1 s2.0 S2352484722017346 Main

Energy Reports 8 (2022) 11504–11529
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr
Review article
An in-depth analysis of electric vehicle charging station infrastructure,

policy implications, and future trends
Muhammad Shahid Mastoi a , Shenxian Zhuang a , Hafiz Mudassir Munir b , Malik Haris c ,
∗
Mannan Hassan a , Muhammad Usman a , Syed Sabir Hussain Bukhari b , Jong-Suk Ro d,e ,
a
School of Electrical Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, Sichuan, People’s Republic of China
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, Sukkur IBA University, Sukkur 65200, Pakistan
c
School of Information Science and Technology, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, Sichuan, People’s Republic of China
d
Department of Intelligent Energy and Industry, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06910, Republic of Korea
e
School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06910, Republic of Korea
article info a b s t r a c t
Article history: A significant transformation occurs globally as transportation switches from fossil fuel-powered to
Received 23 May 2022 zero and ultra-low tailpipe emissions vehicles. The transition to the electric vehicle requires an
Received in revised form 18 August 2022 infrastructure of charging stations (CSs) with information technology, ingenious, distributed energy
Accepted 4 September 2022
generation units, and favorable government policies. This paper discusses the key factors when
Available online 17 September 2022
planning electric vehicle charging infrastructure. This paper provides information about planning and
Keywords: technological developments that can be used to improve the design and implementation of charging
Smart charging station infrastructure. A comprehensive review of the current electric vehicle scenario, the impact of
Electric vehicles EVs on grid integration, and Electric Vehicle optimal allocation provisioning are presented. In particular,
Charging infrastructure this paper analyzes research and developments related to charging station infrastructure, challenges,
Electric vehicle charging stations and efforts to standardize the infrastructure to enhance future research work. In addition, the optimal
placement of rapid charging stations is based on economic benefits and grid impacts. It also describes
the challenges of adoption. On the other hand, future trends in the field, such as energy procurement
from renewable sources and cars’ benefits to grid technology, are also presented and discussed.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Contents
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11505
1.1. Main contributions .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11506
1.2. Search strategy ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11507
2. Type of electric vehicle charging station (EVCS) ...................................................................................................................................................... 11507
3. Charging technology for electric vehicles.................................................................................................................................................................. 11508
3.1. Charging modes ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 11508
3.1.1. Level 1 charging ............................................................................................................................................................................... 11508
3.1.2. Level 2 charging ............................................................................................................................................................................... 11509
3.1.3. Level 3 charging ............................................................................................................................................................................... 11509
3.2. Electric vehicle charging methods ................................................................................................................................................................. 11510
3.2.1. Conductive charging (CC) ................................................................................................................................................................ 11510
3.2.2. Inductive/wireless power transfer (WPT)...................................................................................................................................... 11510
3.2.3. Battery Swap Station (BSS) ............................................................................................................................................................. 11511
4. Electric vehicle charging infrastructure ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11511
4.1. Connectors for AC charging ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11511
4.1.1. Connector type 1 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 11511
4.1.2. Connector type 2 .............................................................................................................................................................................. 11511
∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Intelligent Energy and Industry, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06910, Republic of Korea.
E-mail addresses: shahidmastoi797@my.swjtu.edu.cn (M.S. Mastoi), sxzhuang@swjtu.edu.cn (S. Zhuang), mudassir.munir@iba-suk.edu.pk (H.M. Munir),
malikharis@hotmail.com (M. Haris), mannan@my.swjtu.edu.cn (M. Hassan), muhammadusman@my.swjtu.edu.cn (M. Usman), sabir@iba-suk.edu.pk (S.S.H. Bukhari),
jongsukro@gmail.com (J.-S. Ro).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.09.011
2352-4847/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M.S. Mastoi, S. Zhuang, H.M. Munir et al. Energy Reports 8 (2022) 11504–11529
4.1.3. US tesla connector ........................................................................................................................................................................... 11511

4.2. Connectors for DC charging............................................................................................................................................................................ 11512
4.2.1. CCS combos 1 and 2 ........................................................................................................................................................................ 11512
4.2.2. CHAdeMO .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11513
4.2.3. Tesla DC connector .......................................................................................................................................................................... 11513
4.2.4. GB/T China connector ...................................................................................................................................................................... 11513
4.3. Current models of EVs .................................................................................................................................................................................... 11513
4.4. Control and communication infrastructure for electric vehicle charging................................................................................................. 11513
4.4.1. Electric vehicle charging control architecture .............................................................................................................................. 11513
4.4.2. Centralized control ........................................................................................................................................................................... 11514
4.4.3. Decentralized control....................................................................................................................................................................... 11515
4.4.4. A constant current and constant voltage charging system......................................................................................................... 11515
4.4.5. Communication network for electric vehicle charging ............................................................................................................... 11515
4.5. Optimal location for electric vehicle charging stations .............................................................................................................................. 11516
5. The integration of electric vehicles with the power grid........................................................................................................................................ 11516
5.1. Electric vehicles and the grid: power interface modes .............................................................................................................................. 11516
5.2. Need for renewable energy sources .............................................................................................................................................................. 11517
5.3. The effects of electric vehicle integration on the grid ................................................................................................................................ 11519
5.4. Agent role in EVGI ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 11519
5.5. EV aggregators’ role in EVGI .......................................................................................................................................................................... 11520
5.6. EVGI challenges and suggestions ................................................................................................................................................................... 11520
5.7. A challenge between ev owners, aggregators, and distributors ................................................................................................................ 11521
5.7.1. Ev owners.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11521
5.7.2. Aggregators ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11522
5.7.3. Distributors ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11522
6. Policy and incentives ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11523
6.1. Electric vehicle market structure ................................................................................................................................................................... 11523
6.1.1. Electric vehicle market dynamics................................................................................................................................................... 11523
6.1.2. Supporting cost-effective evs by reducing the cost of ev batteries........................................................................................... 11523
6.1.3. Lack of EV charging infrastructure................................................................................................................................................. 11523
6.1.4. Passenger cars are forecast to be the largest segment in the forecast period......................................................................... 11524
6.1.5. By 2030, asia pacific will dominate the market........................................................................................................................... 11524
6.1.6. The key players in the market ....................................................................................................................................................... 11524
6.2. Electric vehicle developments and pilot projects....................................................................................................................................... 11524
7. Challenges and future trends ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11524
7.1. Challenges ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11524
7.2. Discussion on future development for EVGI ................................................................................................................................................ 11525
7.3. Future trends .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11525
8. Major findings............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11525
9. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11525
Declaration of competing interest.............................................................................................................................................................................. 11526
Data availability ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11526
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11526
References ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11526
of this transition to zero-emission vehicles, the automotive in-

