks, a high concentration of this gas is found.
- 10-25% of dust suspended in the air
- 6.5% sulfur dioxide
Emitted to the atmosphere, it combines with steam to form sulfuric acid, then returns to the earth in
the form of acid rain or is a component of the so-called acid fog. Acidic rains acidify the soil causing
33
its depletion in nutrients by rinsing. Heavy metals are released from the acidified soil, which, at low
pH, are dissolved and taken up by plant roots, and also pollute the water. Soil acidification is particu-
larly harmful in forest ecosystems.
7.1 London type smog
A high concentration of flue gas in the air can lead to smog formation. There are two types: London
type smog and Los Angeles type smog.
London type smog occurs in the winter period at a temperature of -3 ÷ + 5 ° C. It is mainly caused
by air pollution due to emissions of sulfur dioxide and dust from the combustion of coal and petro-
leum products. Although coal combustion is the main cause of this type of smog, emissions from
transport also contribute to this phenomenon. Contamination in combination with fog causes the
formation of droplets of sulfuric acid suspended in the air. London smog reduces the visibility of up
to several dozen meters, has a corrosive effect on buildings, is harmful to plants. In humans, it
causes dyspnoea, irritates the eyes and skin, disrupts the work of the circulatory system.
7.2 Los Angeles type smog
Los Angeles type smog usually appears in the summer months, at temperatures above +26 ° C. It is
formed in the troposphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere, when very high concentrations of
ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and fine dust occur in it. Under the influence
of insolation, some air pollutants undergo photochemical reactions creating toxic compounds that
cause cancer and genetic mutations, e.g. acetyl peroxide nitrate (PAN). It forms in urbanized,
densely populated areas. The concentrations of pollutants in photochemical smog are usually very
high and exceed the air quality standards recommended by WHO (World Health Organization).
7.3 The greenhouse effect
It is caused by excessive emission of gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, freons, as
well as some types of hydrocarbons. The solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is absorbed by
it (a small part is reflected) and converted into heat. The heated surface of the Earth emits heat ra-
diation, which is largely absorbed by the greenhouse gases contained in the atmosphere. Such a
situation causes a gradual warming of the Earth's climate.
According to WWF (World Wildlife Foundation), the global average temperature has risen by 0.7 ° C
over the last hundred years. Scientists note increased ice melting at the poles. The cause of this
phenomenon is indicated by the climate warming. Scientists warn that raising the average tempera-
ture on Earth by 2 ° C will melt the glacier covering Greenland.
34
Melting glaciers pose a real threat to the rise of the sea and oceans, resulting in the flooding of
lower-lying lands and coastal depression. According to WWF, the rise of the Baltic Sea level may
threaten the flooding of almost 2,000 km2 of the land area of Poland. This will be affected by 18
holiday resorts, five large ports and houses of 120,000 people living in threatened areas.
Researchers recognize the greenhouse effect as the cause of hurricanes, floods and drought of un-
precedented proportions. The latest research results warn against a much faster rate of warming
than previously thought. It is predicted that by the end of this century the temperature may rise
even by 5 ° C in the tropical zone, and in the temperate zone (which includes Poland) by 8 ° C,
which will cause even greater intensity of natural disasters.
According to Greenpeace, even an immediate cessation of greenhouse gas emissions will not cause a
sudden improvement of the situation due to the long "life" of gases in the atmosphere. It also takes
a long time for the atmosphere to absorb the accumulated heat. The Kyoto Protocol is unlikely to
meet its expectations, as the reduction needs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
reach 60-70%. The protocol does not cover rapidly industrializing countries like China, India or Bra-
zil, in which greenhouse gas emissions are growing rapidly. [32] [33] [34]
7.4 Lithium Resources
Currently, in new electric cars, different types of lithium-ion batteries are most often used, because
they actually only provide vehicles with good performance. As the production of electric cars on a
mass scale will in the future be associated with a significant increase in the demand for lithium-ion
batteries, many people wonder if there is enough lithium available in the world to produce them.
Lithium (Li) is the lightest metal that belongs to the group of alkali metals. In batteries, depending
on type both lithium in metallic form and lithium compounds with other elements are used. Lithium
consumption for batteries has increased significantly in recent years. In the growing market for:
portable electronic, electric tools, electric vehicles, and grid storage applications, rechargeable lith-
ium batteries are used extensively. [35]
Lithium end-use markets
5% 10%
8% 39%
30%
Batteries ceramics and glass

