©2019 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 114, no. 1, pp. 143–152

EVIDENCE FOR MAGMATIC ANHYDRITE IN PORPHYRY COPPER INTRUSIONS

Michael C. Hutchinson† and John H. Dilles

College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331–5501

Abstract
Although magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits may contain as much as 1 billion tonnes (Gt) of sulfur as hydro-
thermal sulfides and sulfates, whether the genetically related magmas are particularly sulfur rich remains an
open question. In oxidized melts, the presence of magmatic anhydrite would provide some evidence of this,
but its preservation potential in the rock record is low, owing to the high solubility of sulfate in low-tempera-
ture aqueous fluids. In this study we have examined granitic and porphyry samples from porphyry copper ore
deposits using quantitative evaluation of materials by scanning electron microscopy (QEMSCAN) and scan-
ning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) to identify small and sparse inclusions
of anhydrite preserved in a range of igneous minerals including apatite, amphibole, plagioclase, quartz, and
titanite. In total, anhydrite inclusions were present in 11 different samples from six sulfur-rich magmatic-hydro-
thermal ore deposits. Electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) of anhydrite inclusions suggests that primary mag-
matic anhydrite typically has elevated Sr (>2,500 ppm) and P (>500 ppm) compared to hydrothermal anhydrite;
however, in many cases this is obscured by postentrapment exchange between the inclusion and host mineral
or hydrothermal alteration of host minerals. Where the composition of inclusions is inconclusive, we have used
cathodoluminescence imagery of zoning patterns in host minerals to help distinguish between igneous and
hydrothermal origins. This study provides evidence that anhydrite saturation may be a common feature of arc
magmas, particularly those associated with ore deposits, even though little evidence of magmatic anhydrite is
preserved. Widespread anhydrite saturation has significant implications for any consideration of magmatic sul-
fur budgets, particularly in low-temperature, evolved magmas, which have little capacity to carry sulfur species
in the melt.

Introduction been reported either as phenocrysts or as inclusions in several

Sulfur is an important magmatic volatile both as an erupted intrusive rocks at Julcani, El Teniente, Santa Rita, Cajon Pass,
product and climate-forcing agent and for its role in produc- Bingham, Northparkes, and Qulong (Drexler and Munoz,
ing sulfide-rich magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits. How- 1985; Barth and Dorais, 2000; Lickfold et al., 2003; Audétat et
ever, the behavior of sulfur during magmatic evolution is al., 2004; Stern et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2012; Zhang and Audé-
complicated; its solubility is sensitive to changes in tempera- tat, 2017). For a comprehensive review see Luhr (2008). It is
ture, melt composition, and oxidation state (e.g., Baker and notable that, except for Cajon Pass, all examples of magmatic
Moretti, 2011), and sulfur may be lost from a melt either to anhydrite in plutonic rocks come from intrusions associated
a fluid phase or to sulfides or anhydrite. How sulfur is parti- with sulfur-rich magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits.
tioned between silicate melt, fluid, and solid phases has impli- Despite these examples, magmatic anhydrite features as
cations for both the trace element evolution of a magma and a primary phase in only a tiny proportion of studied igne-
the overall sulfur budget (e.g., Scaillet et al., 1998; Jugo et ous rocks worldwide. In part this reflects the particular set
al., 1999; Simon et al., 2008; Keppler, 2010; Li and Audétat, of conditions necessary for sulfate saturation: magmas must
2012; Masotta et al., 2016). In an oxidized magma, sulfur is be oxidized (ƒO2 > NNO + 1; Carroll and Rutherford, 1988;
dominated by sulfate species (Carroll and Rutherford, 1988; Luhr, 1990, 2008), must be relatively sulfur rich, and must
Jugo et al., 2005; Métrich et al., 2009) and, unless it is lost dur- retain their sulfur until cooling (and to a lesser degree dif-
ing degassing, acts incompatibly. Cooling and differentiation ferentiation) leads to a drop in the sulfur-carrying capacity
should therefore concentrate sulfur in a melt until it saturates of the magma (Baker and Moretti, 2011; Masotta and Kep-
in anhydrite, although evidence for this in the geologic record pler, 2015) and anhydrite is precipitated. However, even in
is relatively sparse. magmas that meet these criteria, little evidence of anhydrite
Anhydrite is an orthorhombic mineral with a nominally saturation may be left in the geologic record. Anhydrite is
simple chemical composition of CaSO4. Magmatic anhy- readily soluble in meteoric water, and at El Chichon it was
drite was first observed in products of the 1982 eruption of noted that erupted material was effectively stripped of phe-
El Chichon, Mexico (Luhr et al., 1984) and has since been nocrystic anhydrite within a year of the eruption (Luhr et al.,
recognized as a primary phase in a number of recent erup- 1984). It is likely that slowly cooled plutonic rocks, particularly
tions, including Mount Lamington, Pinatubo, Lascar, Shive- those with a long history of magmatic-hydrothermal interac-
luch, and Augustine (Arculus et al., 1983; Pallister et al., 1992; tion, also commonly lose most traces of primary anhydrite. In
Matthews et al., 1997, 1999; Dirksen et al., 2006; Larsen et al., many cases the only readily available evidence of anhydrite
2006), and in older volcanic rocks at Yanacocha, Sutter Buttes, saturation may be small (<10 µm) inclusions of the mineral in
and Eagle Mountain (Matthews et al., 1997, 1999; Parat et more resistant mineral phases. Furthermore, at many locali-
al., 2002; Chambefort et al., 2008; Luhr, 2008). It has also ties where anhydrite has been reported in volcanic and plu-
tonic rocks, Luhr (2008) noted that its origin, either igneous
† Corresponding author: e-mail, hutchimi@onid.oregonstate.edu or hydrothermal, remains uncertain based on textural and
ISSN 0361-0128; doi: 10.5382/econgeo.2019.4624; 10 p. Submitted: August 17, 2018
143 Accepted: December 17, 2018