1. Introduction dustry is switching to zero-emission vehicles (Bräunl et al., 2020;
Domínguez-Navarro et al., 2019). Approximately 1.5 million new
The escalation in need for conventional energy sources has battery electric vehicles (BEV) have been added to the global fleet
caused multiple outcomes that negatively affect the environment. of BEVs (Martins et al., 2021) in 2019, with approximately 4.8
million BEVs in use globally.
Resources are depleted, and CO2 is released in high amounts,
At their optimal locations, electric vehicle charging stations are
causing the greenhouse effect and undesirable global warm-
essential to provide cheap and clean electricity produced by the
ing (Wang and Cheng, 2020). As a result of the Paris Agreement,
grid and renewable energy resources, speeding up the adoption
CO2 emissions were reduced, and the planet’s temperature was
of electric vehicles (Alhazmi et al., 2017; Sathaye and Kelley,
controlled (Saerbeck et al., 2020). Clean energy resources and
2013). Establishing a suitable charging station network will help
related technologies have been developed to mitigate these prob-
alleviate owners’ anxiety around electric vehicles, allowing the
lems. Although technological advancements have significantly EVs to compete with internal combustion engines in terms of
reduced greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, about performance (Clemente et al., 2014). The market share of electric
one-quarter of these emissions come from the sector (Napoli vehicles must be raised to emphasize continuous improvements
et al., 2019). According to Outlook (2010), the growing population in recharging technology. The current challenge with adopting
and freight movements will contribute to a 77% increase in electric vehicles is the ‘‘chicken or the egg’’ theory (Greene et al.,
transportation by 2055. Due to the above reasons, research and 2020). A proper charging infrastructure that guarantees success-
adoption of electric vehicles (EV) deserve exorbitant attention. By ful trip completion with no or minimal charging time delays is
emitting very low or no tailpipe emissions and making very little eagerly anticipated by consumers. Therefore, investors are wait-
noise, electric vehicles significantly reduce traffic congestion and ing for enough electric vehicles to be on the road to make the
contribute to a healthier living environment (Sanchez-Sutil et al., charging infrastructure business profitable. Stakeholders disagree
2015; Abid et al., 2022; Huang et al., 2022; Chakir et al., 2022; Lan on whether fast-charging or smart charging is more appropriate
et al., 2022; Soares et al., 2022; Guo and Zhao, 2015). As a result for EV charging stations. The government’s policies also play an
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essential role in resolving these issues (Wolbertus et al., 2020). 2013). The cost of batteries, the charging strategies’ efficiency, the
The lack of reasonably priced batteries that can store enough charging stations’ interoperability, and the impacts of EV integra-
energy over a more extended period of time to improve the range tion with the grid need to be addressed to make EVs competitive
of EVs is another essential factor affecting EV adoption (Benysek in the market (Singh et al., 2013). The development of interna-
and Jarnut, 2012; Nie and Ghamami, 2013; Ghosh, 2020). tional standards and codes, universal infrastructures, peripherals,
Additionally, the optimal location of EVCSs and the impact of and user-friendly software will be crucial to EV growth over the
EVs on the distribution system have become prominent research next decade (Arancibia and Strunz, 2012). There are enormous
topics in recent years (Lam et al., 2014). Consequently, the au- numbers of researchers working in these fields around the world.
thors review the DNO approach, EVCS users’ approach, and EVCS
To expand the EV market, a comprehensive understanding of the
owner approach in this paper to determine where to position
development of EV charging infrastructure and its impact on the
EVCS. Numerous studies on the positioning of EVCSs using the
grid is essential. Many authors have summarized the charging
DNO approach have already been published, such as minimizing
infrastructure for electric vehicles (Yilmaz and Krein, 2012a),
the voltage on buses, minimizing the power loss at the distribu-
tion system, and maximizing reliability. EVCS investors have been the integration of EVs with smart grids (Tan et al., 2016), the
examined for the placement of EVCS in other research, while EV impact of vehicle-to-grid technology (Habib et al., 2015), and the
users have been less widely studied. interaction between EVs and smart grids (Mwasilu et al., 2014)
According to Liu et al. (2012), the modified primal–dual in their works. The rapid advancements in this field over the
interior-point algorithm was used to determine the optimal lo- past few years have rendered those reports quite outdated. The
cation of EVCS by considering the investment, operation, mainte- paper aims to analyze the recent developments in the field of
nance, and network loss costs. In Ref. Islam et al. (2018) proposed charging stations, from the planning and designing stages to the
a multi-objective optimization problem to locate FCSs with the operational management of the stations. In addition, the paper
least cost in transportation, station build-up, and substation en- discusses how to make the grid more flexible by better using
ergy loss. Further, the authors of Pal et al. (2021) presented an renewable energy resources. Following are some research gaps
initial research study by integrating energy loss, voltage devia- identified in this study that could provide valuable information
tion, EV population, and land cost. With the 2 m point estimation for future research:
method (2 m PEM), the uncertain variable of electric vehicles
is efficiently controlled, and Harris Hawks Optimization (HHO) • Examine the various types of electric vehicle charging sta-
is used to solve the optimization problem. In Ref. Gampa et al. tions (EVCS) and electric vehicle charging infrastructure to
(2020) proposed a two-stage fuzzy approach for locating dis- understand the interaction between EVs better.
tributed generation (DG), shunt capacitors and charging stations • Electric Vehicle charging technology and the various types
optimally. As a first approach, the DGs and SCs were placed using and methods of EV charging stations.
a multi-objective optimization problem, and a multi-objective • Concepts related to economics and the power grid are used
placement problem was implemented as a second approach. In to determine the optimal placement of EVCS.
order to solve the optimization problem, power loss and volt-
age profiles were utilized. A grasshopper optimization algorithm
(GOA) was finally used to solve the proposed problems. 1.1. Main contributions
Currently, three revolutions are underway in the transporta-
tion sector: autonomous vehicles, shared mobility, and electrifi-
A study analyzing recent EV developments and charging in-
cation. Therefore, designing the charging infrastructure for elec-
tric vehicles requires considering the synergies and interactions frastructure challenges is presented in this work. Detailed find-
among these three booming revolutions. In response to the in- ings from the study are presented below. Optimal charging
crease in electric vehicle adoption, the electricity demand on the scheduling techniques can take advantage of EVs’ flexibility as
power grid will increase significantly, requiring an infrastruc- a load while minimizing solar and wind systems’ impact on the
ture upgrade (Green II et al., 2011). Transmission lines cannot grid. Current research indicates that using metaheuristic tech-
transport as much energy as the distribution grid, limiting how niques coupled with optimization software can significantly affect
much power is transported (Zhang et al., 2011). To meet the the efficient use of available resources. EV charging infrastructure
changing requirements of EVs, it is necessary to reconfigure the can be planned and managed using these tools, including locating
distribution grid on a large scale. A comprehensive assessment the optimal location for charging stations and determining the
is essential to evaluate network performance’s potential effects optimal charging station location. EV owners are reassured by
on large-scale grid-connected renewable energy production sys- mobile charging stations that they will have access to a charg-
tems (REG) and electric vehicle charging stations (EVCS). Power ing facility if they cannot find an adjacent charger as part of
utilities can perform such analyses to develop efficient equip- planning infrastructure for EV charging. Using V2G technology,
ment (Farhoodnea et al., 2013). Charging levels at each charging energy can be bi-directionally exchanged, and ancillary services
station in Fig. 1 illustrate the charging infrastructure for electric are provided to the grid. Charging infrastructure available with
vehicles (Borlaug et al., 2020). According to a study (Lee et al.,
minimal charging times is critical for adopting EVs. In order to
2020), residential charging facilities are the most popular and
minimize the impact on the primary power grid, battery swap
essential charging location for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and
stations regulated the charging schedule of EV battery packs.
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Developing an efficient
Furthermore, it can serve as a backup unit and provide power
charging infrastructure requires an effective communication net-
work for information exchange, an optimization unit to reduce for the primary grid in peak demand periods. As EVs and their
the charging time at the charging station, and a prediction unit charging infrastructure are developed, and renewable energy
to aid the optimization unit in making the best decisions (Shukla sources are utilized, harmful emissions can be drastically reduced
and Sengupta, 2020). Adopting many electric vehicles at once is in the transportation sector. Unfortunately, any damage to the
a tremendous challenge for the energy sector. Several measures environment this new infrastructure might cause has not been
have been taken to address these issues. assessed. In future electric vehicles, hydrogen energy and fuel
There have already been several articles that summarize the cells will replace the batteries currently used in battery energy
structure and configuration of electric vehicles (Tie and Tan, storage systems.
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Fig. 1. Overview of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles (EVs).
1.2. Search strategy and future EV charging infrastructure development, electric vehi-
cles and the grid power interface modes, the need for renewable
This systematic review used a search method to identify rele- energy sources, the effects of electric vehicle integration on the
vant research. Scopus and Web of Science databases were grid and EVGI challenges and suggestions are discussed; Agent
searched using the following search terms: ‘‘Electric Vehicle role in EVGI; EV aggregator’s role in EVGI; A challenges between
Charging Technology’’ and "Electric Vehicle Charging modes and EV owners, aggregator and distributor; Section 6 describes pol-
methods’’. EVGI and Electric Vehicle Infrastructure’’. OR "EV icy incentives and the electric Vehicle Market Structure; Electric
Charging Technology and communication infrastructure analy- vehicle development and pilot project; Section 7 outlines future
sis’’. Fig. 2 shows the articles based on the subject area and challenges and trends; Section 8 discusses the significant finding;
type. The conclusion is presented in Section 9.
In this paper, we discuss the Charging station type for electric
vehicles (EVCS), Electric vehicle charging technology, Infrastruc- 2. Type of electric vehicle charging station (EVCS)
ture for charging electric vehicles, and Integrated power systems
for electric vehicles. Our decision to separate these works was Electric vehicles have gained tremendous traction as an alter-
based on the fact that several works address the routing of native technology among various developed technologies, becom-
vehicles without including the charging constraint. As a result, ing an integral part of modern transportation. According to the
either computation complexity is avoided, or electric vehicles are source of electricity for the vehicle’s propulsion, electric vehicles
not considered. are generally classified into three categories based on Miele et al.
This paper will be organized as follows: Section 2 discusses (2020) and Thompson et al. (2018):
the different types of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations (EVCS);
• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
Section 3 describes the charging modes, methods, conductive
• Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs)
charging, wireless power transfer, and battery swap stations;
• Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)
Section 4 outlines the electric vehicle charging infrastructure,
including the different types of AC and DC charger connectors, An electric propulsion system is combined with an internal
current EV models, and control and communication infrastruc- combustion engine to power hybrid electric vehicles. Compared
tures. It also outlines the communication network for electric to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, this enables
vehicle charging, optimal locations for charging stations, and a vehicles to be more fuel-efficient, have lower emissions, have
constant current and voltage charging system; Section 5 discusses longer drive ranges, etc. Sun et al. (2019). The types of PEVs
how electric vehicles can be integrated into power systems in include BEVs and PHEVs. Battery-powered BEVs are propelled by
various aspects and summarizes EV grid integration strategies electric motors and powered by rechargeable batteries. When the
11507
Fig. 2. A flow diagram showing how the bibliometric review is carried out.
Fig. 3. Various types of electric vehicles.
battery runs out, a gasoline engine provides backup power. An outlet configuration. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
electric propulsion system typically powers the PHEV but can be Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the International
equipped with a gasoline engine. Vehicles powered by fuel cell Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) have a substantial role to play
technology have a propulsion system that uses fuel cells instead in categorizing charging modes and levels in each country as well
of batteries or a battery plus a supercapacitor—the classification as managing the differences in safety standards. Various charging
of EV types is Presented in Fig. 3. types are outlined in established standards, including alternating
current (AC) Level-1, alternating current (AC) Level-2, and direct
3. Charging technology for electric vehicles current fast charging (DCFC). A new regulation specifies DCC’s DC
Level-1 and DC Level-2 (Brown et al., 2011). According to a study
This section provides information about different EV charging
published in Schroeder and Traber (2012), residential charging
levels, modes of charging, and charging schemes, with a few
infrastructure is the most common method for charging EVs, with
international standards to consider when establishing an EVCS,
Level-1 and Level-2 as the most popular There are many types of
as shown in Fig. 4.
charging techniques, as shown in Table 1.
3.1. Charging modes
3.1.1. Level 1 charging
EVCS are primarily refueling stations that provide electricity Level 1 (L1) charge cables are included with every EV. The
to charge electric vehicles. The charger point is integrated into device is universally compatible, does not require installation
the cable, charging port, and interface panel. Depending on a fees, and is pluggable into any standard grounding 120-V outlet.
grid configuration, various parameters such as voltage rating, fre- Depending on the price of electricity and the efficiency rating of
quency rating, and transmission standards determine the power your EV, L1 charging can cost anywhere from two to six dollars
11508
Fig. 4. Modes of charging at different levels.
Table 1
An overview of charging techniques.
Using inductive charging Using conductive charging Batteries swapping
Aspects Trickle charging DC fast public charging and AC public charging Off-board charging
Wireless charging Wired charging Minimal power loss
Low efficiency Highly efficient Minimal power loss Extremely efficient
Power losses are high The onboard charging system Quick changeover
Costliest infrastructure The capability of charging off-board A minimum management cost
per mile. With a maximum power rating of 2.4 kW, the L1 charger capacity 80 A for public stations. Depending on its brand, power
can recharge at approximately 40 miles per eight hours, with a rating, and installation requirements, a Level 2 charger can cost
speed of 5 miles per hour. For many people, this works well due anywhere between $500 and $2000 per unit. Based on the elec-
to the average driver’s 37 miles of driving per day. tricity rate and the vehicle’s efficiency, L2 charge costs range from
Additionally, L1 chargers benefit people whose workplaces 2$ to 6$ per mile. In addition to the public-access L2 charging
and schools offer L1 charging points since they can charge their stations in parking garages, the charging stations are found at
electric vehicles throughout the day. Since the L1 charge cable the entrances to businesses, schools, and colleges where students
cannot keep up with long commutes or weekend drives, elec- and employees use them. EVs with the industry-standard J-plug
tric vehicle drivers often refer to it as an emergency charge or are universally compatible with SAE J1772 charging stations. The
trickle charger. Typical household outlets operate at 120 V for L1 maximum charging power at L2 stations is around 12 kW, equat-
charging. The maximum current passed through these chargers is ing to about 100 miles of recharging every eight hours. For the
16 amps. This charging point provides a maximum power outlet average driver, who travels 37 miles per day, the charging time is
of 1.9 kW and takes between 8 and 16 h to charge the battery about 3 h. L2 charging can provide a quick charge along the way
according to its capacity fully. In order to connect the electric if you are traveling further than the range of your vehicle (Tan
vehicle and the charging pillar, an SAE J1772 connector is used. et al., 2016). Furthermore, L2 charging is also advantageous for
Charges this way are the least expensive but the slowest of all fast charging. Overcurrent voltage and overcurrent protection are
charging methods. L1 charging can reduce charging costs even built into L2 charging systems. As shown in Fig. 3, the layout of
further when combined with a tariff-based charging system. In an L2 charger can be seen.
Fig. 3, you can see how L1 charging works.
3.1.3. Level 3 charging
3.1.2. Level 2 charging The fastest charging method for electric vehicles is Level 3
Level 2 (L2) charging stations are most commonly used in (L3). The L3 charging station primarily charges electric vehicles
public and residential locations. In order to meet L2 requirements in public and commercial areas. Due to their rapid refueling
for electric vehicles, charging stations must use a single-phase capability, vehicles can be recharged quickly in high-traffic areas
power supply of 240 V with a maximum current flow capacity such as rest stops, shopping centers, and entertainment districts.
of 40 A for residential and commercial installations and a three- It may be possible to charge fees based on an hourly or per-
phase AC power supply of 400 V with a maximum current flow kWh basis. Charges for L3 charging can range from 12$ to 25$
11509
Table 2
Electric vehicle charging standards and protocols.
EV charger topology Charging connector Charging communication Charging power quality Charging safety
IEC 61851-1 IEC 62196–1 ISO 15118/IEC 61850 IEEE 1547 IEC 60529
IEC 61851- 21 IEC 62196–2 SAE J2847/SAE J2836 SAE J2894 IEC 60364- 7-722
IEC 61851- 22 IEC 62196–3 SAE J2293-2/OCPP IEC 1000-3-2 ISO 6469-3
IEC 61851- 23 SAE J1772 OCPI/OSCP/ NEC 690 SAE J1766
IEC 61851- 24 IEEE 1901 OpenADR SAE J2380 SAE J2464
Fig. 5. Charging methods for electric vehicles.
per mile, depending on membership fees and other factors. In efficiency. In addition to onboard and offboard charging sys-
addition, L3 chargers do not comply with industry standards and tems, conductive charging has also been categorized (Illmann
are not universally compatible. By using DC charging technology, and Kluge, 2020). Chargers installed onboard an electric vehicle,
these stations are designed to provide a similar user experience such as AC-DC converters, are usually slow chargers that charge
to that of traditional filling stations. The charge time for a battery the vehicle entirely inside. Offboard chargers, on the other hand,
from 0 to 80% is usually 15 to 20 min with DC fast charging. provide rapid charging. EV range can also be increased by re-
All 20% of the remaining battery will always be charged in slow ducing the vehicle’s weight using offboard chargers (Khaligh and
mode, regardless of the charging level. DC power is delivered to Dusmez, 2012).
the electric vehicle by converting AC power from an off-board • Overnight Depot Charging: A facility that provides
charger. Charging voltages for L3 typically range from 200 to overnight depot charging offers fast and slow charging op-
600 V, and power outputs range from 36 to 240 kW. DCFC can tions. The charge point is typically located at the end of
be divided into two categories based on SAE standards: DC Level the lines. It is used for charging at night. Due to the low
1 and DC Level 2. In addition to their 36-kW power output, DC charging impact on the distribution grid, slow charging is
L1 charging stations also have a current flow capacity of 80 A. the most advantageous option (Arif et al., 2020, 2021). How-
Chargers with DC L2 power output have a current flow capacity ever, the Pantograph charging technique is most suitable
of 200 A and a power output of 90 kW. Most DC power output for applications with high battery capacity and quick charge
charging stations are located in malls, government buildings, requirements.
movie theaters, airports, and refueling stations (Mayfield and • Pantograph Charging: With this charging method, various
Ohio, 2012). DC charger connectors having the SAE/IEC J1772/IEC charging options are available. Typically, this charging in-
62,196–3 standard are recommended by SAE and IEC. DC fast- frastructure is used for applications requiring higher battery
charging stations have a significant drawback due to their high capacity and more power, such as buses and trucks. As
installation costs. See Fig. 3 for a visual representation of charging a result of this charging technique, bus batteries require
levels 1–3. The primary standards and protocols for EV charging less investment, so the investment costs are reduced, but
are described below in Table 2. charging infrastructure costs rise (Meishner et al., 2017).
Pantograph charging can be further categorized as follows:
3.2. Electric vehicle charging methods
1. Top-down Pantograph: The charging setup is located
on top of the bus stop, so it is commonly referred to
There are various ways to charge a battery and control its
as an off-board top-down pantograph. This method
current. Electric vehicles use rectifiers to convert AC into DC uses direct current to produce high power (Carrilero
for charging their batteries. Several mechanisms can be used to et al., 2018), which has already been demonstrated in
transfer charge, including inductive charging, conductive charg- Germany, Singapore, and the U.S.
ing, and battery swapping (Zheng et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2012; 2. Bottom-up Pantograph: Buses have already been
Wang et al., 2013). A comparison of charges of different charging equipped with charging equipment, so this charg-
stations is shown in Table 2. According to Fig. 5, conductive ing method is appropriate where the bus already
charging can be categorized as pantograph charging (total and has charging equipment. Alternatively, the bottom-up
bottom-up) and overnight charging. pantograph is called the onboard pantograph.
3.2.1. Conductive charging (CC) 3.2.2. Inductive/wireless power transfer (WPT)

