Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 247–254

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Electric vehicles and the electric grid: A review of modeling approaches,

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy sources offer the potential to substantially decrease
Received 20 August 2012 carbon emissions from both the transportation and power generation sectors of the economy. Mass
Received in revised form adoption of EVs will have a number of impacts and benefits, including the ability to assist in the
9 November 2012
integration of renewable energy into existing electric grids. This paper reviews the current literature on
Accepted 12 November 2012
Available online 11 December 2012
EVs, the electric grid, and renewable energy integration. Key methods and assumptions of the literature
are discussed. The economic, environmental and grid impacts of EVs are reviewed. Numerous studies
Keywords: assessing the ability of EVs to integrate renewable energy sources are assessed; the literature indicates
Electric vehicle that EVs can significantly reduce the amount of excess renewable energy produced in an electric
Solar energy
system. Studies on wind–EV interaction are much more detailed than those on solar photovoltaics (PV)
Renewable energy
and EVs. The paper concludes with recommendations for future research.
Wind energy
Smart grid & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
2. Electric vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
2.1. Vehicles and energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
2.2. Charging and grid connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
3. EV-grid models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4. EV impacts and performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.1. Economic impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.2. Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.3. Grid impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5. EVs and renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.1. Wind energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.2. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.3. Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

1. Introduction this century: peak oil, climate change, and energy independence.
Electricity generation and transportation account for over 60% of
The world’s transportation and electric power generation global primary energy demand; a majority of the world’s coal
sectors are directly linked to some of the key driving issues of demand is for electricity generation and a majority of the world’s
oil demand is for transportation [1]. Alternative vehicle technol-
ogies, such as electric vehicles (EVs), are being developed to
n
Tel.: þ1 647 457 1121; fax: þ 1 416 946 3886. reduce the world’s dependence on oil for transportation and limit
E-mail address: dave.richardson@mail.utoronto.ca transportation related CO2 emissions. Likewise, renewable energy

1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.042
248 D.B. Richardson / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 247–254

sources are being developed and deployed to displace fossil fuel Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are another type of electric vehicle, in
based electricity generation, reducing greenhouse gas emissions that the fuel cell generates electricity through an electrochemical
as well as the emission of other pollutants such as nitrous oxides process in the fuel cell stack. FCVs have an onboard fuel source,
(NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). The integration of the transporta- such as natural gas or hydrogen, and can either be fully reliant on
tion and electricity sectors, in combination with EVs and renew- the fuel cell or designed with a battery in a hybrid arrangement
able energy, offers the potential to significantly reduce the like an HEV or PHEV. Future visions of a hydrogen economy
world’s dependence on fossil fuels and the consequent emission involve the use of FCVs for transportation; if the hydrogen is
of greenhouse gases. created through the electrolysis of water using renewable elec-
There are a number of barriers to the large-scale integration of tricity or from biomass sources then the FCVs would be utilizing
renewables into the electricity system [2]. Renewable energy renewable sources as well. Currently, the vast majority of the
sources, such as wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity, tend world’s hydrogen is produced from fossil fuel sources and the
to be variable in supply with no correlation to changes in demand. creation of a sustainable hydrogen economy still faces a number
Whereas natural gas turbines can be ramped up and down to follow of hurdles [3]. While hydrogen from electrolysis is an important
fluctuations in demand, renewable energy sources like wind and potential use for renewable electricity, the transition to a hydro-
solar are only available when the wind is blowing or the sun is gen economy is too broad a topic to be considered in this paper
shining. A variety of strategies have been developed to manage EV technologies offer opportunities for a transportation sector
supply fluctuations of varying timescales; these include storage, powered by renewable energy. To the extent that traditional
dispatchable loads (or demand response), and alternative generating transportation fuels can be replaced by sustainably grown bio-
capacity [3]. Electric vehicles with an electric grid connection can fuels, such as ethanol or biodiesel, HEVs can be run from renew-
support all of these strategies; therefore the wide-spread adoption able energy sources. PHEVs can also use biofuels in their internal
of EVs could play an important role in the integration of renewable combustion engine, while both PHEVs and BEVs can be comple-
energy into existing electricity systems [4]. tely operated with renewables if charged with renewable elec-
The basic goal of this paper is to review and assess the tricity from the grid. As such, the vehicle technologies that will be
literature that discusses the impacts of electric vehicles on the considered for this paper are those with the capacity to store
electric grid, with the main focus on the integration of renewable electrical energy from the grid: PHEVs and BEVs (from here on
energy into the electricity system. Section 2 gives an overview of referred to jointly as EVs).
