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Lithologic controls on mineralization at the Lagunas Norte high-sulfidation

epithermal gold deposit, northern Peru

Article  in  Mineralium Deposita · June 2013

DOI: 10.1007/s00126-013-0455-6

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Miner Deposita
DOI 10.1007/s00126-013-0455-6

ARTICLE

Lithologic controls on mineralization at the Lagunas Norte

high-sulfidation epithermal gold deposit, northern Peru
Luis M. Cerpa & Thomas Bissig & Kurt Kyser &
Craig McEwan & Arturo Macassi & Hugo W. Rios

Received: 26 August 2011 / Accepted: 15 January 2013

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract The 13.1-Moz high-sulfidation epithermal gold (2.1 ‰) indicate a magmatic source for the sulfur. The
deposit of Lagunas Norte, Alto Chicama District, northern second hydrothermal stage resulted in the emplacement of
Peru, is hosted in weakly metamorphosed quartzites of the diatremes and the related volcanic rocks. The Dafne diat-
Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous Chimú Formation and reme features a relatively impermeable core dominated by
in overlying Miocene volcanic rocks of dacitic to rhyolitic milled slate from the Chicama Formation, whereas the
composition. The Dafne and Josefa diatremes crosscut the Josefa diatreme only contains Chimú Formation quartzite
quartzites and are interpreted to be sources of the pyroclastic clasts. The third hydrothermal stage introduced the bulk of
volcanic rocks. Hydrothermal activity was centered on the the mineralization and affected the volcanic rocks, the diat-
diatremes and four hydrothermal stages have been defined, remes, and the Chimú Formation. In the volcanic rocks,
three of which introduced Au ± Ag mineralization. The first classic high-sulfidation epithermal alteration zonation
hydrothermal stage is restricted to the quartzites of the exhibiting vuggy quartz surrounded by a quartz–alunite
Chimú Formation and is characterized by silice parda, a and a quartz–alunite–kaolinite zone is observed. Company
tan-colored aggregate of quartz-auriferous pyrite–rutile ± data suggest that gold is present in solid solution or micro
digenite infilling fractures and faults, partially replacing inclusions in pyrite. In the quartzite, the alteration is subtle
silty beds and forming cement of small hydraulic breccia and is manifested by the presence of pyrophyllite or kaolin-
bodies. The δ34S values for pyrite (1.7–2.2‰) and digenite ite in the silty beds, the former resulting from relatively high
silica activities in the fluid. In the quartzite, gold minerali-
zation is hosted in a fracture network filled with coarse
Editorial handling: F. Tornos alunite, auriferous pyrite, and enargite. Alteration and min-
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article eralization in the breccias were controlled by permeability,
(doi:10.1007/s00126-013-0455-6) contains supplementary material, which depends on the type and composition of the matrix,
which is available to authorized users.
cement, and clast abundance. Coarse alunite from the main
L. M. Cerpa (*) mineralization stage in textural equilibrium with pyrite and
Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Católica del enargite has δ34S values of 24.8–29.4‰ and d 18 OSO4 values
Norte, Av. Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile
e-mail: lcerpa@gmail.com of 6.8–13.9‰, consistent with H2S as the dominant sulfur
species in the mostly magmatic fluid and constraining the
T. Bissig fluid composition to low pH (0–2) and logfO2 of −28 to −30.
Mineral Deposit Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Alunite–pyrite sulfur isotope thermometry records temper-
Vancouver, Canada
atures of 190–260 °C; the highest temperatures
K. Kyser corresponding to samples from near the diatremes. Alunite
Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada of the third hydrothermal stage has been dated by 40Ar/39Ar
C. McEwan : A. Macassi : H. W. Rios
at 17.0±0.22 Ma. The fourth hydrothermal stage introduced
Minera Barrick Misquichilca, Av. Victor Andrés Belaunde, only modest amounts of gold and is characterized by the
Lima, Peru presence of massive alunite–pyrite in fractures, whereas
 Miner Deposita