The benefits of conductive charging are its economic viabil- A two-coil system is used in this technology based on elec-
ity, ability to charge quickly, simplicity of operation, and high tromagnetic induction. When the installation is complete, the
11510
Fig. 6. Possible accommodation of charging circuit in EV.
receiving coil is installed in the vehicle, while the charging coil power generation units will also produce more emissions. The
is placed on the road surface. Recent advancements in WPT tech- increasing energy demand should be met by a large-scale de-
nology have attracted interest in EV applications because they ployment of renewable energy sources, and the deployment
make it possible to recharge the vehicle safely and conveniently. of REG should be coordinated with the increasing number of
A standard connector is unnecessary for the charger (but standard EVs (Tulpule et al., 2013; Luo et al., 2020). A complete EV charging
coupling technology is required), and the charger can be operated infrastructure involves power infrastructure, control and com-
while driving (Sanguesa et al., 2021). Even so, inductive power munication infrastructure, and charging ports and connectors
transfer is not very efficient. There should be a 20 to 100 cm meeting various standards, as depicted in Fig. 7 and Table 4.
distance between the transmitter and receiver coils (Chowdhury, Below are aspects, challenges, and recent technological advances
2021). In the WPT, eddy current loss can also be a problem if the associated with electric vehicle charging station infrastructure.
transmitter coil is not switched off. EV and transmitter should be
able to exchange information in real-time, but there may be a 4.1. Connectors for AC charging
slight communication latency (Patil et al., 2017). Fig. 6 shows an
example of this. A universal AC connector has not been agreed upon by EV
manufacturers. The connector’s pin-out, size, and shape vary de-
3.2.3. Battery Swap Station (BSS) pending on the charger’s electric vehicle manufacturer, country,
Batteries are swapped through a method called "Battery Ex- and power level. Different regions have different mains voltages
change’’, which involves renting the battery from the BSS owner and frequencies because of their specific AC mains voltages and
on a monthly basis. The BSS slows the charging process and frequencies. As a standard AC connector, most voltage-controlled
gives batteries a longer life cycle (Ahmad et al., 2018). Solar and devices have a few large pins for voltage sensing and a few
wind power, locally generated renewable energy sources, can be smaller pins for communication. Here are the four types of AC
easily integrated into the BSS system. Using this technique, the
connectors that are currently in use around the world:
user does not need to get out of the car, and the battery can be
replaced quickly. Additional advantages of this battery are that
4.1.1. Connector type 1
it contributes to the V2G initiative (Gschwendtner et al., 2021;
Using this connector, you can only charge your vehicle with
Brenna et al., 2021). Since the BSS owner owns the EV batteries,
single-phase AC power. The connector is a round configuration
charging the EVs at this station is more expensive than burning
composed of five pins, including two AC lines, two signal lines,
fuel for the ICE engine because the BSS owner charges leasing
and one earth pin for protection. With a maximum voltage and
fees. As a result of this technique, multiple batteries need to be
purchased and a large space where they can be stored, which current rating of 120 V or 240 V, the device can handle up to 80
could be expensive in an area with high traffic. It is also possible A.
that the station has a particular battery model, but the vehicles
use different standards. An overview of the charging stations type, 4.1.2. Connector type 2
including CC, WPT, and BSS stations, can be found in Table 3. This connector can charge your device with AC and DC power.
Moreover, it is 3-ϕ AC compatible. A single-phase can have a
4. Electric vehicle charging infrastructure maximum voltage rating of 230 V and a maximum current rating
of 80 A; the maximum voltage rating for a three-phase can be 400
An adequate infrastructure allowing customers to recharge V at 63 A.
their electric vehicles would make it easier to adopt electric vehi-
cles (Miller et al., 2012). Fast, reliable, and convenient technology 4.1.3. US tesla connector
will make it easier for consumers to adopt electric vehicles. This particular connector was designed by Tesla specifically
Adopting electric vehicles promotes environmentally-friendly for use in the United States. Using this connector, you can supply
transportation and reduces our dependence on fossil fuels. In both single-phase AC and DC power. This charger can charge at a
addition to electric vehicles, conventional power plants and other maximum of 17.2 kW at 240VAC.
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Table 3
A summary of the reviews of charging methods.
Reference Year Types Advantages Disadvantages
Negarestani et al. (2016) 2016 CC Providing multiple charging levels Highly complex infrastructures
Yoldaş et al. (2017) 2017 – Ensure high efficiency Restrictions on the electricity grid
Dharmakeerthi et al. 2014 – The V2G facility is coordinated Voltage instability in the distribution system is caused
(2014) by fast charging
Habib et al. (2018) 2018 – Maintain the voltage level while reducing grid losses A standard connector/charging level is needed
Yang et al. (2015) 2015 – Overloading the grid can be prevented Due to uncoordinated charging, the grid will be
overloaded
Yilmaz and Krein (2012b) 2013 – Support for active power Battery life is reduced with V2G operation
Gabbar (2022) 2018 WPT The EV can be recharged safely and conveniently Generally, power is transferred weakly; the range for
without a standard connector efficient power transmission is between 20 cm and
100 cm
Patil et al. (2017) 2018 – Vehicles recharging while in motion do not require any A real-time transmitter and an EV with low
standard sockets communication latency are a must
Dai et al. (2014) 2014 BSS A fully charged battery can be replaced quickly Due to the monthly rent to BSS, it is more expensive
than ICE vehicles
Martínez-Lao et al. (2017) 2017 – By slow charging, BSS extends the battery’s life Equipment and batteries require a huge investment
Erdinç et al. (2017) 2017 – With the help of V2G, BSS helps utilities balance A large stock of expensive batteries is needed
demand and load
Li et al. (2018b) 2018 – An easy way to integrate with the locally generated Batteries need to be installed in many areas, and
RESs different EVs have different battery standards
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles.
4.2. Connectors for DC charging 4.2.1. CCS combos 1 and 2