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compositional evidence. Determination of igneous origins Sample preparation and identification of

of anhydrite can be robustly established by the presence of anhydrite inclusions
anhydrite as phenocrysts or as inclusions within other igneous Samples were crushed, sieved, and handpicked under a binocu-
minerals preserving igneous compositional zoning and tex- lar microscope. In some cases, heavy mineral separates were
tures, but we note that anhydrite chemical compositions may obtained either by panning or by using sodium polytungstate
also be useful (cf. Chambefort et al., 2008; Xiao et al., 2012). (SPT) heavy liquid separation. Based on reported anhydrite
The main aim of this study is to test the hypothesis that sul- inclusions in previous work, we investigated a range of phases,
fate saturation is a common but poorly preserved and under- including amphibole, plagioclase, clinopyroxene, titanite, and
reported feature of ore-forming magmas. To this end we have apatite. Crystal separates were mounted in epoxy and polished
used a range of techniques including automated energy dis- in oil to minimize any dissolution of anhydrite. Inclusions were
persive spectrometry (EDS) mapping (QEMSCAN), cath- then identified by EDS, either using automated QEMSCAN
odoluminescence (CL) imaging, and electron microprobe mapping (5 µm resolution) or manually using an FEI QUANTA
analysis (EMPA) to find anhydrite inclusions in igneous sam- 600F scanning electron microscope (SEM) at Oregon State
ples from porphyry copper deposits and to help distinguish University (OSU; United States). Once identified, anhydrite
between magmatic and hydrothermal anhydrite. inclusions and their host grains were imaged with color CL
using a cold cathode CITL 8200 Mk 5-1 (University of Geneva,
Methods Switzerland) or a CITL Mk 4 (University of British Columbia,
Samples Canada) mounted on a petrographic microscope.
Microprobe analyses of inclusions were conducted at OSU
Samples were chosen to maximize the chances of finding igne- using a Cameca SX-100 with beam conditions of 15 kV and 30
ous anhydrite and to test the hypothesis presented above. All nA and a 1-µm spot diameter (Chambefort et al., 2008; Table 2).
samples were selected because they were spatially and tempo- This helped to achieve relatively low detection limits for trace
rally associated with porphyry copper deposits or, in the case elements, including Sr, Fe, and P, while maintaining the spatial
of Aucanquilcha, because they were associated with native resolution needed to analyze small, often elongate inclusions.
sulfur deposits and a large zone of hydrothermal alteration
(Clark, 1970; Klemetti and Grunder, 2008). Hand specimen Results
observations—for example, visible cleavage in amphibole and
twinning in plagioclase—were used to select the least altered Anhydrite-bearing samples
samples available from each site. Details of the samples Of the 25 samples investigated, 11 were found to contain
investigated are presented in Table 1 and references therein. anhydrite inclusions (Table 1), representing evidence of sul-
Anhydrite inclusions in plagioclase and orthopyroxene from fate saturation at six localities where it had not been previ-
Augustine volcano, previously described by Larsen et al. ously recognized. Inclusions were most commonly hosted in
(2006), were also analyzed as part of this study for comparison. apatite but were also found in amphibole, titanite, quartz, and

Table 1. List of Anhydrite-Bearing Samples and Localities

Coordinates (WGS84)
        Unit/ Inclusion No.
Deposit/location Zone Easting Northing Altitude (m) sample no. Lithology host inclusions

Aucanquilcha volcanic 19S 542824 7641521 3,974 AP-07-41 Dacite Amphibole 20+
center (Chile) volcanic rocks

Christmas (Arizona) 12N 523893 3657848   805 CHR-7 Porphyritic Apatite 1

12N 523420 3658111   902 CHRPIT dike Apatite 1

El Salvador (Chile) 19S 443800 7096245 2,476 ES-12792 Latite dike Apatite 2
19S 444390 7096420 2,440 ES-12785A K porphyry Apatite 3

Encuentro (Chile) 19S 489895 7447649 1,586 EEP-1 Porphyritic Apatite 4

19S 489931 7447586 1,613 EEP-2 dikes Apatite 5
19S 489931 7447586 1,357 EEP-4 Apatite 4
19S 489931 7447586 1,371 EEP-5 Apatite 4

Robinson (Nevada) 11N 670004 4347769 2,000 VET-2B Porphyritic Apatite 1

dike Amphibole 1
Titanite 1

Yerington (Nevada) 11N 317338 4314977 1,421 LH-7 Weakly Apatite 4

porphyritic Titanite 1
granite Plagioclase 1
Quartz 1

Sample references: Aucanquilcha (Walker et al., 2013), El Salvador (Lee et al., 2017), Encuentro (Osorio, 2017), Yerington (Dilles, 1987); samples from Christ-
mas and Robinson deposits were collected by J.H. Dilles (November 2017, and July 1992, respectively)

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plagioclase. It has been previously noted that magmatic anhy- alteration and locally primary igneous compositional zonation
drite is strongly associated with apatite (Luhr, 2008), possibly is visible (CL images, Fig. 1A, D). In most cases, cleavages
due to conucleation, and even silicate-hosted anhydrite inclu- and cracks in the host mineral do not intersect the anhydrite
sions in this study were most commonly spatially associated inclusion, but note that some cracks are produced during rock
with inclusions of apatite. crushing (Fig. 1A).
Imaging of igneous minerals by reflected-light, EDS, and In general, anhydrite inclusions are tabular, locally with
CL methods provides a means of identifying igneous anhy- rounded edges, and are between 5 and 120 µm long. The
drite inclusions, as exemplified by Figure 1. The host igne- aspect ratio of inclusions was generally ~1:5 with the excep-
ous minerals display no evidence of subsequent hydrothermal tion of those hosted in amphibole from Aucanquilcha, which

Fig. 1. From left to right: reflected-light, transmitted-light, and cathodoluminescence (CL) images of anhydrite inclusions in
apatite. A) Apatite from El Salvador latite dike showing a tabular anhydrite grain present on well-defined igneous growth zon-
ing. B) Apatite from a porphyry dike at Christmas, Arizona, perpendicular to apatite C-axis with tabular anhydrite grain. Inset
shows faint zoning in anhydrite inclusion C) Apatite from the Luhr Hill granite, Yerington, with two small blocky anhydrite
inclusions. More inclusions with similar habit, also likely anhydrite, can be seen below the surface in the stacked transmitted-
light image. D) Apatite from Luhr Hill with a larger, rounded anhydrite inclusion. Apatite is mounted with C-axis up and
displays well-defined igneous growth zones. All CL images here taken using CITL 8200 Mk 5-1 at the University of Geneva.
Abbreviations: Anh = anhydrite, Ap = apatite.