barite, drusy quartz, and native sulfur were deposited in the sediment samples (Dunin-Borkowski 2000). Minera Barrick
volcanic rocks. The d 18 OSO4 values of stage IV alunite vary Misquichilca acquired the property in 2001 and announced
between 11.5 and 11.7‰ and indicate that the fluid was the discovery of the deposit in April 2002 with an initial
magmatic, an interpretation also supported by the isotopic resource of 3.5 Moz of Au with an average grade of 1.95 g/t
composition of barite (δ34S=27.1 to 33.8‰ and d 18 OSO4 = (Araneda et al. 2003). Gold production commenced in late
8.1 to 12.7‰). The Δ34Spy–alu isotope thermometry records 2005 and attained annual production of 1.2 Moz at a cash
temperatures of 210 to 280 °C with the highest values cost of $125/oz in 2008. The total production and current
concentrated around the Josefa diatreme. The Lagunas reserves is ∼13.1 Moz Au (Barrick Gold Corp. Annual
Norte deposit was oxidized to a depth of about 80 m below Report 2011).
the current surface making exploitation by heap leach meth-
ods viable.
Regional geologic setting
Keywords Diatreme . Breccia . High sulfidation .
Epithermal . Central Andes . Miocene . Landscape evolution The Mesozoic units of northern Peru (Fig. 1) consist of
sedimentary rocks deposited during the Andean cycle
(Mégard 1987). Starting in the Tithonian, the western
Introduction Peruvian continental margin was dominated by the subsid-
ing Chicama basin (Jaillard and Jacay 1989), where locally
Lagunas Norte (7°56′ S, 78°15′ E) is one of the most recent as much as 2,500 m shale, intercalated with subordinate thin
discoveries of world class epithermal gold deposits in north- sandstone beds (Chicama Formation: Jaillard and Soler
ern Peru and is, in contrast to other important epithermal 1996) was deposited in a dominantly deep marine sedimen-
deposits of the region (e.g., Pierina: Rainbow 2009; tary environment. In the Berriasian–Valanginian, a gradual
Yanacocha: Longo et al. 2010), not only hosted in volcanic transition from deep marine to shallower siliciclastic sedi-
rocks but also in Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous mentation occurred, resulting in a succession of quartz sand-
quartzites. The limited reactivity of the quartzites resulted stones derived from the Guyana and Brasilia cratons
in important challenges in mapping of the alteration and (Moulin 1989). These sandstones were probably deposited
consequently the relatively recent discovery of the deposit in a fluvio-deltaic environment and in the study area are
(Araneda et al. 2003), despite the fact that it is well exposed represented by the Chimú Formation (Benavides-Cáceres
at surface. 1956; Jaillard and Jacay 1989). The transition from a pelagic
In this article, we present a genetic model of the Lagunas to shallow continental margin environment marks a change
Norte deposit on the basis of the paragenetic evolution, in paleogeography due to a drastic change in subduction
mineralization, and alteration and its relationship with the geometry at the northern Peruvian margin at that time
rocks that host the mineralization. We also present stable (Jaillard et al. 2000).
isotope data for pyrite, barite, and three types of alunite, The Valanginian was dominated by marine transgressions
commonly in textural equilibrium with auriferous pyrite, and regressions giving rise to the Santa–Carhuaz Formation
which constrain the origin of the mineralizing fluids and (Benavides-Cáceres 1956) which consists of alternating
allow documentation of the evolution of the magmatic- sandy and shaly beds. Carbonate and black shales of the
hydrothermal system of Lagunas Norte. Chulec and Pariatambo Formations, respectively, overlie the
Santa–Carhuaz Formation and indicate a progressively
Exploration history and reserves deepening depositional environment. In the Aptian, the
western border of the Chicama basin was the site of intense
Prior to the discovery of the Lagunas Norte Au–Ag deposit, volcanic arc activity (Casma Group; Atherton et al. 1985;
significant coal mining had been carried out in the Alto Soler 1991). Marine sedimentation and volcanism ended in
Chicama area since the end of the nineteenth century. the Albian during dextral transpressive deformation in the
Between 1880 and 1931, Compañia Minera Northern arc (Soler and Bonhomme 1990). Volcanic activity was
exploited the Callacuyan coal deposit, located 5 km to the succeeded by voluminous intrusive activity leading to the
NW of Lagunas Norte (Escudero 1979). Only small-scale emplacement of the 100–55 Ma Coastal Batholith (Cobbing
coal mining for local domestic use took place after 1931, as et al. 1981; Soler 1991).
larger scale operations were not profitable due to the high In the late Cretaceous, the Mariana-type subduction was
sulfur content of the coal (Manrique 1986). replaced by the present-day Andean-type subduction
In 1999, Centromin-Perú carried out preliminary studies (Benavides-Cáceres 1999). This resulted in a tectonic inver-
to evaluate the metallic mineral potential of the area, which sion and intense compressive deformation which gave rise to
led to the identification of elevated gold values in stream the Marañon Fold and Thrust Belt (Benavides-Cáceres 1999).
Miner Deposita