lubricating greases polymer production
other uses
FIGURE 15. Estimated lithium resource % in the world in tonnes according to various sources. [35]
35
The largest producers of lithium in the world are: Chemetall (USA / Chile), SQM (Chile), Admiralty
Resources (Australia and South America) and CITIC Guoan Lithium (China).
Table 9: Annual production of lithium in tonnes in 2015 and 2016 plus reserves. [35]
Country Mine production 2015 Mine production 2016 Reserves
USA 38,000
Argentina 3,600 5,700 2,000,000
Australia 14,100 14,300 1,600,000
Brazil 200 200 48,000
Chile 10,500 12,000 7,500,000
China 2,000 2,000 3,200,000
Portugal 200 200 60,000
Zimbabwe 900 900 23,000
World total 31,500 35,000 14,000,000
(rounded)
36
8 ELECTRIC VEHICLES EXAMPLES
8.1 Jaguar I-PACE
Jaguar I-PACE is an electric SUV presented on March 1, 2018, just before the Geneva Motor Show
2018.
The serial production will start in 2018 at the Magna Steyr plant in Graz, Austria.
The I-PACE structure is fully aluminum. A flat packet of 90 kWh batteries is placed between the axes,
and 147 kW each with traction motors. In terms of charging, they were placed on a 7 kW on-board
charger and a fast loading of CCS Combo with a power of up to 100 kW (0-80% in 40 minutes). The
car has a heat pump that heats the cabin and a battery pack that uses engine heat loss and power
electronics, improving the range in winter by up to 50 km at 0 ° C. Comfortable driving is ensured by
air suspension. [36]
Figure 16. Jaguar I-Pace
WLTP -The Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure so pollutant and CO2 emissions as
well as fuel consumption values would be comparable worldwide.
EPA - The United States Environmental Protection Agency maintains test methods, which are ap-
proved procedures for measuring the presence and concentration of physical and chemical pollut-
ants. [36]
37
Table 10. Batteries [36]

Type: lithium-ion, laminated, NMC (LG Chem cells)
Charging time approx. 12.9 hours on-board charger with 7 kW
Charging time 0-80%: about 10 hours on-board charger with 7 kW
Fast charging time 0-80%: about 40 minutes with an external CCS Combo
charger with 100 kW
Energy accumulated in about 40 minutes with an external CCS Combo charger with
batteries: 100 kW
Energy accumulated in about 90 kWh
batteries:
Number of modules: 36 (12 cells each)
Number of links: 432
Warranty for batteries: 160,000 km or 8 years for losing 30% of the initial capacity
Cooling / heating pack- Liquid
age:
38
8.2 BMW i3s
The BMW i3s is a sporty version of the BMW i3. The car is slightly wider and lower than the standard
BMW i3, has wider tires, and its drive is characterized by better performance. The differences in ap-
pearance are mainly details that emphasize the sporty style.
The power has been increased by 10 kW to 135 kW, and the torque is 20 Nm to 270 Nm, but the
most important is the change in the characteristic, which gives a higher moment (acceleration) in the
higher speed range. Acceleration from 80 to 120 km/h improved by 0.8 s (from 5.1 s to 4.3 s), while
from 0 to 60 km/h only by 0.1 s (from 3.8 s to 3.7 s). The maximum speed is also higher (160 km/h
instead of 150 km/h). [37]
Figure 17. BMW i3s