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Table 2. Electron Microprobe Analyses of Anhydrite Inclusions

Location Sample Host mineral Type1 SO3 P2O5 CaO FeO SiO2 MnO SrO BaO La2O3 Ce2O3 Total

Aucanquilcha AP-07-41 Amphibole Magmatic 60.25 0.14 40.07 0.54 0.15 0.00 0.55 0.15 0.03 0.04 101.93
Aucanquilcha AP-07-41 Amphibole Magmatic 60.10 0.11 39.83 0.83 0.54 0.00 0.57 0.19 0.02 0.04 102.24
Aucanquilcha AP-07-41 Amphibole Magmatic 59.29 0.24 40.77 0.50 0.12 0.02 0.60 0.15 0.03 0.03 101.75
Aucanquilcha AP-07-41 Amphibole Magmatic 58.86 0.12 41.27 0.38 0.25 0.05 0.52 0.11 0.00 0.03 101.60
Aucanquilcha AP-07-41 Amphibole Magmatic 61.37 0.15 40.13 0.43 0.09 0.01 0.54 0.07 0.01 0.00 102.79
Aucanquilcha AP-07-41 Amphibole Magmatic 60.91 0.18 39.57 0.43 0.20 0.00 0.50 0.13 0.02 0.02 101.95
Augustine AUG_HSA2 Orthopyroxene Magmatic 59.48 0.08 39.39 0.42 0.12 0.04 0.23 0.01 0.00 0.01 99.80
Augustine AUG_HSA2 Orthopyroxene Magmatic 58.77 0.09 41.30 0.42 0.06 0.03 0.22 0.01 0.02 0.04 100.95
Augustine AUG_HSA2 Orthopyroxene Magmatic 58.34 0.10 41.57 0.54 0.08 0.03 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.02 100.91
Augustine AUG_HSA2 Orthopyroxene Magmatic 58.89 0.09 39.81 0.57 0.10 0.04 0.22 0.01 0.04 0.02 99.78
Augustine AUG_HSA2 Plagioclase Magmatic 57.73 0.08 39.14 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.04 0.00 97.57
Augustine AUG_QMI Plagioclase Magmatic 58.03 0.18 40.85 0.03 0.10 0.00 0.29 0.01 0.01 0.02 99.52
Augustine AUG_QMI Plagioclase Magmatic 57.92 0.21 38.47 0.07 0.82 0.00 0.21 0.01 0.01 0.06 97.79
Augustine AUG308 Plagioclase Magmatic 58.79 0.12 40.50 0.01 0.10 0.04 0.23 0.02 0.02 0.03 99.85
Augustine AUG308 Plagioclase Magmatic 58.21 0.13 39.99 0.08 0.13 0.04 0.24 0.03 0.00 0.01 98.85
Christmas CHR-7 Apatite Magmatic 58.86 0.22 41.33 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.20 0.01 0.03 0.07 100.71
Christmas CHR-7 Apatite Magmatic 57.11 0.21 41.28 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.20 0.00 0.03 0.06 98.93
Christmas CHR-7 Apatite Magmatic 58.63 0.17 41.05 0.01 0.00 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.03 0.08 100.28
Christmas CHRPIT Apatite Magmatic 55.37 0.23 41.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.04 0.06 0.13 97.20
Christmas CHRPIT Apatite Magmatic 58.10 0.15 40.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.05 0.00 0.04 99.42
Christmas CHRPIT Apatite Magmatic 57.60 0.17 41.15 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.18 0.04 0.01 0.05 99.24
El Salvador ES-12785A Apatite Magmatic 58.55 0.41 40.48 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.23 0.01 0.06 0.05 99.81
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 59.47 0.05 40.42 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.07 0.04 0.05 100.36
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 59.85 0.04 40.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.01 0.00 0.05 100.52
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 58.82 0.03 40.47 0.02 0.05 0.00 0.26 0.01 0.03 0.01 99.69
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 60.06 0.15 39.04 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.20 0.04 0.03 0.03 99.63
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 58.45 0.07 41.23 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.02 0.04 100.06
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 60.57 0.07 39.57 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.22 0.08 0.04 0.06 100.64
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 59.44 0.07 39.48 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.22 0.04 0.00 0.03 99.28
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 59.38 0.03 39.07 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.38 0.06 0.00 0.00 98.96
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 59.95 0.08 40.07 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.24 0.05 0.05 0.04 100.54
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 60.45 0.05 39.57 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.26 0.08 0.03 0.01 100.51
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 59.77 0.09 40.94 0.05 0.08 0.00 0.22 0.05 0.03 0.07 101.29
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 61.25 0.08 39.71 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.22 0.06 0.04 0.06 101.51
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 56.00 0.05 42.30 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.21 0.03 0.02 0.04 98.69
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 55.82 0.05 42.49 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.16 0.01 0.01 0.05 98.61
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 55.73 0.11 42.40 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.02 0.04 98.53
El Salvador ES-12785A Plagioclase Hydrothermal 56.02 0.18 42.30 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.16 0.02 0.06 0.05 98.85
El Salvador ES-12792 Apatite Magmatic 59.78 0.17 40.55 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.32 0.08 0.04 0.02 101.01
El Salvador ES-12792 Apatite Magmatic 59.88 0.16 40.92 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.31 0.07 0.00 0.00 101.36
El Salvador ES-12792 Apatite Magmatic 53.63 0.28 42.33 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.01 0.04 0.04 96.65
El Salvador ES-12792 Apatite Magmatic 55.78 0.28 42.64 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.02 0.02 0.04 99.10
Encuentro EEP-1 Apatite Magmatic 56.80 0.20 41.45 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.39 0.04 0.01 0.02 98.95
Encuentro EEP-1 Apatite Magmatic 55.88 0.49 42.66 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.07 0.04 0.08 99.45
Encuentro EEP-2 Apatite Magmatic 55.32 0.35 41.55 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.22 0.01 0.05 0.09 97.63
Encuentro EEP-2 Apatite Magmatic 55.87 0.19 41.55 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.23 0.01 0.05 0.07 97.99
Encuentro EEP-2 Apatite Magmatic 56.50 0.15 41.24 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.10 0.02 0.04 98.33
Encuentro EEP-2 Apatite Magmatic 57.48 0.18 41.84 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.20 0.00 0.03 0.05 99.81
Encuentro EEP-4 Apatite Magmatic 55.58 0.18 42.51 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.17 0.04 0.04 0.05 98.57
Encuentro EEP-4 Apatite Magmatic 55.21 0.09 41.24 0.01 0.00 0.05 0.15 0.07 0.02 0.04 96.89
Encuentro EEP-4 Apatite Magmatic 56.52 0.15 42.32 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.02 0.04 0.09 99.33
Encuentro EEP-4 Apatite Magmatic 55.94 0.08 41.82 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.01 0.03 0.04 98.13
Encuentro EEP-4 Apatite Magmatic 56.97 0.12 42.57 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.16 0.01 0.04 0.12 100.03
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 58.47 0.18 41.12 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.19 0.04 0.05 0.08 100.15
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 57.55 0.23 40.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.06 0.03 0.06 99.02
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 57.00 0.19 41.78 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.04 0.02 0.04 99.29
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 56.62 0.13 41.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.05 0.05 0.07 98.99
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 56.49 0.14 42.23 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.26 0.01 0.04 0.09 99.29
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 54.17 0.08 40.58 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.29 0.10 0.05 0.06 95.35
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 55.66 0.10 41.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.07 0.04 0.05 97.96
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 56.20 0.08 42.31 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.23 0.04 0.03 0.02 98.92
Encuentro EEP-5 Apatite Magmatic 57.29 0.11 41.93 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.21 0.03 0.04 0.05 99.72
Luhr Hill LH-1 Apatite Magmatic 59.32 0.57 40.32 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.33 0.02 0.01 0.02 100.62
Luhr Hill LH-1 Apatite Magmatic 59.04 0.26 41.48 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.31 0.10 0.02 0.02 101.26
Luhr Hill LH-1 Apatite Magmatic 58.64 0.07 42.14 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.35 0.01 0.03 0.04 101.29
Luhr Hill LH-1 Apatite Magmatic 57.74 0.09 42.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.01 0.04 100.28
Luhr Hill LH-1 Apatite Magmatic 55.88 2.09 41.73 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.33 0.02 0.02 0.01 100.11
Luhr Hill LH-1 Plagioclase Magmatic 58.26 0.02 41.10 0.15 0.05 0.00 0.58 0.00 0.00 0.01 100.19