79 78
80 70
0 0
Ecuador C o lo m b ia
N
PERU

B ra s il
T ru jillo
10º 10

L im a

C usco

80 70
Yanacocha
7 7

CAJAMARCA

La Virgen
PA C IF IC
O CEAN
Lagunas
Norte
8 Callacuyan 8
TRUJILLO
Quaternary
Miocene Calipuy Gp.
Oligocene-Miocene
volcanic rocks Quiruvilca
Cordillera Blanca Batholith
Coastal Batholith
Late Cretaceous, siliciclastic
and carbonaceous rocks
Lower Cretaceous
Chimú Fm.
siliciclastic rocks
Upper Jurassic, shales Chicama Fm.
Lower Jurassic, siliciclastic
rocks and shales
Permo-Triassic limestones

Paleozoic, metamorphic rocks

79 78

Fig. 1 Simplified geological map of northwestern Peru and locations of Lagunas Norte and other deposits of the Miocene metallogenetic belt of
Peru (modified from INGEMMET (1999) and Noble and McKee (1999))

The folded Mesozoic rocks are unconformably overlain by the Peruvian margin due to the subduction of the aseismic Nazca
Eocene to Miocene Calipuy Group volcanic and volcaniclastic ridge and oceanic Inca plateau (Gutscher et al. 1999; Hampel
rocks (Cossío and Jaén 1967; Wilson 1975; Rivera et al. 2005; 2002). The emplacement of many ore deposits in Peru may be
Montgomery 2012). Volcanism ceased in the middle to late directly related to these changes in subduction geometry
Miocene along most of northern and central Peru. This cessa- (Rosenbaum et al. 2005; Bissig et al. 2008; Bissig and
tion has been attributed to the onset of flat subduction along the Tosdal 2009).
 Miner Deposita