An electric vehicle charging interface initiative is a registered
The DC fast charger can replace level 1 and level 2 chargers. organization formed by Audi, BMW, Daimler, Mennekes, Opel,
According to the manufacturer, their power output varies from Phoenix Contact, Porsche, T`‘UV S´’UD, and Volkswagen called
50 kW to 500 kW. In addition to more excellent power capabil-
CharIN e.V. ChargeIN is the organization that oversees Combo-
ity, power conversion and control become more expensive and
type connectors. The Combined Charging System connector has
bulkier. DC fast chargers are typically deployed offboard to avoid
interfering with the power lines. Another reason is safety consid- the main advantage of performing AC and DC charging simultane-
erations. As power converters and power handling components ously. The connectors are defined by several standards, including
grow in size, passenger safety becomes a key concern. Currently, IEC 62196–1, IEC 62196–2, and IEC 62196–3. Their maximum
DC connectors have five major variants and are discussed as power handling capacity is 350 kW, and the connectors can
follows. handle voltages from 200 V to 1 kV up to 350 A.
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Table 4
Schematic of charging ports and connectors according to various standards.
4.2.2. CHAdeMO available vehicles are in many sizes. In various markets, different
In 2010, Toyota Motor Corporation established the CHAdeMO types of vehicles are available. An overview of a select set of
Association to collaborate with Nissan Motor Co. Ltd., Toyota Mo- models, their charge times, ranges, and efficiency ratings are
tor Corporation, Nissan Motor Co. Ltd., Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd., presented in Table 5.
and Tokyo Electric Power Company. CHAdeMO is a part of IEEE
standards (IEEE Standard 2030.1.1TM-2015) and IEC standards 4.4. Control and communication infrastructure for electric vehicle
(61851-23-6), as well as industry standards (61851–23, -24, and charging
62196–3). CHAdeMO, the first DC standard with a power handling
capacity between 200 kW and 400 kW, enables V2X (vehicle to The control and communication system controls and moni-
X, where ‘X’ may refer to the vehicle, the grid, infrastructure, etc.) tors an electric vehicle’s charging system (Anon, 2010). Charging
with its version 1.1 protocol. an electric vehicle increases the power demand for the power
system.
4.2.3. Tesla DC connector
Tesla’s superchargers are equipped with their own charging 4.4.1. Electric vehicle charging control architecture
connector in the US. The Tesla connector’s unique feature is that Fig. 8 Shows how electric vehicle charging is controlled based
AC and DC charging can be done via the same connector and pins. on mobility, coordination, and control structures. The controls for
Additionally, an adapter can also connect CHAdeMO charging EV charging involve the electric grid, EV charging stations, and
stations to the connector. A 120 kW power rating is available for EVs.
each of these connectors. • Considering the mobility of vehicles: A static and dynamic
charging infrastructure can be established for electric ve-
4.2.4. GB/T China connector hicles. Stations that allow charging while the vehicle is
The standard 20234.3–2015 defines a DC charging connector parked are static charging stations. In contrast, a dynamic
in China. The Controller Access Network (CAN) protocol commu- or mobility-aware charging solution will consider different
nicates with connectors like this. This connector has the unique kinds of movement, such as the time when the EV arrives
property of charging two batteries simultaneously; the low- at the charging station and leaves it Sortomme and El-
voltage auxiliary battery and the high-voltage main battery. This Sharkawi (2011b) and Sortomme and El-Sharkawi (2011a),
product can deliver up to 250 A of current with a 750 V to 1 kV as well as unplanned EVs’ arrivals and departures (Mukher-
nominal voltage range. jee and Gupta, 2014), which would be more realistic be-
cause of the spatial–temporal relationship between the EVs.
4.3. Current models of EVs However, it is more complex and is associated with more
advanced control infrastructure.
As manufacturers introduce electric versions of existing vehi- • The coordination of charging: EVs can be charged in two
cles or new EV models, the market for EVs and PHEVs has grown. ways: uncoordinated charging control and coordinated
From two-seat intelligent electric drive vehicles to Toyota’s five- charging control. An EV battery begins charging as soon as it
seat RAV 4 electric sport utility vehicles (SUVs), commercially is connected or after a fixed delay that the user can adjust.
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Table 5
Comparison of charging times, battery size, and efficiency for selected EV models.
Reference Manufacture Model Charging time Electric-only Battery size Fuel
driving range (kWh) economy
120-volt AC 240-volt AC
Hours Hours Miles kWh MPGe
Onar et al. (2016) Toyota RAV4 SUV 44–52 6.5–8 103 41.8 76
Karamitsios (2013) Tesla Model S 30+ 4–6 265 85 95
Zhang et al. (2010) Toyota Prius Plug-In (PHEV) 3 1.5 11–15 4.4 95 est.
Renault et al. (2011) Renault Fluence – 6–9 115 22 –
Conlin (2006) Opel Ampera (PHEV) – 4 46 16 235
Anele et al. (2015) Renault Zoe – 3.5 130 22 –
Braun and Rid (2018) Mitsubishi/Citroën/Peugeot i-miEV/C-Zero/iON 22.5 7 62 16 112
Nissan (2012) Nissan LEAF – 7 75 24 116
Gray and Shirk (2013) Ford Fusion Energi (PHEV) 7 2.5 21 8 100
Pelletier et al. (2014) Mia mia – 3 or 5 50 or 78 8 or 12 –
Di Wu and Boulet Honda Fit EV 20+ 4 82 20 118
(2015)
Swiecki et al. (2013) Ford Focus Electric 20 4 76 23 105
Sovacool et al. (2019) Fiat 500e 23 4 80 (est) 24 108
Schamel et al. (2013) Ford C-MAX Energi (PHEV) 7 2.5 21 8 100
Wang et al. (2019) BYD e6 20 8–9 186 61 97
Tarvirdilu-Asl and Chevrolet Spark 20+ 7 82 20 119
Bauman (2019)
Tribioli and Onori (2013) Chevrolet Volt (PHEV) 10–16 4 38 17 94
Fig. 8. EV charging systems are classified into different control strategies.
It continues to charge until it reaches its maximum capac- for the days’ time to determine whether this partially solves
ity (Van Vliet et al., 2011; Galus et al., 2010). Charging oper- the overload problem. EV charging may also inconvenience
ations are not coordinated when performed at peak times, EV users (Rangaraju et al., 2015).
increasing power losses, overloading distribution transform- • Control structure consideration: Charging stations for elec-
ers, and reduced grid reliability (Masoum et al., 2012). Utility tric vehicles are distributed spatially via a distribution grid.
companies sometimes offer cheap nighttime rates (dual The power flow of EV charging stations can be managed and
tariffs) for customers who own electric vehicles to alleviate controlled using several strategies, such as centralized or
peak load times (Kisacikoglu et al., 2014; Li et al., 2012). decentralized charging (Wang et al., 2017; Ahmed and Kim,
Smart charging, on the other hand, reduces peak load times. 2017).
Chargers that use smart charging optimize the time and
energy consumption (Qian et al., 2010) and reduce elec- 4.4.2. Centralized control
tricity costs, voltage deviations, currents, and transformer In centralized charging, electric vehicle charging schedules and
overloads (Fairley, 2010). A coordinated charging method rates are decided by a master control engine, which acquires
using off-peak charging occurs at specific points during the information from the vehicles. The centralized structure pro-
day when grid loads are lowest, where electric vehicles are cesses the information centrally and provides an optimal global
charged. Nonetheless, utility providers must be contacted solution that considers grid constraints and user preferences.
11514
Fig. 9. An EV charging system with decentralized and centralized control.
In practice, centralized charging is limited by the optimization estimated that up to 85% of the CC-CV charging process for Li-
problem size, which grows when a particular area has many ion batteries is carried out using CC charging. In addition to its
vehicles. Hierarchical-based control architectures, which separate many advantages, CC-CV charging is easy to design, implement,
EV loads according to their geographic location, are proposed and operate since no knowledge of the battery model is needed
to solve this problem. Each group has its local controller that (Wu et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2020). Despite its advantages, the CV
manages the distribution of power to its individual EVs, while process takes a significant amount of time, so it is unsuitable for
the central controller only handles group demands (Esmaili and fast charging; the battery polarization voltage increases as it ages,
Goldoust, 2015). Communication and computation requirements and the cells cannot be distinguished. Battery parameters like
are improved when using the hierarchical control strategy. Cen- internal resistance and temperature are not taken into account.
tralized structures also allow various other control strategies, It may result in a reduction in efficiency. As described in Koleti
such as online control (Tang et al., 2014) and real-time pricing (De et al. (2021), modern BMS have added CC-CV trickle charging.
Hoog et al., 2014). When the battery is deep discharged, trickle charging is activated
in the first charging stage. In contrast, at the end of the charging
4.4.3. Decentralized control process, the battery is charged until the charging current drops to
The EV owners determine the charging schedule in a de- a pre-determined threshold, thereby increasing the life cycle of
centralized strategy known as charge control (Moeini-Aghtaie Li-ion batteries very effectively. CV mode speeds up the charging
et al., 2013). This control method relies primarily on electricity process by 11 percent compared to CC mode, which is divided
price and user convenience to determine charge decisions (Ma into five steps. CC mode, in particular, can cause a surge in tem-
et al., 2011). Decentralized control guarantees EV users will reach perature that results in a decrease in energy efficiency following
their charging targets when deciding their charging patterns. The pre-set charging. In (Shrivastava et al., 2019), a real-time charge
overall system should be optimized at the global level. However, control process is described based on SoC and SoH prediction. In
electric vehicle loads can be matched with grid requirements with the CC mode, a pre-accelerated charging method is used to reduce
the proper implementation of electricity tariff mechanisms and the charge time by using a high deaccelerating current before
EV user responsibility as illustrated in Fig. 9. CC. However, temperature control is necessary for the safety
and efficiency of the battery. CV mode is improved in Hu et al.
4.4.4. A constant current and constant voltage charging system (2018) with a variable current trajectory to increase charging
The constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) passive efficiency by 7% by accelerating charging by 34%. It would be
charging schemes are based on pre-set instructions. A constant possible, however, to predict the charging current under CV mode
current must be maintained throughout CC charging. The charg- by combining a real-time internal resistance measurement with
ing current can be easily determined, even though it has a limited a temperature-predicted close loop. Fig. 10 shows the waveform
current to prevent overcurrent. In addition to nickel-cadmium of voltage and current changes during charging.
batteries, the method is commonly used for charging lithium
batteries. Despite this, the state of charge (SoC) estimation has
a problem due to cumulative errors, which result in overcharging 4.4.5. Communication network for electric vehicle charging
or undercharging, resulting in a diminished battery life cycle. As A successful charging management system for electric vehicles
a result of the battery’s self-discharging, CC charging is continu- depends on effective communication between EVs, EVSEs, and the
ously applied to the battery at a shallow rate (0.01C-0.1C), called grid (Markel et al., 2009; Gadh et al., 2015), as shown in Fig. 11.
Trickle charging. Battery repairs and activations are commonly Various communications protocols are classified into wired and
performed using this method. In the CV charging method, the wireless technologies (Erol-Kantarci and Mouftah, 2014; Su et al.,
charging current is controlled by the estimated SoC using a con- 2011). The use of electric vehicles (EVs) can be integrated into
stant voltage power supply (Hussein and Batarseh, 2011; Suarez different private areas, including home area networks (HAN),
and Martinez, 2019; Fattal and Karami, 2015). The batteries may, industrial areas networks (IAN), building areas networks (BAN),
however, be damaged by large currents during initial charging. and neighborhood areas networks (NAN), or field areas networks
With CC-CV, you can gain the benefits of both CC and CV meth- (FAN). Control and monitoring the charging/discharging of elec-
ods while at the same time compensating for their drawbacks tric vehicles and other domestic electricity usage are handled
by optimizing the CC for initial and further CV changes. It is through these networks. As discussed below.
11515
Fig. 10. Current and voltage changes during CC-CV charging.
• Wireline Communication: In large cities, EV charging sta- 5. The integration of electric vehicles with the power grid
tions are ideal for wireline technologies for long-distance
data transfers. One of the most popular protocols in data The transportation and electric power sectors have only re-
communication in wireline technology is Power Line Com- cently become closely linked. Electric utilities have seen sub-
munication (PLC). This technology uses the same power stantial disruptions because of the large-scale electrification of
line for the transmission and reception of data. Due to its transport. As well as presenting significant challenges for the
robustness and reliability (Ancillotti et al., 2013), it can be power grid, electric vehicles have also offered significant benefits.
used in the event of interference. The PLC concept is used Traditionally, the most critical part of charging an electric
in several protocols, including Home Plug 1.0, Home Plug vehicle battery is the electric vehicle grid integration (EVGI). It
turbo, Home Plug AV, HD-PLC, and UPA (Galli et al., 2011). might be possible for EVs to play a significant role in returning
electricity to the grid and providing services such as harmonic
In wireline communication, optical and DSL protocols are
reduction, reactive power supply, peak demand shaving, etc.,
also implemented. The significant advantage of optical com-
in an intelligent energy management environment. The EVGI
munications is their significantly higher data rates (up to
must be robust in technical and business operations to meet
several Gbps) and transmission ranges (several kilometers)
these goals. The community manages the distribution, genera-
compared to PLC. Optical communication is also resilient
tion, and control of electricity as part of the advancement of
against electromagnetic interference. As a result, data can be technology. Also included in the technical process are low-level
transmitted over a high voltage line using this technology. management techniques that combine/coordinate electricity
The DSL protocol can accomplish digital communication management and communications networks. Alternatively, Busi-
over a telephone line; therefore, there is no need to set up ness Operations cover areas such as Power Generation (GENCO),
separate infrastructure. Transmission (TSO), Distribution (DSO), Retailers (SA), also re-
• Wireless Communication: Providing data exchange ferred to as load-serving organizations and Customers who charge
between vehicles and charging stations requires wireless their electric vehicles at charging stations. A regulatory agency
communication to complete the communication structure. specializing in EV aggregation is needed to integrate EVs at a
EVs rely on this to provide information concerning their larger scale into the system. EV aggregators usually group EVs
charging status. In wireless communication networks, elec- based on owner preferences to maximize commercial opportuni-
trical devices are connected using hierarchical mesh struc- ties within the power industry. EVs alone contribute marginally
tures. The hierarchical mesh structure is made up of wire- and inefficiently to the industry, but the contribution can be
less LAN devices. Connecting an EV grid uses four popular enhanced if EVs and EV aggregators work together.
wireless technologies: Zigbee, cellular, WIFI, and satellite
networks. 5.1. Electric vehicles and the grid: power interface modes
The power exchange interaction between EVs and grids can be