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Table 2. (Cont.)

Location Sample Host mineral Type1 SO3 P2O5 CaO FeO SiO2 MnO SrO BaO La2O3 Ce2O3 Total

Luhr Hill LH-1 Plagioclase Magmatic 58.31 0.03 40.60 0.12 0.11 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.02 0.00 99.77
Luhr Hill LH-1 Plagioclase Magmatic 57.26 0.03 41.11 0.11 0.06 0.02 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.01 99.15
Luhr Hill LH-1 Quartz Magmatic 56.56 0.03 41.48 0.25 0.18 0.00 0.60 0.01 0.00 0.00 99.11
Luhr Hill LH-1 Quartz Magmatic 58.35 0.02 40.54 0.21 0.22 0.03 0.64 0.02 0.02 0.01 100.06
Luhr Hill LH-1 Titanite Magmatic 53.84 0.10 40.02 0.06 0.04 0.00 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.08 94.65
Luhr Hill LH-1 Titanite Magmatic 54.48 0.09 42.85 0.09 0.04 0.00 0.48 0.01 0.03 0.07 98.13
Robinson VET2B Titanite Magmatic 56.77 0.08 40.88 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.52 0.49 0.03 0.06 98.91
Robinson VET-2B Amphibole Magmatic 58.57 0.24 40.86 0.65 0.04 0.00 0.51 0.08 0.03 0.03 101.02
Robinson VET-2B Apatite Magmatic 54.66 0.22 42.35 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.54 0.00 0.05 0.06 97.91
Robinson VET-2B Apatite Magmatic 55.13 0.26 41.43 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.53 0.03 0.06 0.04 97.49

All chemical concentrations given in wt %

1Origin of anhydrite inclusions is based on observation of host mineral textures in backscattered electron and cathodoluminescence images and element

maps extracted from QEMSCAN energy dispersive spectrometry maps

had a more elongate habit with an average aspect ratio closer

Pheno
Amph
3000

Plag
Opx
to 1:10. Anhydrite exhibits blue-purple-brown colors in CL,

Cpx

Qtz

HT
Ap

Tit
and in a number of inclusions color zoning was observed, Christmas Pit
although on a scale too fine to analyze using EMPA (inset, 2500 Veteran Pit
Yerington
Fig. 1B). Characteristic cleavage was also visible in several El Salvador
Encuentro
inclusions using a reflected-light microscope and contrasts Auncanquilcha
2000 Augusne
with melt-like Ca sulfate blebs lacking cleavage trapped in
Yanacocha high-Al amphibole (Chambefort et al., 2008). In Yanacocha
P(ppm)