Type: lithium-ion (cells 94 Ah from Samsung SDI)
Charging time 0-100%: approx. 7: 30h on-board charger with
3.7 kW or 3: 45h power, optional 7.4 kW charger
or in Europe 2: 45h with optional 11 kW three-
phase charger
Fast charging time 0-80%: about 39 minutes with an external 50
kW CCS Combo charger
Energy accumulated in batteries: approximately 33.2 kWh (27.2 kWh available)
Nominal voltage of the package: 353 V
39
8.3 Nissan Leaf II
The car is a thoroughly redesigned second generation Nissan Leaf offered in 2010-2017. The new
Leaf debuted in September 2017. and will be offered in Japan from October 2017, and in Europe and
North America from January 2018. Ultimately, the car will be sold in more than 60 countries around
the world. Leaf II is offered with a 40-kWh battery pack, which is enough for about 250 km of driv-
ing - 243 km in EPA tests. According to European tests WLTP range in a mixed cycle (with rather
delicate driving) 285 km (16-inch wheels) and 270 km (17-inch wheels).
The drive uses a motor with a maximum power of 110 kW.
Leaf's prices at the time of launch are at a similar level as the previous generation Leaf prices with
the 30-kWh package. [38]

Type: lithium-ion
Charging time 0-100%: approx. 16 h on-board charger with 3
kW, approx. 8 h on-board charger with 6 kW
Fast charging time time 0-80%: about 40 minutes with an external
CHAdeMO charger
Energy accumulated in batteries: about 40 kWh
The nominal voltage of the package: 350 V
Nissan Leaf 2018
Nissan Leaf 2018 - traction drive and battery pack

40
8.4 Tesla Model 3
The Tesla Model 3 is positioned 350 km (standard) and is 500 km long (Long Range Range).
Tesla Model 3 brings a lot of unique solutions, ranging from authorization through the application in
the phone (or a card, in size corresponding to the payment card), peculiar door handles or a 15-inch
central touch screen. Model 3 is equpped with a floor-mounded 400 volt lithium-ion high voltge bat-
tery. [39]

Type: lithium-ion, 2170 lithium-ion cells (Tesla / Panasonic)
Charging time: 0-100%: 9.6 kW onboard charger (240 V, 40 A)
Fast charging time 0-80%: about 30 minutes charging from the Supercharger
completes the 270 km range
Energy accumulated in unofficially 70-75 kWh
batteries:
Warranty: 4 years or 80,000 km per car and 8 years or 193 thousand
km per battery pack
41
8.5 Bus Volvo 7900 Electric
Buses Volvo 7900 Electric is a 12-meter electric bus presented at the Busworld 2015 exhibition.
The production and sale of the Volvo 7900 Electric began in 2016 as a complement to the Volvo
7900 Electric Hybrid buses.
The Volvo 7900 Electric is a short-reach vehicle that requires fast charging in a few minutes with a
power of 300 kW for normal use. The Swedish manufacturer intends to offer this type of buses com-
plete with Siemens or ABB quick recharging stations. Fast loading in a few minutes is enough for
about 10-20 km for overcoming the route.
Among the advantages, Volvo emphasizes the aluminum body, low floor and bright interior. An in-
teresting fact is the 2-speed gearbox. The energy consumption is supposed to be 80% lower than in
the case of an internal combustion equivalent. [40]

Type: lithium-ion
Charging time: full equalization 4 h, fast on route (up to 300 kW) - a few
minutes (3-6 minutes is enough for about 10 km, 1 minute
charging adds 5-10 minutes)
Energy accumulated in batteries: about 76 kWh (4x 19 kWh)
Nominal voltage of the package: 600 V
Cooling / heating package: liquid
Figure 18. Bus Volvo 7900 Electric