EVs, including the key concepts that are pertinent to vehicle
interaction with the grid. Section 3 discusses and compares the 2.2. Charging and grid connections
modeling approaches used in the literature to analyze EVs and the
electric grid. Some general impacts and benefits of EVs on the The battery of an electric vehicle can be recharged from the
electricity system are presented in Section 4. Section 5 gives a grid with varying measures of external control, labeled here as
more thorough review of the literature on electric vehicles and charge plans. A simple, or unconstrained, charge plan is a system
renewable energy integration. Section 6 concludes by summariz- in which the vehicle immediately begins recharging as soon as it
ing the key results of the review and identifying some key is connected to the grid. A delayed charge plan offsets the battery
knowledge gaps that could inform future research projects. charging by a set amount of time, for example three hours.
Nighttime charge plans delay charging to occur over the course
of the night when electricity prices are lowest, with the battery
2. Electric vehicles fully charged for use in the morning. Smart charging implies some
measure of intelligent control over the charging of the vehicle by
2.1. Vehicles and energy sources the utility or system operator. This can either be direct charging,
through direct control of the vehicle, or indirect charging by
An electric vehicle will be defined, for the purposes of this designing the vehicle to respond to price signals. Dallinger and
paper, as any vehicle in which some or all of the driving energy is Wietschel [6] suggest that indirect charging is a more promising
supplied through electricity from a battery. In a conventional concept as it is more likely to lead to consumer acceptance than
internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), gasoline or diesel fuel direct external control.
is combusted to create mechanical energy that provides the The idea behind smart charging is to charge the vehicle when
power to move the vehicle forward. A number of EV technologies it is most beneficial, which could be when electricity is at its
are currently in use or under development, as discussed in lowest price, demand is lowest, when there is excess capacity, or
Jorgensen [5]. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has a small electric based on some other metric. The rate of charge can be varied
battery that supplies electricity to the drivetrain in order to within certain limits set by the driver; the most basic limit being
optimize the operating efficiency of the combustion engine. The that the vehicle must be fully charged by morning. Lunz et al. [7]
battery in an HEV can be charged by the engine or through suggest that one focus of smart charging should be to manage
captured kinetic braking energy from a process called regenera- battery performance and lifetime, which can improve the lifetime
tive braking. HEVs are more fuel efficient than ICEVs, but economics of the battery.
ultimately the vehicle is fully powered by liquid fuels. A plug-in A vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capable EV is one that is able to store
hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is similar in concept to an HEV, but electricity and then return it to the electric grid. V2G power is an
with a larger battery and a grid connection. The grid connection interesting concept that was first proposed by Kempton and
allows the battery to be charged with electricity and the larger Letendre [8]. The authors suggested that V2G could be used to
battery size enables the car to drive a significant distance in all- generate a profit for vehicle owners if the power was used under
electric mode. An all-electric range of twenty miles can be certain conditions to provide valuable services to the electric grid.
denoted through the notation PHEV-20, and a forty mile These services include regulation (second by second balancing of
all-electric range would be PHEV-40. A battery electric vehicle demand and supply), spinning reserve, and peak power provision.
(BEV) is fully powered by grid electricity stored in a large onboard The energy could in theory be supplied from the battery of a BEV
battery. EVs use energy much more efficiently than ICEVs; a or PHEV, from the engine of a PHEV in generator mode, or from
traditional ICEV fuel efficiency is 15–18%, while a BEV can be as the fuel cell of an FCV [9]. Pang et al. [10] suggest that vehicle-to-
high as 60–70% efficient [5]. building (V2B) technology is closer to being a viable option than
 D.B. Richardson / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 247–254 249

V2G; under a V2B scenario the EV would offer demand manage- compared with multiple EV penetration levels to produce a
ment and outage management services to the building. A V2G/ sensitivity analysis for the effects of EVs.