uncoordinated or synchronized depending on EVs’ charging tech-
4.5. Optimal location for electric vehicle charging stations
nique. Many electric vehicles operate in uncoordinated charging
modes regardless of the transmission’s performance and uti-
Electric vehicles can experience less range anxiety when their lization status, affecting quality and reliability significantly. The
EVCS is in an optimal location (Luo et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2020). coordinated V2G mode is being developed to control many elec-
The location of a charging station is determined by several factors, tric vehicles in the present control structure. There is no progress
including driver satisfaction with charging, operator concerns in developing an adaptive charging/discharging mechanism for
about economics, fleet losses from power outages, grid safety EVs. Fig. 12 illustrates the electricity flow between the grid and
issues, and traffic problems in the transportation system (Kong PEV for uncoordinated charging and V2G (i.e., vehicle to grid)
et al., 2019). Research and developments regarding charging sta- modes. In contrast, the electricity is transferred bidirectionally,
tions are summarized below in Table 6. i.e., from the grid to PEVs and vice versa. Tables 7 and 8 show
11516
Fig. 11. Communication network for electric vehicle charging systems.
Fig. 12. Electric vehicle grid convergence system.
that the power flow orientation consists of three modes. The environmental hazards have risen to a dangerous level. Renew-
similarities and differences of each mode are listed. able energy usage can mitigate global warming while promoting
environmental protection. In addition, renewable energy sources
are highly dependent on natural conditions for their generation.
5.2. Need for renewable energy sources The major drawback of Green Energies is that they produce
energy incoherently and unpredictably. Electric vehicles can solve
Carbon dioxide emissions come primarily from electricity pro- the problems above by being integrated into the power grid.
duction plants and the transportation industry. The health and When renewable energy is generated inconsistently, powering an
11517
Table 6
Summary of the work done in finding the optimal location for the charging station.
Reference no Type of model Type of charging Key points Implications
station
Kadri et al. (2020) This algorithm Fast charging Identify the charging 1. The multistage stochastic programming
implements stochastic station stations that should be model was found to offer many practical
integer programming as opened at each interval advantages over a deterministic model
a multistage stochastic to maximize the total compared with simple deterministic models
algorithm using bender’s recharging amount
decomposition and a during the planning 2. The study devotes significant time and
genetic algorithm to period. effort to stochastic and dynamic aspects of
solve problems. charging demand.
3. Numerical results suggest that both

algorithms employed in this research
outperform a standalone mathematical
programming solver regarding computation
time and solution quality.
Zhu et al. (2016) A mathematical model Plug-in charging Study objectives include 1. Charge stations are located according to a
and a Genetic Algorithm station for finding charging stations model, and there are chargers at each station
determine where electric vehicles in the most efficient based on the model.
charging stations should place, minimizing
be located. ownership costs, and 2. The model is also validated and illustrated
reducing range anxiety by numerical results to demonstrate its
among consumers. expansion.
3. The proposed work has some limitations,

including that it is only applicable during the
weekdays or does not discuss what type of
charging occurs at the charging stations.
Erdoğan et al. (2022) EV fast-charging stations Fast charging This research introduces 1. Consider the benefits of creating a priority
are located through an station two new objective system between alternative solutions, whereby
optimization-based functions based on the more charging stations along the corridor will
approach, which concept of be preferred over fewer stations.
prioritizes the corridor-utilizing and
deployment of stations corridor-weighted traffic 2. A second scenario considered decisions
according to the flow and a new made by decision-makers based solely on the
designated EV corridors. constraint centered location of charging stations on corridors.
around the corridor
building process.
Xi et al. (2013) An optimization model Public electric Simulation–optimization 1. The location of slow chargers can be
based on simulation for vehicle charging model is used in this optimized to serve EVs efficiently.
locating a public station study to identify where
charging station for electric vehicle chargers 2. EV owners’ locations can be predicted,
electric vehicles should be located so service rates can be simulated, and charger
that private electric deployment optimized using an IP.
vehicles can best use
these chargers. 3. In this model, the central Ohio region is
considered. Using level-one and level-two
chargers together maximizes charging power.
The cost-effectiveness of Level-one chargers is
higher if only EVs need to use them under
energy-maximization criteria, even if funds are
insufficient.
Huang and Kockelman With applications that Fast electric Under elastic demand 1. A complex location-and-sizing problem for
(2020) include the cost of vehicle charging and price elasticity, this fast-charging stations is addressed in this work
installing, operating, and stations study examines the design iteratively to maximize the profits of
maintaining equipment location problems EVCS owners within a region.
and land acquisition, associated with
genetic algorithms are fast-charging stations 2. Using the model, travelers can incorporate
being used to identify under feedback from congested traveling and crowded charging
profitable station network congestion. feedback into their route selection. BEV
locations and designs. owners can choose their charging stations
based on elastic demand (for BEVs and
non-BEVs) and charging price elasticity for
BEV charging users.
3. The method provides specific station

locations, cord counts, and cost details of
charging stations (Level 3).
(continued on next page)
11518
Table 6 (continued).
Reference no Type of model Type of charging Key points Implications
station
Huang et al. (2016) Optimizing public Public charging The project was 5. Canada has implemented two optimization
charging stations for fast station for both primarily targeted at models for fast and slow charging in public
and slow charging slow and fast providing coverage and places.
charging minimizing costs.
6. Charged geometric objects represent
demands as opposed to discrete points.
7. Polygon overlay methods solve partial

coverage problems (PCP) in networked
systems.
8. According to the results, the proposed