Pinatubo
some samples, many inclusions with similar morphology could 1500 Bue, Ajo,
El Salvador
be seen below the surface of apatite grains (Fig. 1C, stacked
transmitted-light image) and are likely also anhydrite.
In general, anhydrite inclusions were exceedingly sparse. 1000
Over 60 titanite and over 30 amphibole grains were sectioned
and scanned from the Robinson sample to find just one anhy-
500
drite inclusion in each mineral. Where anhydrite was present
as inclusions in apatite, it was generally more abundant than
in other phases, although in many samples apatite itself was 0
scarce and relatively small, reducing the chances of finding
analyzable anhydrite inclusions.
B Average
6000 2σ
Anhydrite trace element composition
Since many of the samples investigated are related to ore 5000

deposits in which hydrothermal anhydrite is common, chemi-

cal composition offers a potential way to distinguish between
Fe (ppm)

4000
primary magmatic anhydrite and secondary hydrothermal
anhydrite that precipitates at lower temperatures from a fluid 3000
phase. Since conditions in these two environments differ
significantly, both in bulk composition and temperature, the
2000
resulting anhydrite should also exhibit marked differences in
its trace element content, assuming no later reequilibration
occurs between anhydrite and the host mineral. However, 1000
Detecon
assessing the expected differences is difficult because few Limit
data currently exist for trace element partitioning between 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
melt or fluid and anhydrite. Xiao et al. (2012) suggested that at Sr (ppm)
Qulong, magmatic anhydrite has lower Sr content (<930 ppm)
Fig. 2. Anhydrite compositions by microprobe. A) Sr vs. P (ppm). B) Sr vs. Fe
than its hydrothermal counterpart (850–3,500 ppm). In con- (ppm). Detection limits are based on 3σ of background counts. Characteristic
trast, Chambefort et al. (2008) reported compositions of 2σ uncertainty for analyses are based on either repeat analyses of a standard
anhydrite from a range of sources and reached an opposite (Sr, P) or variance of X-ray intensity during individual measurement (Fe).
conclusion: that magmatic anhydrite tends to have higher Sr Arrows show likely vectors of postentrapment exchange. Colored symbols are
contents (1,700–7,000 ppm) than hydrothermal anhydrite data from this study; black symbols are data from Chambefort et al. (2008).
Analyses from Julcani (Chambefort et al., 2008; 10,000–15,000 ppm Sr) are
(420–2,100 ppm) from porphyry environments. not plotted. Abbreviations: Amph = amphibole, Ap = apatite, Cpx = clinopy-
The Sr content of anhydrite analyzed in this study (Fig. 2A, B; roxene, HT = hydrothermal, Opx = orthopyroxene, Pheno = phenocryst, Plag
Table 2) ranged from 1,250 to 5,500 ppm, with silicate-hosted = plagioclase, Qtz = quartz, Tit = titanite.

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inclusions (Luhr Hill, Aucanquilcha, Veteran pit) having the Even at submagmatic temperatures, Sr diffusion in apatite
highest Sr contents (4,000–5,500 ppm), similar to amphibole- is relatively fast (~1.5 × 10–17 cm2s–1 at 700°C; Cherniak and
and pyroxene-hosted inclusions at Yanacocha. Apatite-hosted Ryerson, 1993), and it has been shown that in metamorphic
inclusions have lower Sr contents (1,500–3,300 ppm) except rocks exposed to peak temperatures of 660°C for ~105 yr, any
for those from the Veteran pit, which have Sr contents similar Sr zonation in apatite is effectively homogenized. Apatite-
to their silicate-hosted counterparts. Anhydrite inclusions in hosted anhydrite inclusions in slowly cooled plutonic rocks
both plagioclase and orthopyroxene from Augustine volcano are therefore unlikely to preserve their original Sr contents.
also have relatively low Sr contents (1,500–2,400 ppm), simi- Certainly apatite-hosted anhydrite inclusions from the Luhr
lar to analyses of phenocrysts and amphibole-hosted inclu- Hill have significantly lower Sr than those hosted in vari-
sions from Pinatubo. The P contents of most of the inclusions ous silicates from the same sample, despite broadly similar
(Fig. 2A; Table 2) are between 250 and 1,200 ppm, although a conditions of crystallization (Dilles, 1987). This difference is
number of apatite-hosted inclusions have somewhat elevated not apparent between silicate- and apatite-hosted inclusions
P contents, up to ~2,500 ppm. from the postmineral dike at the Veteran pit, Robinson, sug-
Plagioclase-hosted inclusions from this study, which have gesting that in this case, the intrusion and subsequent rapid
been interpreted as hydrothermal (see following section on CL cooling of the dike did not allow sufficient time for diffusion.
textures), generally have low Sr and P contents (<2,500 ppm
Sr, <500 ppm P), similar to hydrothermal anhydrite at Butte, Use of CL texture to identify hydrothermal anhydrite
Ajo, and El Salvador from previous studies (Chambefort et al., In the absence of a robust geochemical discriminator, we
2008). Unfortunately, many igneous anhydrite phenocrysts have used host mineral textures to aid in interpreting the ori-
(Pinatubo) and inclusions (those from Augustine and most gin of the inclusions. As described above, anhydrite hosted
apatite-hosted inclusions) also have low Sr and are in many in unaltered grains characterized by well-defined igneous
cases are compositionally indistinguishable from hydrother- growth zoning can be readily interpreted as igneous in origin
mal anhydrite. Of the other elements analyzed, only Ce was (Fig. 1), whereas anhydrite that is hosted in an igneous min-
commonly above the detection limit with concentrations 300 eral that exhibits fractures and altered zones characterized by
to 900 ppm, but Ce showed no obvious difference between patchy or mottled textures may be interpreted as hydrother-
hydrothermal and igneous anhydrite or between inclusions mal (Fig. 3).
trapped in different host minerals. In some cases, this zoning (or lack thereof) was obvious in
The low Sr and P of some magmatic anhydrite may reflect backscattered electron (BSE) or in reflected light, although
crystallization conditions but may also be explained by for apatite and plagioclase (which host the majority of anhy-
postentrapment exchange. Chambefort et al. (2008) sug- drite inclusions) color CL images provided the most detailed
gested that the high-Fe content of amphibole- and pyrox- evidence of alteration. For example, in the case of plagio-
ene-hosted anhydrite was evidence of subsolidus exchange, clase-hosted anhydrite from El Salvador (K porphyry; Gus-
and this is supported by our data; all the amphibole- and tafson and Hunt, 1975; Lee et al., 2017), mottled CL textures
pyroxene-hosted anhydrite inclusions analyzed for this study (Fig. 3C) and low Ca in zones hosting anhydrite inclusions
have significantly elevated Fe contents compared to those (extracted from QEMSCAN EDS mapping; Fig. 3B) strongly
included in plagioclase, apatite, or titanite from the same suggest these have been altered or precipitated by hydrother-
samples (Fig. 2B). mal alteration. This interpretation is supported by low Sr and
In the case of apatite-hosted inclusions, exchange of both P in the inclusions, as discussed above. In previous work on
Sr and P is likely. Sr2+ substitutes for Ca2+ in both anhydrite CL in apatite, Bouzari et al. (2016) suggested that unaltered
and apatite and should diffuse readily between the two. apatite from porphyry systems is typically yellow-brown in