V2B capable EV could store renewably generated electricity The influence of charge plans and different charging scenarios
during periods of low demand or excess supply and provide it is addressed in a number of ways in the literature. Some studies
back to the grid, or building, when required. focus exclusively on simple charging [27] or smart charging
[16,21]. Others compare just two charging strategies, such as
simple charging versus delayed charging [28]. The most prevalent
modeling approach is to compare a wide range of charging
3. EV-grid models strategies, with some combination of simple, delayed, nighttime,
smart, and smart with V2G being considered [4,23,29].
The body of literature that discusses EVs and the electric grid The availability of accurate and detailed driving patterns is a
is primarily based on models, likely due to a scarcity of actual major issue in the creation of accurate and useful EV/electric grid
systems of an appropriate size for study. A few single vehicle models [26]. In order to know the available EV storage and
proof-of-concept tests have been conducted for V2G vehicles discharge capacity at any one time it is necessary to know the
[11,12], but no systems level empirical evaluations have been number of available (parked and plugged in) vehicles and the
carried out. The models used in the literature can be broadly amount of energy stored in each battery. The battery energy level,
divided into two categories: (1) long-term, system scale planning or state-of-charge (SOC), depends on how far the vehicle has been
models and (2) hourly time-series models. driven since it was fully charged, the vehicle efficiency, and the
The long-term planning models are run on a regional or battery size and characteristics. From a computational perspec-
national scale over the course of many decades and generally tive it is too difficult to model the driving habits and battery SOC
optimize the mix of electric generating units in a system given a of each individual vehicle, so some models choose to aggregate all
set of boundary conditions, which can include the integration of the vehicle batteries into one large unit and use historical data to
EVs. Time-series models take hourly historical data of electricity predict vehicle availability [4,23]. Kristofferson et al. [21] state
supply and demand as well as driving data in order to assess the that this method allows the vehicles to charge faster than would
ability of the system to match supply and demand over the short actually be realistic; therefore they construct 30 aggregate driving
and medium term. These models are generally run over the patterns out of historical data in order to more accurately
course of one week up to one year. represent the vehicle fleet. Wang et al. [29] aggregate vehicles
There are other discussions of EVs and the electricity system by size and battery range. Whatever the method, a balance
that do not involve the use of models, including a review of socio- between computational ease and real-world accuracy must be
technical barriers to mass adoption [13], an outline for a transi- found, and many authors insist that more work must be done to
tion path and aggregator framework [14] and a discussion of produce accurate vehicle and energy availability functions.
business models and policy options for grid integration [15].
These papers provide insight into the practical considerations
for integrating the transportation and electricity sectors. How- 4. EV impacts and performance
ever, at this point in time the most effective way to predict the
impacts of EVs on the electrical system is through models; There is clearly a wide range of input parameters that can be
therefore some of the key model inputs and constraints in the used for the models, and there is an equally wide range of output
literature will now be discussed. variables that the models can measure. The model outputs can be
One of the more interesting input variables for the models is broadly categorized as economic, environmental, grid perfor-
the selection of PHEVs versus BEVs. Of the 42 studies that mance, and renewable energy-related. Some key findings for the
included detailed analysis which were reviewed for this paper, first three categories of outputs will be briefly discussed in this
18 (43%) analyzed PHEVs exclusively, 15 (36%) analyzed BEVs, section before a more thorough and comprehensive review of
and 9 (21%) of the studies analyzed both vehicle types. In the studies that focused on the integration of renewable energy into
PHEV studies, different all-electric ranges could be modeled [16]. the electricity system is conducted in Section 5.