models for locating charging stations are
feasible and practical. This method provides
more accurate results than complementary
partial coverage (CP), eliminating PCP.
Table 7
Operation of power flows in three modes.
Functional mode Power flow direction A possible alternative
Process of charging that is uncontrolled From grid to electric vehicle Unregulated charging, dumb charging, and regular charging.
Unidirectional V2G From grid to electric vehicle Controlled charging, coordinated charging, and intelligent charging.
Bidirectional V2G From grid to electric vehicle and vice Coordinated charging and discharging,
versa Controlled charging and discharging,
Intelligent charging and discharging
Table 8
The differences between V2G power flows in unidirectional and bidirectional.
V2G power flow Unidirectional Bidirectional
A hardware-based infrastructure A correspondence system The charger of bi-directional batteries for communication systems
The level of power Levels 1, 2&3 A level 1 and 2 are expected
Economy Low High
Facilities Regulatory spinning reserve for the power grid ■ Provides active and reactive power support.
■ Enhance the reliability of the power grid by correcting the
power factor.
■ The harmonic filter.
■ Regulating the frequency.
■ Control backup.
Various utilities Reduce pollution by preventing overloading of ■ Power grid losses must be reduced.
the power grid ■ Power grids should be protected from overloading.
■ Boost charging profile.
■ Make sure the voltage is maintained.
■ Intermittent renewable energy.
■ The failure recovery process.
■ Reducing pollution and maximizing benefits.
electric vehicle fleet provides a remedy for the inconsistent use due to the excessive penetration of EVs into the grid. These
of renewable energy. In the meantime, they serve as a source of problems can be solved using advanced power management tech-
energy to store excess electricity produced by renewable sources, niques (Azadfar et al., 2015). In Table 10, the positive impacts of
preventing the source from being curtailed. The power system EV integration are summarized.
can be customized to take advantage of clean energy, EV energy
storage, and connected grids. Electric vehicles are expected to
boost the economy of the clean energy industry. In order to make 5.4. Agent role in EVGI
EVs and the potential power grid more efficient and safer, it
will be necessary to ensure adequate electricity storage between In Fig. 12, an agent is an independent program that can control
renewable energy resources and EVs. its action based on its observations of the operating environment.
Electric power agents should possess autonomy, intelligence, ra-
5.3. The effects of electric vehicle integration on the grid tionality, and the ability to learn and incorporate (Li, 2009). A
non-regulated agent is an agent that operates in the wholesale
It is possible to classify the effects of electric vehicle integra-
energy market or the retail energy market, respectively, on the
tion on the grid into negative and positive aspects. In Fig. 13,
these are outlined in more detail. Electric vehicles present sig- wholesale and retail markets. Others, such as TSOs and DSOs,
nificant challenges for power utilities. The excessive integration are regulated agents. Although regulated agents operate in nat-
of electric vehicles into the distribution network affects the dis- ural monopolies, incentive-based regulation is the basis of their
tribution grid’s stability. This adverse effect is due to load profile regulation. In addition to these agents, EVGI may require other
changes, voltage and frequency imbalances, excessive harmonics agents, including EV owners, EV suppliers-aggregators (EVSA),
injection, and power losses, as indicated in Table 9. Power quality and charging point managers (CPM). In Table 11, all these agents
degradation, peak loads, and power regulation issues can occur are summarized by their roles.
11519
Fig. 13. Effects of electric vehicle grid integration on the power grid.
5.5. EV aggregators’ role in EVGI can also negotiate with other entities, such as parking services
and battery suppliers (Sortomme and El-Sharkawi, 2010). Fig. 12
Using smart meters as an interface, EV aggregators act as shows a market overview of EV aggregators.
a link between the grid and EVs, collecting the charge power
demand and connection time from drivers and sending them to 5.6. EVGI challenges and suggestions
grid operators. Furthermore, EV aggregators provide information
about charging stations and electricity prices to EV owners. In a With the advent of smart grid technology, EVGI’s current sit-
market where multiple aggregators could coexist, an EV owner is uation can improve further. It would be beneficial to study these
better off selecting the aggregator that best fits his requirements. issues further to implement a smart grid network that interacts
In collaboration with the DSO, the aggregators forecast the next between electric vehicles, electricity grids, and transportation
day’s energy demand and prepare their buy/sell prices. Analyzing networks.
and assessing the technical feasibility of demand forecasts is the
responsibility of the DSO. An aggregator can proceed to market • EVGI is only effective if there is an efficient operational
negotiations after receiving an acceptable forecast. In such a mechanism. Despite current efforts, no success has been
case, the DSO will require the aggregator to make the necessary achieved in this area. Specific studies that develop EVGI
changes to ensure its safety (Hui et al., 2013). mechanisms fail to consider EV mobility adequately.
Furthermore, the aggregator must forecast the behavior and • Electric vehicles are used as energy sources, transporta-
preferences of EV owners in addition to forecasting market prices. tion media, storage devices, and communication nodes on
Time and distance of departure and arrival are the primary modern grids. In addition to interconnecting the electricity
sources of uncertainty, as is preference (for example, when and grid, traffic network, and communication network, they are
how much to charge the battery). Electricity purchased by aggre- also used to transport data. The earlier factors should be
gators from the grid will be cheaper, plus they will be able to considered when designing a charging scheduling system for
sell it during peak periods since they will take advantage of their EVs.
clients’ EV storage. When it comes to energy acquisition/sale, and • In the present system, off-peak charging is used for schedul-
as it pertains to GENCO, aggregators will compete directly with ing (Mullan et al., 2011; Kintner-Meyer et al., 2007). The
electricity retailers. As a result of this approach, EVs can also par- grid-overloading problem can be solved by creating time-
ticipate in secondary frequency control through the connection and power-variable customer charging rates (Level 2 or
between the aggregators and TSOs. Aside from that, aggregators Level 3). To ensure the reliability and stability of the
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Table 9
The negative effects of EV grid integration.
Effects Summary
Effect on power quality ■ An electric grid’s effects on a V2G network are assessed mainly by observing the nature of the power supply (Khalid
et al., 2019; Durante et al., 2017).
■ The uncertainty associated with electric vehicle charging results in several problems, such as overvoltage in the grid,
deterioration of power quality, increased line damage, and higher current faults (Godina et al., 2016).
■ Due to high-frequency converters, which convert AC power into DC power, for charging EVs, the grid is subject to
harmonics, resulting in poor quality power (Karmaker et al., 2019).
■ Distribution transformers become overloaded due to harmonics, causing their life expectancy to decrease (Meyer
et al., 2011).
Effect on voltage stability ■ The power system’s instability is caused by nonlinear EV loads that draw large amounts of power over short periods
(Dharmakeerthi et al., 2013).
■ Electric vehicles increase the likelihood of power system disruptions and make it take longer to return to a
steady-state (Ul-Haq et al., 2015).
■ An adequately managed EVGI system can improve the grid’s reliability (Ma et al., 2017).
Effect on stability of power grids ■ New EV loads must be added to the system, along with an evaluation of the IEEE 3 bus system with and without
the use of charging stations. Before adding new EV loads to an electrical system that has been unstable, a stability
analysis must be conducted (Onar and Khaligh, 2010).
■ The electric network is analyzed for small-signal stability. An electric vehicle is treated as a constant load and
impedance (Das and Aliprantis, 2008).
■ EV modeled as constant power load was found unstable, so the intelligent control algorithm is used to control EV
modeled as constant impedance load (Yan et al., 2010).
Effects on the supply and demand ■ Harmonics are introduced into the grid system by EV charging stations. These harmonics are injected into the grid
balance in the power grid due to the power electronics converter. Hence, the charging architecture influences the variations in total harmonic
distortion (Habib et al., 2015).
■ Harmonic distortion variability ranges from 7% to 99% for EV chargers (Mahalik et al., 2010).
■ Researchers found that EV penetration levels can be increased based on capacitor banks without causing voltage
harmonic violations (McCarthy and Wolfs, 2010).
The overloading of components ■ The extra-large number of EVGI generates or transmits an additive load demand (Yong et al., 2015).
■ Some existing power system components are not designed to take on the additional loads, leading to overloaded
components and shortened transformer lifespans (Yan and Kezunovic, 2012).
Increased load demand ■ A total of 1000 TWh of additional loads can be added (a 25% increase over current levels) (Bowermaster et al., 2017).
■ Charges during peak times increase due to uncontrolled EV charging, which significantly burdens utilities (Hadley
and Tsvetkova, 2009).
Table 10
The positive effects of EV grid integration.
Effects Summary
Reduction of peak loads ■ Using time-of-use (TOU) tariffs and coordinated charging strategies makes the grid more energy-efficient without
adding more generating capacity (Kristoffersen et al., 2011).
■ Several bidirectional grid-connected EVs are used here as part of the industrial power grid. Battery management
systems may provide limitations regarding the type and extent of usage-driven charge and discharge signals. The
penetration of EVs into the grid system is adversely affected (Hofmann et al., 2015).
■ 96 percent of the peak demand on the power system can be reduced in practical circumstances. Whenever the electric
vehicle battery has a large capacity, it will significantly benefit from reducing peak domestic and grid demand. Ultimately,
this could lead to better use of the power system (Garwa and Niazi, 2019).
Provided by ancillary services ■ Services ancillary to power production ensure reliability, demand, supply, and grid stability (White and Zhang, 2011).
■ By using V2G technology, ancillary services can be provided, improving the electric grid’s stability (Guille and Gross,
2009).
Support for renewable energy ■ Operating EVs as energy storage can reduce the uncertainty of renewable energy (Saber and Venayagamoorthy, 2010).
■ Using EVs as a renewable energy buffer reduces emissions, and money can be saved (Domínguez-Navarro et al., 2019).
Frequency regulation ■ Grid frequency deviation is corrected by frequency regulation (Garwa and Niazi, 2019).
■ Through V2G technology, the load can be balanced by regulating grid frequency (ur Rehman and Riaz, 2017).
■ EV integration can also help minimize frequency fluctuations caused by sudden changes in load when EVs are
integrated with the grid (Tian et al., 2012).
Voltage regulation ■ Voltage regulation is fundamental to ensuring the supply and demand of reactive power are stable. Electric vehicles can
react quickly to regulatory signals since they are autonomously controlled by the vehicle (Qiangqiang et al., 2012).
■ Electric vehicles autonomously process regulation signals, allowing them to react quickly to safety signals. EV charging
is halted when the system voltage drops below a certain level and resumes when the system voltage reaches a certain
level (Donadee and Ilić, 2012).
distribution system, it is best to use a coordinated smart 5.7. A challenge between ev owners, aggregators, and distributors
charging system coupled with an aggregator.
• In the current state of wireless charging technology, it is 5.7.1. Ev owners
designed only for G2V operations. Electrified vehicles fueled Costs are a significant challenge for owners of electric vehicles.
by wireless charging should be able to provide various grid Electric cars need to be able to hold massive amounts of charge
services thanks to bidirectional WPT. and to do this, batteries require expensive materials, some of
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Table 11
Agents and their roles in EVGI.
Title of the agent Summary
CPM EV charging and discharging stations are managed by charging point managers, who act as final customers.
EVSA/EV Provides electricity to the owners of electric vehicles
Aggregator Similar to other wholesale agents, they act in the same way
EV Owner The EV load demand determines what ancillary services EVs can provide through V2G, and the EV provides the power to recharge the
battery.
DSO Assures a resilient and secure distribution network by taking care of the distribution grid. Maintain the whole system’s stability and
optimization, ensure a fair and economically viable distribution network, and facilitate a competitive energy market.
TSO Manages the transmission system’s operation security and the procurement of system services, including operational maintenance
LSE It is the Supplier or Retailer Agent’s responsibility to sell energy to end users and the DSO’s responsibility to pay DSO fees associated
with deregulation and other service charges.
GENCO Assures profitable energy production and selling by bidding electricity prices into the electricity market.
which are hard to obtain, so they have to use expensive technol- patterns can vary significantly from one day to another. TSOs
ogy to produce them. Because electric cars are more expensive and DSOs must utilize all available resources to deal with these
than comparable gasoline cars to manufacture, they are more problems. Clair et al. (2018) EV aggregators serve as mandatory
costly to buy as well. They are thus less likely to be adopted partners for DSOs and TSOs providing technical services. The