Fig. 3. Anhedral hydrothermal anhydrite inclusion in plagioclase from K porphyry at El Salvador. A) Reflected-light image.
B) Map of plagioclase Ca content extracted from QEMSCAN energy dispersive spectrometry data. Note position of anhydrite
in altered, Ca-depleted zones of plagioclase. C) Cathodoluminescence image (CITL 8200 Mk 5-1, University of Geneva)
showing mottled, patchy texture in altered plagioclase grain. Abbreviations: Anh = anhydrite, Plag = plagioclase.

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color and with progressive alteration will tend to green (K sili- Discussion
cate alteration) or gray (sericitic alteration) CL colors.
The apatite imaged for this study varied widely in color Implications for magmatic sulfur budgets and
from blue to green to yellow but rarely showed the patchy ore deposit formation
textures that indicate alteration. Apatite grains separated Magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits, particularly porphyry
from porphyry dikes at Encuentro were an exception. They and high-sulfidation epithermal deposits, are more significant
show a wide range of CL textures likely related to the hydro- sulfur anomalies than they are metal anomalies with respect
thermal alteration. Three different textures are distinguished to average crustal abundances (J.P. Hunt, pers. commun., in
in Figure 4. The first, Ap1, images primary igneous zoning Gustafson, 1979). Furthermore, it has been shown that most
(Fig. 4A, B). It has commonly been replaced by Ap2, which arc magmas contain enough metal to produce an ore deposit,
is characterized by a patchy, mottled texture interpreted to assuming efficient concentrating processes (e.g., Dilles, 1987;
be the result of hydrothermal alteration of primary igneous Cline and Bodnar, 1991; Richards, 2015; Zhang and Audétat,
apatite (Fig. 4B, C), similar to that reported by Bouzari et 2017). On the other hand, it is difficult to reconcile the large
al. (2016). The third, Ap3, is homogeneous and shows neither quantities of sulfur contained in these deposits with the obser-
the primary igneous zoning nor the mottled texture related vation that they are primarily associated with more evolved,
to alteration (Fig. 4D). In Figure 4A primary growth zoning low-temperature magmas, in which the solubility of all sul-
bands are visible in the Ap1 core, but this apatite is embayed fur species is low (e.g., Baker and Moretti, 2011; Masotta and
and growth zones are truncated, suggesting resorption of the Keppler, 2015). A similar problem exists in volcanic systems,
crystal before later overgrowth of homogeneous and unzoned where measurements of SO2 emissions are often orders of
apatite (Ap3). Anhydrite inclusions are found in all the textural magnitude greater than the mass of degassed sulfur calculated
zones described above, but those hosted in homogeneous Ap3 by the petrologic method (Andres et al., 1991). In volcanic sys-
are generally more rounded and are darker in CL compared tems it is likely that the excess sulfur can be explained by the
to those hosted in Ap1 or Ap2. We hypothesize that anhydrites presence of a sulfur-rich aqueous fluid phase prior to eruption
hosted in largely unaltered igneous zones, Ap1 (Fig. 4B), are of (Westrich and Gerlach, 1992; Hattori, 1993; Wallace, 2001).
magmatic origin, those hosted in Ap2 (Fig. 4C) are magmatic In magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposit systems it has been
in origin but have been modified by hydrothermal alteration, proposed that the excess sulfur must come from a more primi-
and those hosted in later, apatite overgrowths, Ap3 (Fig. 4A, tive melt with a higher sulfur solubility, either by direct mixing
D), are probably hydrothermal in origin. However, there is or by volatile fluxing at a shallow level in the crust (Hattori and
no obvious link between the host textural zone and anhydrite Keith, 2001; Maughan et al., 2002; Blundy et al., 2015). An
trace element compositions. alternative explanation is that sulfur becomes concentrated
during magmatic evolution processes in the deep crust (cf.
Chambefort et al., 2008; Loucks, 2014). In this case, a more
evolved magma may still have a high bulk-sulfur content,
despite its low-sulfur solubility, with the majority stored as
crystalline anhydrite. Indeed, most of the anhydrite inclusions
presented in this study were likely trapped at temperatures
<900°C (apatite saturation temperatures ~900°–930°C, cal-
culated following the method of Piccoli and Candela, 1994,
using data from Harrison and Watson, 1984), implying melt
sulfur contents <1,000 ppm (Masotta and Keppler, 2015). If
these magmas contained 1 wt % anhydrite, comparable to
erupted products at El Chichon and Pinatubo (Luhr, 1990;
Pallister et al., 1992), this would account for ~2,300 ppm sul-
fur, more than two-thirds of the bulk sulfur content of the
magma.
An important implication of sulfate saturation is that any
estimates of melt sulfur content, derived from either melt
inclusions or solubility models or from measurements of sul-
fur in apatite, can only be considered minimum estimates of
the bulk sulfur content of the magma, with additional sulfur
stored as anhydrite. Streck and Dilles (1998) suggested that at
Yerington, a drop in the maximum sulfur content of apatite in
younger intrusive phases reflected the onset of sulfate satura-
Fig. 4. Cathodoluminescence images of anhydrite inclusions in apatite grains tion, rather than any loss of sulfur from the system. Their con-
from EEP 4 (B) and EEP-5 (A, C, D) porphyry dikes at Encuentro, Chile. clusion that this was a sign of cryptic anhydrite saturation has
Note wide range of textures in host apatites related to varying degrees of been confirmed by this study’s discovery of anhydrite inclu-
alteration and overgrowth. Images obtained using CITL Mk 4 at the Uni- sions in the Luhr Hill pluton.
versity of British Columbia. It should be noted that there is some difference
in the color of the images produced by this instrument compared to those in Sulfur storage as magmatic anhydrite is also proposed
Figure 1 but that the same textures were clearly visible in images taken using for ore-related magmas at Bingham. Grondahl and Zajacz
both instruments. Abbreviations: Anh = anhydrite, Ap = apatite. (2017) argued that synmineral latite dikes were formed by