In the BEV studies, BEVs were often selected in order to use data
and characteristics from actual production vehicles [17,18]. 4.1. Economic impacts
In two of the studies that modeled both BEVs and PHEVs, the
models were allowed to endogenously favor vehicle technologies The economic impacts of EVs are generally examined from two
given some optimization constraints; in both cases the models perspectives: that of a vehicle owner, and that of the electricity
chose PHEVs as preferable to BEVs [19,20]. In a different study, system. The lifecycle economics of EVs are expected to improve with
BEVs were assumed to have much lower daily driving ranges than better battery technology and mass production. Currently, BEVs cost
PHEVs [21]. From this, it can be seen that PHEVs are slightly more to purchase than PHEVs, and both cost more than traditional
preferred by researchers over BEVs, likely due to lower battery ICEVs [30]. However, the fuel and operating costs of EVs are much
costs and an extended driving range. lower than ICEVs, due to the high efficiency of an electric motor. Thiel
The penetration, or market share, of EVs in the models was et al. [31] estimate that the payback time for a BEV, in comparison to
selected in a number of different ways. A few studies chose a set a cheaper ICEV, is currently 20 years, but it should drop to less than
number of EVs and analyzed the effects of this level of penetration five years by 2030. A similar result is found by Faria et al. [32], while
in isolation [4,22]. Others evaluated a range of EV penetration Contestabile et al. [33] estimate that the total lifetime costs of
scenarios [21,23]. Goransson et al. [24] took a novel approach, ownership for all vehicle types will converge by 2030.
analyzing varying fractions of the total electricity demand that is A growing body of studies has assessed the economic viability of
attributed to EVs. The literature predicting the future market V2G participation in different markets [18,34–38]. Yearly profit from
share for EVs offers a wide range of values and scenarios, these studies ranges from a loss of $300 per vehicle per year to a
providing scant insight to modelers on an appropriate penetration profit of over $4600, with most indicating a profit in the $100–300
level to select [25]. Green et al. [26] suggest that models should range. This level of profit may not be enough to induce participation,
have one scenario run with a 0% market share for EVs, which either by individuals or by an aggregator organization. Assuming that
would be considered as a baseline scenario. This could then be both EVs and V2G power services are technologies that governments
250 D.B. Richardson / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 247–254

want adopted, the question remains of how best to encourage both transmission capacity. When the vehicles use a smart charging
consumer and business participation in these markets from a policy plan, studies indicate that EVs levelize the overall load, make
perspective. This has been discussed for the Ontario, Canada market better use of baseload units, and require no extra installed
by Richardson [39]. capacity [21,46]. Hajimiragha et al. [47,48] estimate that
In general, adding EVs to the electrical grid will increase 500,000 PHEVs that could be introduced in Ontario, Canada
system costs due to increased fuel use and transmission losses, without adversely affecting the electric grid. In the US, the
however the selection of charging strategies greatly influences the existing grid capacity would allow for 73% of the light-duty fleet
overall effect on system costs. Kiviluoma and Meibom [22] to be converted to PHEVs [49].
estimate a system cost in Denmark of h263/vehicle/year using a Other impacts of EVs on the distribution grid include increased
simple charge plan, while smart charging vehicles have a system wear on transformers, transmission bottlenecks and power quality
cost of h36/vehicle/year, a savings of h227/vehicle/year. Similarly, issues; these and other more technical issues are thoroughly
Wang et al. [29] conclude that smart charging saves $200,000/ reviewed by Green et al. [26]. There are conflicting findings on the
week compared to simple charging in a future Illinois electricity effect of EVs on distribution networks. Ma et al. [50] find that EVs
system with a high share of wind energy. Lynch et al. [40] and V2G can be controlled in such a way as to have a minimal
calculate the system savings for the PJM and Midwest ISO (MISO) impact on distribution system losses and voltage fluctuations. Other
markets in the US, finding that the savings from off-peak charging studies have developed distribution level charge plans designed to
versus on-peak are highly dependent on the regional generating maintain power quality and avoid distribution congestion problems
mix. For the MISO, savings from smart charging are small due to that could result from widespread adoption of EVs [51,52]. Gong
an excess capacity of coal generation, while much larger savings et al. [53] assess the effects of EVs on a residential distribution
are realized in PJM as this market has a high reliance on more transformer; the effects are negligible at low EV penetrations, but
expensive peaking natural gas plants. A study of the Spanish there is excess equipment wear with increasing vehicle numbers. A
electric grid indicates that the marginal cost of electricity is study on UK distribution systems by Papadopolous et al. [54]
reduced up to a certain target level of EV penetration, beyond indicates that high numbers of EVs lead to voltage limit violations,
which the marginal cost slightly increases [41]. transformer overloads and increased line losses. They suggest that
network reinforcements, embedded generation and EV charge
4.2. Environmental impacts management strategies are needed to safely integrate large numbers
of EVs into distribution networks.