42
9 CONCLUSION
In the 21st century electrification, automation, sustainability and connectivity will be the future of the
mobility. In emerging economies there will be a bigger pressure on industrialisation and urbanisa-
tion. Companies will be investing a lot of money in sustainable technologies. There is a certain rise in
new technologies.[41] New era of Industry 4.0, Internet of things and digitalisation are the global
trends and have a huge impact on automative industry, but also on many other. Consumers are
changing their preferences, many are becoming more aware of environment and electric vehicles.
Today, consumers are using their vehicles for every purpose: business, commuting to work, shop-
ping, vacation, and leisure time. In the future they will choose an optimal mobility solution for each
different specific purpose. Car sharing is a growing industry, with applications such as Uber. In the
future the automative makers will be focusing on producing zero emission, zero congestion, zero en-
ergy, zero accident, zero empty and zero cost vehicles. That means that cars will be eco-friendly,
more efficient using renewable electricity, using automated or autonomous cars, trucks and busses
and safer. Cars will be connected to data exchange via internet of things using it to a full capacity.
People will preferably share cars using big data and saving money. In recent years cars have been
incrementally advancing alongside developing technologies from cruise control and GPS navigation
systems, to blue-tooth connectivity and parking sensors. When talking about Intertent of things in
terms of transportation smart cars and autonomous or driverless vehicles have been developed.The
concept of cars being able to drive themselves without human assistance is now a reality. The num-
ber of electric cars being produced will be growing rapidly. In the coming years, more than a dozen
new models of electric vehicles will appear on the market. EV could achieve another function, which
is called vehicle-to-grid V2G. When the grid is overloaded in the peak time then electric car can rein-
force their power to support the grid. The new era of electric car is really promising.
43
44
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47

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THESIS - BACHELOR'S DEGREE PROGRAMME

THE MOBILITY REVOLUTION IN

Author: Aneta Chodakowska

SAVONIA UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES THESIS

Date 04.05.2018 Pages/Appendices 47/0

1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLE.............................................................................. 6

1.1 Electric vehicle definition ........................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Electric vehicle history ............................................................................................................... 6

2 TECHNOLOGY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES ............................................................................... 7

2.1 Key parts of an electric car ........................................................................................................ 8

2.2 Battery types .......................................................................................................................... 10

3 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE ...........................................................................................11

3.1 Internal combustion engine car................................................................................................ 11

3.2 Hybrid electric vehicle parallel .................................................................................................. 11

3.3 HEV series .............................................................................................................................. 12

3.4 HEV series-parallel .................................................................................................................. 13

3.5 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle .................................................................................................. 14

3.6 Battery electric vehicle ............................................................................................................ 15

3.7 Fuel cell electric vehicle ........................................................................................................... 16

3.8 Comparison between HEV, PHEV, BEV and FCEV ...................................................................... 17

4 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING......................................................................................... 18

4.1 Parts of EV Charger ................................................................................................................. 18

4.2 AC Charging ........................................................................................................................... 18

4.3 AC Connectors ........................................................................................................................ 19

4.4 DC Connectors ........................................................................................................................ 20

5.1 Driving technique .................................................................................................................... 21

5.2 Range .................................................................................................................................... 21

5.3 Loading problems ................................................................................................................... 21

5.4 Battery weight, dimensions and drawbacks .............................................................................. 22

5.5 Battery service and exploation ................................................................................................. 22

5.6 Driving economies .................................................................................................................. 23

5.7 Batteries and safety ................................................................................................................ 23

5.8 Superiority of electric vehicles .................................................................................................. 24

5.9 Electrification .......................................................................................................................... 25

6 ELECTRIC VEHICLES MARKET ANALYSIS ........................................................................... 26

6.1 Electric vehicles in Finland ....................................................................................................... 26

6.2 Electric vehicles in Norway ...................................................................................................... 27

6.3 SWOT analysis ........................................................................................................................ 28

6.4 PESTLE analysis ...................................................................................................................... 29

6.5 Usage rate analysis ................................................................................................................. 31

7 ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES ................................................. 32

7.1 London type smog .................................................................................................................. 33

7.2 Los Angeles type smog ............................................................................................................ 33

7.3 The greenhouse effect ............................................................................................................ 33

7.4 Lithium resources ................................................................................................................... 34

8 ELECTRIC VEHICLE AND BATTERY MANAGEMENT ............................................................. 36

8.1 Jaguar I-PACE ........................................................................................................................ 36

8.2 BMW i3s ................................................................................................................................. 38

8.3 Nissan Leaf II ......................................................................................................................... 39

8.4 Tesla Model 3 ......................................................................................................................... 40

8.5 Bus Volvo 7900 Electric ........................................................................................................... 41

1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC VEHICLE

1.1 Electric vehicle definition

1.2 Electric vehicle history

FIGURE 1. History of EV and ICE

2 TECHNOLOGY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

FIGURE 2. Electric car power flow (TU Delft)