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fractionation of a parental shoshonitic magma, which could ore-forming magmas typically differentiate relatively deep
have provided all the necessary sulfur to the system, and that in the crust (Kay and Mpodozis, 2001; Chambefort et al.,
during cooling this magma became saturated in anhydrite. 2008; Loucks, 2014; Chiaradia and Caricchi, 2017) where
The presence of anhydrite in the latite dikes and the sulfur they are water undersaturated and as such do not lose signif-
content of more primitive melt inclusions, which tracks mod- icant sulfur to degassing. Little experimental data currently
eled anhydrite solubility (300–900 ppm S in melt inclusions exist regarding sulfur partitioning into CO2-dominated flu-
with <65 wt % SiO2), suggests that the magma was continu- ids; however, melt inclusion data from Mt. Etna shows that
ally anhydrite saturated through evolution from 55 to 65 wt % sulfur degasses at lower pressures than CO2 and that little
SiO2. Alternatively, Zhang and Audétat (2017) suggest that sulfur is lost from the melt at pressures above 1,500 bar
these latite dikes were formed by mixing of end-member mel- (Spilliaert et al., 2006).
anephelinite and rhyolite magmas, with the mafic end mem- Alternatively, the observation that magmatic anhydrite
ber supplying a large part of the sulfur budget. However, they inclusions are most often reported in later stages of magma-
also show that the felsic end member must have contributed tism may be an artefact of the high solubility of anhydrite in
a significant amount of sulfur and was likely anhydrite satu- aqueous fluids and its resulting low preservation potential.
rated. Whether the synmineral latite dikes were formed by Pervasive hydrothermal alteration, which accompanies miner-
mixing or by evolution from a single-source magma, anhydrite alization, means that at many ore deposits, the only fresh rocks
forms an important part of the overall magmatic sulfur budget exposed at the surface are those that postdate ore formation.
that produced one of the world’s largest porphyry Cu-Mo-Au In a few cases—for example, at Yerington—­postemplacement
deposits (total resource of ca. 28 Mt Cu). tilting has exposed fresher rocks at the roots of ore-forming
intrusions; however, in most cases these rocks are at consider-
Anhydrite in later stages of ore formation able depth, well below the limits of drilling. In a number of
This study lends weight to the hypothesis that ore-forming the more altered samples investigated here, the phases that
magmas are commonly sulfate saturated and that magmatic typically host anhydrite inclusions were either no longer pres-
anhydrite may constitute an important sulfur source to min- ent or had been largely replaced by secondary minerals, mak-
eralizing fluids. Nonetheless, questions remain on the timing ing the identification of primary igneous anhydrite impossible.
of sulfate saturation with respect to the ongoing magmatic Some long-lived magmatic systems related to ore deposits do
evolution of these systems. Do ore-forming magmas begin to preserve anhydrite in early as well as late rocks. At Yanacocha,
crystallize anhydrite as sulfur is added from an external source Peru, unaltered andesite-dacite volcanic rocks are widely pre-
at shallow levels in the crust (for example, underplating mafic served, and anhydrite inclusions are found in magmas span-
magma; Maughan et al., 2002) or in response to recharge, ning >3 m.y. that are genetically related the epithermal gold
mixing, assimilation, and cooling in lower-crustal melt, assimi- deposits containing about 1 Gt of hydrothermal sulfur (Cham-
lation, storage, and homogenization (MASH) zones (Chambe- befort et al., 2008).
fort et al., 2008)?
In many previous studies, occurrences of magmatic anhy- Conclusions
drite are limited to some of the youngest igneous units in a We have shown that with careful sample preparation, using oil
given district, often in syn- or postmineralization intrusions. rather than water, and the use of EDS mapping it is possible
This is true of the Bulolo dike at Julcani (Deen et al., 1994), to identify small and sparse inclusions of anhydrite that pro-
late latite dikes at Bingham (Zhang and Audétat, 2017), and vide evidence of sulfate saturation in magma. We suggest that
postmineralization “zero” porphyries at Northparkes (Lick- host mineral textures evident in QEMSCAN element maps
fold et al., 2003). Several of the samples investigated here and in CL images, and in some cases trace element composi-
also support this observation, including at El Salvador, where tions from EMPA analysis, can be used to distinguish between
anhydrite inclusions were identified in mineral separates from magmatic and hydrothermal anhydrite, although there is clear
the K porphyry, associated with waning magmatism and late evidence for postentrapment modification of many inclusions.
mineralization, and from latite dikes which postdate mineral- Several of the localities investigated here have been well
ization (Lee et al., 2017). At Yerington, anhydrite inclusions studied, but given the apparent sparsity of inclusions and the
were identified in several different minerals from the Luhr high solubility of anhydrite in cold water, it is no surprise that
Hill granite, the youngest intrusive phase of the Yerington magmatic anhydrite has not been previously described. We
batholith and the phase most intimately associated with min- propose that the presence of anhydrite inclusions is broadly
eralization (Dilles, 1987). At Robinson, anhydrite inclusions underreported and that anhydrite may be a common, if
were found in a postmineralization dike, which crosscuts per- ephemeral, phase in arc magmas. If this is the case, consider-
vasively altered synmineralization intrusions. At Encuentro, ation of the sulfur budgets of such magmas must account for
the evidence is less clear, but anhydrite inclusions are present the possibility that anhydrite is present, even if not evident
in apatite from the five porphyry intrusions that are directly from routine petrography.
associated with pulses of hydrothermal alteration and miner- We have demonstrated in this limited survey that anhy-
alization (Osorio, 2017). drite is a commonly present but very rare inclusion in igne-
Our observations show that in many cases sulfur was ous minerals from arc magmas associated with sulfur-rich ore
behaving incompatibly during magmatic evolution and that deposits. Anhydrite is a means of storing significant quantities
later intrusive phases tended to have higher sulfur contents of sulfur in low-temperature magmas (~1 vol % anhydrite is
and therefore were more likely to be anhydrite saturated (cf. approximately 2,300 ppm S) and, during degassing, may break
Streck and Dilles, 1998). This is consistent with the idea that down to provide sulfur to magmatic-hydrothermal fluids.