CO2 emissions are the most commonly measured output used
to assess the environmental impacts of switching to EVs powered
by the grid. Juul and Meibom [20] calculate that the integration of 5. EVs and renewable energy
the electric power and transportation sectors in Denmark reduces
transportation related CO2 emissions by 85%. Lund and Kempton The ability of EVs to assist the integration of renewable energy
[4] find that the use of EVs decreases CO2 emissions compared to sources into the existing power grid is potentially the most
ICEVs even if there is no wind energy present in the generation transformative impact on the electricity system. The literature
mix. Hadley [28] examines the introduction of EVs in Virginia and on this subject is primarily focused on the analysis of wind energy
the Carolinas in the US where fossil fuel plants account for two- and solar energy, with wind energy receiving much greater
thirds of total generation capacity; even under a simple charge attention and more detailed analysis. A few papers have com-
plan EVs reduce CO2 emissions by roughly 10% compared to the pared the use of biomass energy for electricity in EVs as opposed
base case with gasoline vehicles. Goransson et al. [24] examine a to biofuels. The models that study the interaction between
wind-thermal power system and found that CO2 emissions slightly renewable energy, generally wind, and EVs tend to measure the
increase under a simple charging strategy but decrease with smart amount of renewable capacity that EVs can accommodate, or the
charging and V2G power. EVs were analyzed in three regions of effect on system performance that results from integrating EVs
China, with CO2 reductions occurring under all scenarios, even in into an electricity system with a large fraction of renewable
regions that rely heavily on coal power [42]. generation. Results from a number of studies on the integration
There is debate over what emissions intensity (gCO2e/kWh) of wind energy and EVs will first be discussed, beginning with a
should be assigned to the electricity used by electric vehicles when look at the large system scale models and then the hourly time-
charging. Most studies use the average grid intensity to reflect a series models. This is followed by an overview of the work that
situation in which EVs are widely adopted and should be considered has been done concerning solar energy and EVs, and a discussion
as part of the everyday demand profile. Other authors argue for the of bioelectricity in comparison to biofuels.
use of marginal intensity (as discussed in Ma et al. [43]), in which It should be noted that a few papers examine the impacts of
the emissions of the marginal generating unit are assigned to EV EVs on electricity systems with a large share of wind, but the
electricity. In most markets, especially at times of peak demand, this results and discussion are focused on costs [29] or carbon
will be a natural gas or coal power plant which will lead to larger emissions [24], and do not directly address renewable energy
carbon emissions from EVs. However, even studies that utilize the integration. As such, these papers are not discussed here.
marginal mix in different regions find a net carbon benefit in
comparison to the use of ICEVs [44,45]. In general, it can be seen 5.1. Wind energy
that EVs reduce total CO2 emissions even in electricity systems with
a high fraction of fossil fuel generation, due to the high efficiency of A number of studies examine the large-scale, long-term
an electric motor in comparison to an internal combustion engine. impact of EVs on the ability of electric grids to integrate wind
energy. Short and Denholm [16] model the effect of large-scale
4.3. Grid impacts adoption of PHEVs on the integration of wind energy into the US
electricity mix. Installed wind capacity increases by 243 GW, or
EVs affect the performance, efficiency, and required capacity of 6% of total generation, when the vehicle fleet is converted to 50%
the electric grid, especially if vehicle charging is unconstrained. PHEVs under a smart charging plan.
Hadley [28] found that peak loads will increase under a simple Turton and Moura [19] use a global energy model that
charging strategy, requiring extra investment in generation and forecasts the integration and impacts of EVs and V2G over the
 D.B. Richardson / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 247–254 251

period from 2000 to 2100. The authors find that the installed with charged batteries. These facilities offer an excellent oppor-
renewable energy capacity increases by 30–75% with V2G capable tunity for wind energy integration as they would house a large
EVs due to their ability to store intermittent energy and discharge number of battery packs onsite; the battery charging could be
it back to the grid when required. managed to account for fluctuations in wind power output.