by consumers (Liu et al., 2016). The problem with free-range EV aggregator will act as an intermediary between operators,
chicken and organic eggs is that they are not free of chemicals. who will probably use market mechanisms to obtain necessary
Economies of scale and ramping up production volumes could resources and consumers for EVs. Grid managers and other inter-
significantly reduce the cost of electric cars. Buying electric vehi- ested parties can take advantage of the flexible demand packages
cles will require a significant price drop, which may not happen offered by this agent. EV users can use charging power modu-
unless prices are brought down. The biggest challenge for electric lation facilities to provide this flexible potential. In addition to
car manufacturers is convincing consumers that they are worth offering its services to TSOs and DSOs for grid operations, the
EV aggregator could be offered to other electricity partners to
the price. Some people are not convinced that electric cars are
optimize their energy portfolio buying. Future TSOs and DSOs
suitable for them. There is a range of anxiety problems here.
will likely have Demand Response aggregators to manage the
There is a concern among electric car makers that people will
variable loads from households, businesses and industries in their
lose their batteries before driving far in their electric cars. You
operation areas besides electric vehicle aggregators. Soares et al.
can fill up your gasoline-powered vehicle at a gas station in about
(2018) The EV aggregator will be used with TSOs and DSOs to
five minutes if you run out of gas; you pull into a gas station, solve daily technical problems for moving this load. As a non-
fill up, and you are back on the road. It is not quite as simple as flexible load, this load will be considered, and it will interact with
it seems to charge an electric car (Arias et al., 2020). There are other aggregators to solve daily technical problems. By balancing
only about 100 miles (160.9 kilometers) of range on the average this non-flexible load with the EV charging load, this EV aggre-
electric vehicle when it hits the market. For example, unless you gator will compensate for the non-flexible load. The aggregator
have access to a specialized charging station (currently in short modulates the charging curve for EVs based on network operat-
supply), you will need to wait around eight hours for your battery ing requirements to prevent exceeding the maximum available
to charge fully. Electric cars remain unsuitable for road trips, as power for EV charging at any moment of the day (Peng et al.,
most people drive less than 40 miles (64.4 kilometers) daily and 2017).
can quickly set them overnight. Would not it be strange if you
drove 80 miles (128.7 kilometers) in a day, came home, and then 5.7.3. Distributors
found out you had to go another 30 miles (483 kilometers) be- There are four fundamental challenges facing DSOs. First, there
cause of an emergency? It is difficult for electric cars to overcome is the issue of aging assets. Developed economies such as western
a hurdle when consumers think of situations like that King and Europe, North America, and Japan are increasingly concerned
Datta (2018). about this issue. Additionally, decentralized power generation is
Another challenge is that charging stations can alleviate many challenging — from rooftop solar to significant wind and pho-
consumer concerns about electric cars. There has been a signifi- tovoltaic farms. As a result of thermal and voltage constraints
cant change to the country’s infrastructure with the introduction on their networks, DSOs cannot connect as much new energy as
of electric vehicles. Several charging stations (including some at they wish. Managing new demand is the third challenge. As a
Best Buy that allow consumers to recharge while shopping) are result, it needs to be reinforced to accommodate new generation
resources. It is the charging of electric vehicles that is driving
out for trial, but most people charge at home in their garages.
the electric vehicle industry (Hu et al., 2013). There are several
Consequently, people who live in shared housing or park on
charging points, from domestic AC chargers for a single vehi-
the street will have the most significant problem with the set-
cle (typically less than 3 kW) to high-speed DC charging up to
ting. Undoubtedly, more people would buy electric cars if the
350 kW in public charging stations. The Nexans Asset Electrical
infrastructure and charging stations were improved. It will always has been specially designed to help DSOs take on these challenges
take a considerable number of electrified vehicles to convince by assisting them to strike a balance between performance, op-
infrastructure to change (Pevec et al., 2020). erating, and capital expenditures. Asset Electrical creates digital
twins for your network. As part of this plan, you should include
5.7.2. Aggregators all the physical assets and your repair, renewal, and inspection
Aggregator agents are service providers who bridge the gap strategies. It is easy to simulate different scenarios using this
between plug-in electric vehicles (EVs) and system operators. baseline. A unique asset-aging model even allows you to calculate
System operators consider the aggregator a large generation or the impact on different network assets. Getting the most out
load source offering ancillary services such as spinning and reg- of your power network is more accessible with Asset Electrical,
ulating reserves. The uncoordinated charging of EVs may cause saving more than 10% of total expenditures and increasing your
future problems for DSOs and TSOs. Moreover, residential load return on assets by over 20% (Li et al., 2013).
11522
6. Policy and incentives the growing demand for low-emission commuting. As a result,
electric vehicles have become more popular. Emission reduction
Zero tailpipe emissions will be produced when electric vehi- targets have been set in countries worldwide based on their
cles are combined with low carbon energy. Moreover, internal capacity to reduce emissions. OEMs will be able to expand their
combustion engines emit significantly less greenhouse gas than revenue stream and geographical presence as governments ex-
alternative energy sources. These goals determine policies sup- pand their investments in EV charging stations and hydrogen
porting the development and implementation of electric pow- fueling stations around the globe. Due to the high demand for
ertrains for transportation in many countries. 17 countries have low-cost and low-emission vehicles, the Asia Pacific EV market is
committed to eliminating internal combustion engine vehicles expected to grow steadily. In contrast, the North American and
or achieving zero-carbon emission standards for automotive ve- European markets are experiencing rapid growth due to govern-
hicles by 2050. France became the first nation to legislate a ment initiatives and growing high-performance passenger vehicle
deadline for this in December 2019 by setting a target date of segments. The global market for electric vehicles is expected to
2040. Policy and incentive decisions regarding electric vehicles grow at a modest pace due to relatively few electric vehicle
are heavily influenced by the current state of the electric vehicle charging stations and hydrogen fuel stations. High initial invest-
industry. For electric vehicles to be adopted more quickly, the ment costs and performance constraints could also hinder this
requirements for EVs and chargers must be implemented early. growth (Springel, 2021). EV charging business was moderately
Public demonstration of the technology on government vehicles affected by pandemic lockdowns during early 2020. In 2021, due
and public transportation is the best way to increase adoption, to government incentives worldwide, the demand for EV chargers
enabling businesses and organizations to lead by example. Most increased during the pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic, how-
government policies and incentives revolve around tax exemp- ever, had adversely affected the extraction of materials such as
tions and credits, unit cost reductions, and access to hotspots steel, copper, and aluminum. In May 2021, copper’s price hit USD
for parking. Regulations and financial incentives are likely to 10,000 per ton for the first time in 10 years as raw materials rose.
accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles, setting definite goals Meanwhile, top EV manufacturers have seen their sales overgrow
and objectives for the industry. In response to many of these over the past two years. Because of declining sales, Tesla laid
regulations, many manufacturers are required to make hybrid off employees in October 2020. Due to earlier expansions to
cars and cars with higher fuel efficiency. The CO2 standards of China, however, the company’s overall revenue increased. Aside
the European Union or the mandate for zero-emission vehicles in from COVID-19, the company performed well in 2021. Due to a
the United States and some provinces of Canada come to mind. In Chinese lockdown in early 2022, its sales again declined. This EV
response to new EU emission regulations, vehicles must emit 95 market was less affected by the pandemic because governments
grams of CO2 per kilometer, increasing sales of hybrid vehicles worldwide have been pushing to phase out ICE vehicles (Li, 2019).
throughout Europe. The Chinese government has announced a
new credit policy with targets for 2021–2023. Because of the 6.1.1. Electric vehicle market dynamics
Safer Affordable Fuel-Efficient (SAFE) law implemented in March Electric Vehicle Market Dynamics
2020, fuel efficiency requirements have been reduced from 4.7%
in 2012 to 1.5% in 2021. Governments worldwide are taking 6.1.2. Supporting cost-effective evs by reducing the cost of ev batter-
initiatives and introducing policies to promote EV adoption faster ies
and easier. These international policies are outlined below: Due to technological advancements and the production of
large volumes of EV batteries, the cost of EV batteries has de-
• Exceptions to access restrictions to urban areas. Some creased in the last decade. The EV batteries are one of the most
cities worldwide do not allow high-polluting vehicles, like expensive components of an electric vehicle, so this has reduced
those in Europe. Electric vehicles are exempt from these their cost. Electric vehicle batteries were priced at around USD
laws. The odd–even road access strategy is also not ap- 1100 per kWh in 2010. In 2021, however, the price fell to as
plicable to them since they have access to 100% of the low as USD 120 per kWh, reaching approximately USD 137 per
roads. kWh by 2020. China can purchase batteries for as little as USD
• Access to public parking spaces and parking reservations. 100 per kWh. Because manufacturing costs are reducing, cath-
Incentives such as reserved parking spaces and public charg- ode materials are becoming more affordable, and production is
ing stations, typically enacted at the local or municipal level, increasing, these batteries are less expensive to manufacture.
are best enforced at the local or regional level (possibly Electric vehicles are expected to be cheaper than conventional ICE
through public incentives and regulations). vehicles by 2030 as battery prices decline to approximately USD
• Lanes and tracks for buses and high-occupancy vehicles 60 per kWh (Li et al., 2018a).
(HOVs). Electric vehicles appear to be more valuable in the
short term (because they have more uses), but adopting 6.1.3. Lack of EV charging infrastructure
measures to promote their use over internal combustion In various countries, EV charging stations are few and far
engines (ICEs) on the road network can also impact their between. Due to this, there are fewer public chargers for electric
long-term finances. With a travel ban for polluting vehicles vehicles, which reduces adoption. Although EV charging infras-
on the horizon, electric vehicles would be significantly more tructure is being installed in numerous countries, most countries
appealing on the secondary market than their competitors have not been able to install the required amount of EV charging
today (McKenzie, 2016). stations except in some states. As EV charging networks are
developed worldwide, the demand for EVs is expected to increase.
6.1. Electric vehicle market structure Such charging networks have not yet been developed in most
countries. There are more EV chargers per 100 kilometers in the
During 2022–2030, the total number of electric vehicles is Netherlands than anywhere else. There are around 19–20 charg-
expected to grow from 8151 thousand units to 39,208 thou- ing stations per 100 kilometers in the Netherlands, the world’s
sand units, at a compound annual growth rate of 21.7%. Gov- highest density of charging stations. China is the second-best
ernment subsidies & tax rebates have encouraged manufacturers country with three to four charging stations per 100 kilometers.
to develop long-range, zero-emission vehicles worldwide due to With its 2030 plans to phase out ICE vehicle sales, the UK will
11523
have approximately three charging points per 100 kilometers by • Skoda Enayaq iV would be the basis for Volkswagen’s ID.5
2030. In addition to Germany, UAE, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, model that will be announced in January 2022. The vehicle
Sweden, France, the US, and Russia, many charging stations have is expected to have around 300 miles per charge range.
been set up to facilitate the shift to electric vehicles (Zhang et al., • BYD launched its second-generation e6 electric vehicle in
2018). India in December 2021. By February 2022, deliveries of this
model had begun. The range of this MPV is around 250+
6.1.4. Passenger cars are forecast to be the largest segment in the miles per charge, thanks to its 71.7 kWh battery pack.
forecast period • BMW’s new electric sedan, the i4, was introduced in Novem-
The Asia Pacific accounts for the largest market for electric ber 2021. It has an estimated range of 300–367 miles. It
passenger vehicles, followed by Europe and North America. Asia’s takes four seconds for the vehicle to reach 100 kilome-
leading electric vehicle markets are China, Japan, and South Ko- ters per hour. The vehicle is equipped with an automatic
rea. In these countries, electric passenger vehicles are strongly transmission and connected vehicle features.
supported by the government. The European countries with a • The Opel/Vauxhall Mokka EV, a subsidiary of Stellantis, was