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We anticipate that in the future carefully conducted micro- Dirksen, O., Humphreys, M.C.S., Pletchov, P., Melnik, O., Demyanchuk, Y.,
imaging studies will expand the number of examples of anhy- Sparks, R.S.J., and Mahony, S., 2006, The 2001–2004 dome-forming erup-
tion of Shiveluch volcano, Kamchatka: Observation, petrological investi-
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bearing silicic magmas from the Julcani Ag-Cu-Bi-Pb-Au-W district, Peru:
Acknowledgments Physicochemical conditions of a productive magma: Canadian Institute of
Mining Conference on Granite-Related Mineral Deposits, Halifax, Sep-
Support for this project came from National Science Founda- tember 15–17, 1985, Extended Abstracts, p. 87–100.
tion grant EAR-1624547. We would like to thank Kalin Kouz- Grondahl, C., and Zajacz, Z., 2017, Magmatic controls on the genesis of por-
manov for help with QEMSCAN data processing and CL phyry Cu-Mo-Au deposits: The Bingham Canyon example: Earth and Plan-
imaging at the University of Geneva, Farhad Bouzari for help etary Science Letters, v. 480, p. 53–65.
Gustafson, L.B., 1979, Porphyry copper deposits and calc-alkaline volcanism,
with CL imaging at University of British Columbia, and Frank in McElhinny, M.W., ed., The Earth: Its origin, structure, and evolution:
Tepley and Melissa Drignon for help with EMPA analyses at London, Academic Press, p. 427–468.
Oregon State University. We would like to thank Allan Lerner Gustafson, L.B., and Hunt, J.P., 1975, The porphyry copper deposit at El
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Encuentro porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposit, northern Chile: Unpublished
M.S. thesis, Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State University, 179 p.
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mation of initial halogen concentrations in the Bishop tuff (Long Valley) Michael Hutchinson is a Ph.D. student studying
and Tuolumne intrusive suite (Sierra Nevada batholith) magmas: American at Oregon State University, Oregon, United States.
Journal of Science, v. 294, p. 92–135. He received an M.Sci. degree in geology from the
Richards, J.P., 2015, The oxidation state, and sulfur and Cu contents of arc University of Bristol (United Kingdom; 2011) and
magmas: Implications for metallogeny: Lithos, v. 233, p. 27–45. worked in the exploration industry in Mali before
Scaillet, B., Clemente, B., Evans, B.W., and Pichavant, M., 1998, Redox con-
moving to Oregon. His research is focused on the
trol of sulfur degassing in silicic magmas: Journal of Geophysical Research:
Solid Earth, v. 103, p. 23,937–23,949. behavior of magmatic volatiles, particularly sulfur,
Simon, A.C., Candela, P.A., Piccoli, P.M., Mengason, M., and Englander, L., and on the trace element evolution of ore-forming magmas.
2008, The effect of crystal-melt partitioning on the budgets of Cu, Au, and
Ag: American Mineralogist, v. 93, p. 1437–1448.
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p. 772–786.
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drite in plutonic rocks at the El Teniente Cu-Mo deposit, Chile, and the
role of sulfur- and copper-rich magmas in its formation: Economic Geology,
v. 102, p. 1335–1344. John Dilles is a professor of geology (since 1986)
Streck, M.J., and Dilles, J.H., 1998, Sulfur evolution of oxidized arc magmas at Oregon State University (OSU), Oregon, United
as recorded in apatite from a porphyry copper batholith: Geology, v. 26, States, where he teaches courses in mineral depos-
p. 523. its, field geology, and petrology-geochemistry. Prior to his OSU appointment,
Walker, B.A., Klemetti, E.W., Grunder, A.L., Dilles, J.H., Tepley, F.J., and he worked for Hunt, Ware and Proffett in mineral exploration and briefly
Giles, D., 2013, Crystal reaming during the assembly, maturation, and wan- did small-scale gold mining. He is the SEG 2016 Silver Medalist and 2018
ing of an eleven-million-year crustal magma cycle: Thermobarometry of the
Thayer Lindsley Lecturer. His research is focused on oxidation states, vola-
Aucanquilcha volcanic cluster: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology,
v. 165, p. 663–682. tile contents, and petrogenesis of porphyry-epithermal ore-forming magmas,
hydrothermal wall-rock alteration mineralogy and geochemistry, structural
geology, and geochronology.

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