Juul and Meibom [20] examine the integration of the electric Hodge et al. [27] simulate electricity supply and demand over
power and transportation systems in Denmark for the year 2030 a six month summer period in California. The output variable
from the perspective of power plant investments. The integration measured is the fraction of power supplied from renewable and
of these two sectors, through the use of EVs, results in a wind sources. The results indicate that the addition of V2G has
significant increase in offshore wind power capacity and a little effect on the fraction of energy supplied by wind, especially
decrease in combined cycle natural gas plants, biomass electricity as higher penetrations of wind and other renewable sources are
plants, and onshore wind power capacity. Overall, the increase in reached. This paper uses a ‘realistic’ scenario, with low levels of
wind power generation exceeds the total demand for energy by PHEV integration and simple charging, which has been shown to
the transportation sector. be the least effective manner in which to integrate EVs into the
Borba et al. [55] take an interesting approach to modeling EVs grid. It offers no base case with zero PHEV integration, so there is
and wind energy. The Brazilian power sector is modeled from no measure of how PHEVs on their own influence the integration
2010 to 2030, with an assumed 16-fold increase in wind generat- of wind power.
ing capacity in the northeast. The authors then calculate the size Finally, one of the more detailed and complex studies on EVs
of PHEV fleet that could be charged using the excess wind energy and renewable energy is presented by Dallinger and Wietschel [6].
production. Since the excess production varies seasonally, occur- It is the only paper reviewed so far to consider the combination of
ring primarily between January and June, the authors assume that wind and solar PV, which in a projected German electricity mix
the vehicles drive on locally produced ethanol for the remainder comprise 50% of capacity in 2030. The paper examines the
of the year. Over 1.6 million vehicles could be powered in this influence of charging strategies, but uses an indirect charging
manner by 2030. strategy based on consumer price response; as such, pooled
Other studies assess the EV-wind energy interaction on an groups of vehicles must make price forecasts and compare
hourly timescale. Kempton and Tomić [56] evaluate the use of predicted energy costs to vehicle demand. The model also
electric vehicles to provide regulation and reserve services in considers grid fees in order to avoid overloading distribution
conjunction with wind power in the US. They calculate that in a system transformers. The paper finds that EVs can make a positive
scenario with 50% power production from wind, 3.2% of the US contribution to balancing renewable sources, with over 50% of the
vehicle fleet would need to be fully electric to provide the yearly excess renewable production being absorbed by EVs.
required regulation services and 38% of the fleet would be needed Overall, these studies indicate that the introduction of EVs has
to provide operating reserves. The paper also looks at historical the potential to increase the amount of wind energy capacity
time-series wind data from eight dispersed sites in the Midwest. installed in a regional or national electricity system. More
Out of 6919 h of data, they identify 342 low power events where specifically, EVs can absorb excess wind energy production that
power output would be less than 20% of capacity. BEVs have the would otherwise be wasted or curtailed, which improves the
ability to provide enough reserve power for events less than two economics of wind energy generation. The larger the cumulative
hours in duration, but they cannot cover longer-scale shortages, EV storage capacity, either through more vehicles or larger
which can last fourteen to twenty-two hours. batteries, the more wind energy that can be accommodated into
A study by Ekman [23] assesses the relationship between wind the system. Furthermore, EVs with V2G power can supply this
energy production, power consumption, and electric vehicle energy back to the grid, which allows a further integration of
charging patterns in Denmark. Smart charging EVs are found to wind energy into the generation mix. It should be noted that the
significantly reduce the excess wind energy generation, with the marginal benefit of V2G in comparison to the overall benefits of
potential to reduce the required amount of non-wind backup EVs appear to be relatively small.