growing demand for EV passenger vehicles are Germany, France, launched in June 2021 with a maximum driving range of 209
Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the UK, etc. These countries have miles and a battery capacity of 50 kWh. Besides being FWD,
offered several subsidies, grants, and incentives to encourage the car has connected vehicle capabilities.
people to switch to electric vehicles. Due to these measures, the • Chongqing, China, is where BYD will launch four new elec-
increased demand for mini-EVs in China led Europe’s EV sales tric vehicle models equipped with Blade batteries in April
to surpass China’s in 2020; Europe sold more in 2021. US and 2021. E2 2021 and Tang EVs have advanced battery safety
Canadian states are also leading the electrification trend in North features, as do Qin Plus EV, Song Plus EV and Song Plus EV.
America. The MEA countries have accelerated the development • A seven-seater EV produced alongside FAW and SAIC in
of their EV markets and are expected to be the fastest growing China was revealed in April 2021 by Volkswagen. Currently,
markets soon (Yang et al., 2018). the vehicles are only available in China. 58 kWh and 77 kWh
of battery capacity are available, along with four powertrain
6.1.5. By 2030, asia pacific will dominate the market options.
Electric vehicle sales are dominated by countries in the Asia • A new Volvo C40 Recharge model was introduced in March
Pacific region, such as China, Japan, and South Korea. Due to its EV 2021. In addition to being a pure electric vehicle, it has many
production and use dominance, China dominates the EV market features in its XC60 counterpart.
in the region. Their government has taken several steps, such as • The Nissan Leaf model will be available in the United States
subsidies for EV buyers, compulsory laws requiring all car man- starting in December 2021. Batteries ranging from 40 kWh
ufacturers to produce electric vehicles based on the number of to 62 kWh are available for the vehicle. Per charge, the
cars they manufacture, extensive support for installing charging battery can travel between 149 and 226 miles.
stations across major cities, and regulations against excessively
polluting vehicles. In addition to Japan and South Korea, the EV 7. Challenges and future trends
market has grown in those countries (Shen et al., 2019). The
governments in these countries have helped grow the EV market 7.1. Challenges
by installing charging stations, establishing emission standards,
and setting deadlines for drivers to switch from ICE cars to full Electric vehicles have been considered a trend and the future
or hybrid EVs. India also makes efforts to increase the demand of transportation because of their ability to overcome all current
for EVs on the market. The country will become the region’s challenges regarding conventional sources, such as depletion of
fastest-growing EV market in the coming years due to the new fossil fuels, increase in greenhouse gas emissions, and global
scrappage policy that allows old vehicles to be scrapped to make warming. Despite this, it has been seen that EV adoption presents
way for low-emission ones. In addition to Thailand, Indonesia, some disadvantages, including penetration into existing networks
Malaysia, and Vietnam, these countries are also implementing that increase the load, resulting in more blackouts and losses
policies to reduce emissions from their vehicles and switch to through overloading, the battery service capacity, range anxiety,
electric vehicles (Ehrenberger et al., 2019). and the overall high cost of EVs when compared to internal
combustion engines. Several factors contribute to the impediment
6.1.6. The key players in the market to widespread adoption of EVs, and these factors should be con-
There are some established players in the electric vehicle mar- sidered. As a result of the issues mentioned above, government
ket, including Tesla (US), Volkswagen AG (Germany), SAIC Motors and private organizations have been forced to help with the
(China), BYD (China), and Stellantis (Netherlands). EV sales are widespread adoption of EVs. The costs of EVs remain higher
considered along with a certain percentage of segmental revenue than those of internal combustion engines due to the charging
for each company listed above in determining the EV market infrastructure and the battery installation within the car. Lithium-
ranking. In addition to products and solutions for the automo- ion batteries, for example, have a minimal life cycle and poor
tive industry, these companies also offer extensive services and energy density.
solutions. These companies invest heavily in R&D to develop new Consequently, the battery must be changed frequently because
products and have strong distribution networks worldwide (Feng of its limited life cycle, increasing the vehicle’s cost. The new
and Magee, 2020). materials we will be using will make batteries last longer and
perform better, considering the improvements in research. Con-
6.2. Electric vehicle developments and pilot projects versely, EVs cannot be considered pollution-free. The electricity
generation unit determines the pollution level caused by EVs.
• A preview of MG Motors’ newly-unveiled electric vehicle, Accordingly, EVs emit the same level of greenhouse gas as inter-
the MG 4, was shown in February 2022. The car is expected nal combustion engines if most of the electricity is generated by
to launch later in 2022 in India. The EV will have a battery coal and gasoline. EV penetration increases due to more energy
pack that has a capacity of 61.1 kWh and should be able to required, putting more strain on the power plant and causing
run for around 400 kilometers. more pollution instead of reducing it. For the environment to
11524
become cleaner and more efficient, it is necessary to integrate have higher capacity and longer life. A sulfur-based battery can
renewable energies like solar and wind with the help of an intel- be easily manufactured due to the availability of sulfur. With
ligent grid. EVs must have an RCS, which is not widely available its integration into smart grid implementation and its optimal
today, to function as next-generation transportation. Alternative seat position, RCS will significantly reduce range anxiety for EV
fueling stations are available through RCS. Reduced charging time drivers and make EV charging more convenient for users. It will
and range anxiety are the two main benefits of RCS. be convenient for them to charge their vehicles without waiting
As a result of the lack of RCS, user waiting times have been in a long line or traveling a long distance. We will need to study
a problem, while improvements should be made to the future how to reduce service provider costs while providing convenience
research process. V2G technology has not yet been implemented for electric vehicle owners in the future. The current grid may not
frequently in practice. In addition, the government should formu- be able to meet the load with an increase in EV penetration if
late a policy to encourage the use of V2G technology to make the there is an increased cost focus. Upgrades and stabilization of the
grid stable and serve as a secondary source of income for a user. grid are essential. It will be necessary to discuss the integration
In contrast, V2G technology requires more investment as bidirec- of DG systems because they can reduce the environmental effects
tional meters must be installed, and the grid network must be of coal- and gasoline-fired power plants and be easily installed.
upgraded. There is also an energy loss with frequent charging and There is more to future scenarios than connecting two goals; they
discharging during energy conversion. Also, consumer emotions are about connecting all goals in a way that facilitates each other.
such as joy and pleasure play a vital role in accepting EVs. It has Despite running the entire network simultaneously, a smart grid
always been difficult shifting to new technology because it is a does not compromise any of them.
bit difficult. Due to this difficulty, the EV owner cannot access the
proper system for ease of use. 8. Major findings
7.2. Discussion on future development for EVGI A study analyzing recent EV developments and charging in-
frastructure challenges is presented in this work. Detailed find-
With the advent of energy internet technology, EVGI develop- ings from the study are presented below. Optimal charging
ment can be enhanced even further. To establish an energy inter- scheduling techniques can take advantage of EVs’ flexibility as
net connected to EVs, grids, energy networks, and transportation a load while minimizing solar and wind systems’ impact on the
networks, it is necessary to explore the following issues. grid. Current research indicates that using metaheuristic tech-
niques coupled with optimization software can significantly affect
• At the moment, a prototype of the dynamic WPT system the efficient use of available resources. EV charging infrastructure
is being developed. A bidirectional power flow is yet to be can be planned and managed using these tools, including locating
developed to enable dynamic charging. the optimal location for charging stations and determining the
• It would be beneficial to focus future research on developing optimal charging station location. EV owners are reassured by
a bidirectional dynamic WPT system. mobile charging stations that they will have access to a charg-
• In order to implement connected mobility, VANET technol- ing facility if they cannot find an adjacent charger as part of
ogy needs to be expanded. VANET’s capacity could include planning infrastructure for EV charging. Using V2G technology,
the power grid, the traffic network, and electric vehicles. energy can be bi-directionally exchanged, and ancillary services
This will improve the EVGI experience. are provided to the grid. Charging infrastructure available with
• In the L2 phase of autonomous EV development, they can minimal charging times is critical for adopting EVs. In order to
be accelerated to reach the L5 phase. Under EVGI, fully au- minimize the impact on the primary power grid, battery swap
tonomous EVs can significantly benefit transportation net- stations regulated the charging schedule of EV battery packs.
works and power grids. Furthermore, it can serve as a backup unit and provide power
• The shared economy concept can fully realize the benefits for the primary grid in peak demand periods. As EVs and their
of autonomous electric vehicles and electric grids. A well- charging infrastructure are developed, and renewable energy
designed business model can benefit EV owners, users, and sources are utilized, harmful emissions can be drastically reduced
utility companies. in the transportation sector. Unfortunately, any damage to the
• A vital aspect of the future grid is integrating power, trans- environment this new infrastructure might cause has not been
portation, energy, and communications networks using elec- assessed. In future electric vehicles, hydrogen energy and fuel
tric vehicles. In order to create a fully functional energy cells will replace the batteries currently used in battery energy
network, there needs to be plenty of development across storage systems.
each sector.
9. Conclusion
7.3. Future trends
The popularity of electric vehicles is expected to grow signifi-
The following future research trends have been identified in cantly in the next decade due to technological progress, charging
light of the above discussion. Due to technological advancements, infrastructure, and grid integration. Furthermore, further techni-
existing grids are being transformed into smart grids, securely cal improvements such as intelligent charging infrastructure, reli-
storing and analyzing data to boost the system’s efficiency. As able communication systems, and coordinated charging systems
a result of smart grids, EV customers will use the bidirectional are essential for EVs with distributed generators to achieve the
power flow to reduce their capital investment and create a second maximum benefits. A future grid technology based on the Energy
income source from the V2G technology. In addition to helping EV Internet can enable the electrical grid to become fully automated
users, this V2G technology also helps service providers maintain with advanced energy management systems. A discussion of EV
the scalability of the network, making it more reliable, reducing charging and grid integration infrastructure is presented in this
blackouts, system degradation, and losses related to overload. paper. EVs and their charging infrastructure must have unified
Range anxiety must be addressed by increasing battery capacity norms and standards worldwide to gain popularity in the market.
or RCS penetration in the existing grid for better EV adoption. Future researchers will be given a clear picture of the specifi-
It is possible to switch to lithium-sulfur batteries since they cation requirements for EV charging and grid integration based
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Energy Reports 8 (2022) 11504–11529

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

An in-depth analysis of electric vehicle charging station infrastructure,

4.1.3. US tesla connector ........................................................................................................................................................................... 11511

of this transition to zero-emission vehicles, the automotive in-

Fig. 1. Overview of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles (EVs).

Fig. 3. Various types of electric vehicles.

Fig. 4. Modes of charging at different levels.

Fig. 5. Charging methods for electric vehicles.

3.2.1. Conductive charging (CC) 3.2.2. Inductive/wireless power transfer (WPT)

Fig. 6. Possible accommodation of charging circuit in EV.

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles.

4.2. Connectors for DC charging 4.2.1. CCS combos 1 and 2

Fig. 8. EV charging systems are classified into different control strategies.

Fig. 9. An EV charging system with decentralized and centralized control.

Fig. 10. Current and voltage changes during CC-CV charging.

The power exchange interaction between EVs and grids can be

Fig. 11. Communication network for electric vehicle charging systems.

Fig. 12. Electric vehicle grid convergence system.

3. Numerical results suggest that both

3. The proposed work has some limitations,

3. The method provides specific station

7. Polygon overlay methods solve partial

8. According to the results, the proposed

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