capacity, depending on the vehicle penetration level. The model
demonstrates that EVs can be used to aid in the integration of 5.2. Solar energy
wind energy, but cannot completely make up for intermittent
supply from wind. The literature on solar energy and EVs is much more diverse
Lund & Kempton [4] evaluate the integration of wind power than the previously reviewed studies that integrate wind energy
and BEVs in national energy systems, in this case Denmark and a and vehicles. Electricity from solar PV can be produced anywhere;
hypothetical country identical to Denmark that does not use this provides more interesting methods to directly integrate
combined heat and power (CHP) plants. In the CHP case with energy production and use in EVs. A few representative studies
50% wind penetration, changing from 100% ICEVs to 100% BEVs of these varying approaches are discussed. However, it should be
with V2G reduces excess wind electricity by a factor of two. The noted that the depth of analysis in this field is not nearly as strong
introduction of EVs in the non-CHP system has a larger effect as with wind and electric vehicles.
because CHP is more efficient with fuel use and contributes to Birnie [59] proposes the idea of solar PV arrays built over
excess electricity. The study also finds that larger vehicle batteries parking lots to provide daytime charging to commuter vehicles.
reduce the amount of excess wind electricity produced. The paper broadly sketches out what such a system would look
A paper by Bellekom et al. [57] examines the introduction of like and assesses the potential energy production from a single
wind power and EVs, both separately and combined, in the Dutch parking space. Assuming New Jersey solar irradiation data, a PV
electricity system. Four gigawatts of wind can be introduced module efficiency of 14%, and a 15 m2 parking space, the average
without problems under the no EV scenario; this increases to summertime production would be 12.6 kWh and the winter
10 GW with the introduction of 1 million EVs. Smart charging is average would be 3.78 kWh. This would be enough to meet most
deemed necessary to avoid capacity problems. driving needs in the summer, but not during the winter. The
A model that coordinates the operation of an EV battery paper does not assess the economic practicality of such a system,
switching station with wind energy production is presented by the utility system benefits, or the environmental benefits.
Gao et al. [58]. Battery switching stations are proposed as a Li et al. [60] conduct a similar analysis based on data from
method to extend the range of EVs by replacing depleted batteries Alberta, Canada. The authors calculate the size of solar PV panel
252 D.B. Richardson / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 247–254

needed to provide the daily energy requirements to a PHEV-40. were modeled as a means to meet domestic hot water demand
They find that 20 m2 of panel would be sufficient to provide while using excess PV electricity. The study indicates that if
electricity for 40 miles of range on the best sunshine days in mid- 30GW of solar capacity was installed in the area, just over
July. However, 78 m2 of PV panel would be necessary to provide 10 TWh of annual production would be in excess. One million
enough electricity in December. The oversized PV panel would EVs and 1 million HPs could reduce this excess production by
produce 67 kWh of excess electricity on the best summer days, approximately 30%, while five million of each could absorb
which could be sold to the grid to offset the costs of the panel. virtually all the excess production. Though HPs were never
Large-scale deployment of parking lot solar car chargers is modeled separately from EVs, the marginal benefit of adding
analyzed by Neumann et al. [61]. This study introduces solar car EVs to the system appears to be greater than that of HPs.
ports over all the available large parking lots in a medium-sized
Swiss city; the authors find that 14–50% of the city’s passenger 5.3. Biomass energy
transportation energy demand could be provided through solar
energy under the proposed system. Biomass energy differs from wind and solar in that it can be
PV parking lot charging and other business models to charge stored and used when needed. Liquid biofuels are most
EVs with solar energy are discussed by Letendre [62]. Parking lot commonly proposed for use as an alternative vehicle fuel, but
chargers could be grid-connected or stand-alone units, sized to bioelectricity offers a number of advantages over biofuels. Bioe-
meet a daily PV demand. The business models are not analyzed in lectricity can be obtained using a number of biomass feedstocks,
detail in this paper. Solar PV is estimated to be a cheaper fuel per including forestry and agricultural residues, woody energy crops,
vehicle kilometer than gasoline, especially as PV module prices and whole tree harvesting. These feedstocks can be directly
decrease and gasoline stays around $4/gallon (USD) or higher. combusted, or co-fired with coal, in a boiler, or they can be
Gibson and Kelly [63] and Kelly and Gibson [64] examine the gasified into a syngas and used in a simple turbine or combined
technical feasibility of directly charging vehicle batteries with cycle power plant. Bioelectricity fuel pathways tend to give a
solar PV panels. This would allow EVs to be charged using higher energy return on energy investment (EROEI) compared to
electricity generated on-site, avoiding transmission losses from biofuel processes [3].
distant power plants or wind farms. Furthermore, converting DC A number of recent studies indicate that bioelectricity for use
solar electricity to AC grid electricity results in energy losses of in a vehicle is a more effective use of biomass than conversion to
around 10%; directly charging the batteries from PV panels avoids biofuels. Schmidt et al. [69] assess the production and use of
those losses. These two studies provide a proof of concept for this multiple types of biofuels in Austria compared to bioelectricity;
approach, demonstrating the safety and viability of this charging the results indicate that greenhouse gas emissions, land use
scheme. effects, and the amount of required biomass feed stocks are all
One method of taking advantage of direct battery charging reduced using electric vehicles as compared to biofuels. Campbell
from solar PV would be to combine it with parking lot chargers, as et al. [70] find that the gross average driving output, in kilometers
described earlier. Alternatively, PV systems could be mounted driven per hectare of biomass production, is 112% greater for
directly on the vehicle as an auxiliary power source, also called bioelectricity than for biofuels. Furthermore, the average net
vehicle-integrated PV (VIPV). This has been done by universities greenhouse gas offset for switchgrass production is 108% greater
in solar car competitions for years, in which solar energy is the from bioelectricity than biofuels. Ohlrogge et al. [71] assert that
primary power source for the vehicle [65]. Solar cars are not biomass for electricity in EVs displaces twice as much petroleum
intended for commercial purposes; however VIPV could be used as biofuels. Electric vehicles using bioelectricity in Ontario,
with existing hybrid and electric vehicles to improve efficiency. Canada are found to have a higher EROEI, and lower fuel costs
Letendre [65] estimates this could improve vehicle efficiency by and GHG emissions in comparison with ICEVs using biofuels [72].
10–20%, while Giannouli and Yianoulis [66] suggest that the Thus, given constraints on land availability for biomass produc-
payback time for a VIPV system, in avoided fuel costs, would be tion, there is a clear benefit to producing electricity for transpor-
just over four years. They also suggest that a VIPV system could be tation instead of biofuels.
used for other purposes, such as running the vehicle air condi-
tioner to keep the vehicle cool while parked.
Letendre et al. [67] use a very simple method to estimate how 6. Conclusion
much firm capacity a combination of solar PV and V2G-enabled EVs
could provide in the California market. The idea is that vehicle A number of positive impacts can be expected from the
batteries would form a short-term buffer for PV output. The calcula- introduction of EVs, including lower vehicle operating costs,
tions do not consider transportation demand or any system analysis. reduced CO2 emissions, and the ability to support and contribute
Kempton and Tomić [56] discuss the use of PV solar electricity to grid power quality and stability if the right infrastructure is
to supply peak energy in the US through storage in EVs with V2G adopted. Perhaps most significant, though, is the ability of EVs to
power. Peak electricity production from PV panels occurs at mid- assist in the integration renewable energy sources into the
day, a few hours before the daily peak in electricity demand. This electric grid. This has the potential to reduce the carbon emissions
means that electricity generated at the solar peak would need to from both power generation and transportation. It should be
be stored for a few hours before use to meet peak demand. noted that while EVs can substantially reduce some of the
Assuming adequate PV capacity to supply all US peak supply negative impacts of large-scale renewable deployment, other
(162 GW, or one-fifth of US generating capacity), they estimate methods and technologies are likely necessary to completely
that 26% of the US vehicle fleet would be required to store the integrate a high penetration of renewable energy.
peak solar electricity and then provide it to the grid a few The existing literature is fairly unanimous and conclusive in its
hours later. assessment that EVs can increase the amount of renewable
Only one study has been found that employs the more energy that can be brought online while reducing the negative
rigourous methodology as the previously discussed studies on consequences for the grid. This is better documented, and more
wind energy and EVs. Zhang et al. [68] analyze the integration of conclusive, for wind energy than for solar, as EVs can potentially
PV power in conjunction with EVs and heat pumps (HP) in the be charged at off-peak times when otherwise unwanted wind
Kansai Area of Japan. Air source heat pump water heater systems energy can be used to charge the vehicle batteries. This appears to
 D.B. Richardson / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 247–254 253

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