Deposit geology interpreted as diatremes from which the eruptive products

probably originated.
Mesozoic basement The Quesquenda unit is named after an eruptive center
4 km to the north of the deposit (Rivera et al. 2005) and crops
The basement at Lagunas Norte is dominated by Mesozoic out in the easternmost portions of the deposit. There it consists
pelitic and siliciclastic rocks belonging to the Chicama and of more than 150 m pyroclastic and volcaniclastic rocks of
Chimú Formations, respectively (Reyes 1980). These andesitic composition with interstratified lithic-rich tuffaceous
Mesozoic rocks are thrusted and folded into NW striking deposits containing carbonized wood (see electronic supple-
east-verging folds (the Marañon Fold and Thrust Belt: mentary data). The Quesquenda unit is interpreted a product
Benavides-Cáceres 1999) and are weakly metamorphosed to of pyroclastic eruptions interbedded with lahar deposits.
slate and quartzite. Lower Miocene volcanic rocks assigned to The Dafne unit consists of a series of breccias in the
the Calipuy Group were deposited unconformably over the western part of the mineralized area. The breccia body
folded Mesozoic strata. Gold mineralization is hosted by the overall has a subvertical inverted cone shape and in plan
siliciclastic Chimú Formation and the overlying volcanic stra- view a NW elongated ellipsoid shape measuring up to
ta. The deposit stratigraphy is described below in detail 1 km along its long axis. The breccia body cuts the
(Figs. 2 and 3). Mesozoic basement (Chicama and Chimú Formations)
The Jurassic Chicama Formation (Stappenbeck 1929; and is thought to be a diatreme. Four principal lithofacies
Cossío and Jaén 1967) crops out to the west and north of the associations have been identified and their characteris-
mining operations (Fig. 2). Its thickness is unknown in the tics, spatial relationships, and alteration are described
study area but has been estimated to be up to 1,500 m thick below, following the classification scheme proposed by
40 km S of Lagunas Norte (Cossío and Jaén 1967; Jaillard and Davies et al. (2000, 2008) and Gifkins et al. (2005). The
Jacay 1989). It consists of a succession of dark carbonaceous four breccia lithofacies are the diatreme margin, main
shale and siltstone with occasional thin beds of fine-grained body, crater, and apron lithofacies and are summarized
sandstone (see electronic supplementary data). The unit has in Table 1 and illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5.
been weakly metamorphosed to slate and features an intense The diatreme margin lithofacies generally consists of
cleavage subparallel to the bedding. The transition to the clast-supported monomict and polymict breccias in a
overlying Chimú Formation (see below) is gradual and char- rock flour or juvenile volcanic matrix. Hydrothermal
acterized by increasing abundance of quartzite intercalations. cement is ubiquitous (Table 1). The breccias show coarse
The Chicama Formation does not crop out at the deposit, but stratification parallel to the diatreme margin. No clasts of
its presence below the mineralized zone is evident from clasts breccia within breccia have been observed. Three
of slate in the Dafne breccia (see below) crosscutting the domains of monomictic breccias (Table 1) contain, re-
Mesozoic strata. spectively, quartzite, siltstone, or tan-colored hydrother-
The Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous Chimú Formation mal quartz clasts (locally termed silice parda, see
(Benavides-Cáceres 1956) is the principal ore host (Figs. 2 below). The clasts are angular to subangular and the
and 3). It consists of compositionally mature quartz sandstone breccias have jigsaw-fit to slightly rotated textures. The
(typically ∼95 % SiO2; see electronic supplementary data) but polymictic breccias contain subangular-rotated clasts of
contains occasional coal beds, which historically have been quartzite and siltstone. They have a rock flour matrix and
exploited, as well as scarce siltstone and shale intercalations. cement of hydrothermal quartz and, at depth, pyrite. The
The sandstone has undergone weak metamorphism which diatreme margin lithofacies has a gradual transition to the
resulted in some recrystallization and cementation of quartz wall rock with jigsaw-fit textures, angular clasts, and
grains to form quartzite. The thickness of the Chimú locally monomictic breccia chimneys (Fig. 5b). Hydrothermal
Formation is estimated to about 450–600 m in the Lagunas cement of quartz and pyrite dominates over matrix.
Norte area (Benavides-Cáceres 1956). The main body lithofacies association occupies the central
portions of the diatreme and is volumetrically the most im-
Volcanic rocks of the Calipuy Group portant. It is largely composed of polymictic, matrix-
supported breccias (Fig 5c, d and Table 1) featuring quartzite,
A sequence of volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks assigned to siltstone, slate, and juvenile volcanic clasts (fiamme-like
the Calipuy Group (Cossío and Jaén 1967; Rivera et al. 2005; whispy clast shapes) as well as occasional silice parda hydro-
Montgomery 2012) overlies the Mesozoic strata in an angular thermal quartz fragments. The clasts are subangular to sub-
unconformity. At Lagunas Norte, four subunits from oldest to rounded and the breccias have no apparent internal
youngest, the Quesquenda, Dafne, Josefa, and Shulcahuanga organization or clast sorting. The matrix generally is rock
units, can be distinguished. The Josefa and Dafne units are flour derived from siltstone and shale and fine-grained
closely related to magmatic-hydrothermal breccia bodies reworked volcanic material.
Miner Deposita

803000 803500 804000 804500

ALEXA

9122000
9122000

JOSEFA A’

9121500
9121500

9121000
9121000

DAFNE
C Shulcahuanga

9120500
9120500

A A’
Tectonic Breccias s Cross Section
Shulcahuanga Unit Main Faults
Cenozoic Josefa Unit Pit Limits
Dafne Unit
Grade/Thickness contour
Quesquenda Unit (Au g/t x meters)
> 1000 g/T * m Au
9120000

Chimú Fm.
9120000

Mesozoic 250 g/T * m Au

Chicama Fm. L i 125 g/T * m Au

803000 803500 804000 804500

Fig. 2 Geological map of the Lagunas Norte deposit based on Barrick’s regional and local mapping. The three principal ore zones are labelled

In the upper central part of the diatreme, polymictic presence of large (up to 1.7 m in diameter) rounded to
unstratified and massive breccias are assigned to the crater subrounded quartzite and andesite blocks featuring striae
lithofacies. Their distinguishing characteristic is the on the clast surfaces (Fig. 5e and Table 1). Smaller clasts
 Miner Deposita

and fiamme are widely observed in the most peripheral

Shulcahuanga Unit
polymictic parts of the breccias (Fig. 5g). These polymictic
breccias are recognized up to 1 km north of the diatreme.

CALIPUY GROUP
QPF Unit Clast size in this unit decreases with increasing distance
CENOZOIC

from the diatreme.

Josefa Diatreme The Josefa unit is subdivided into two subunits. The first
unit is a breccia body interpreted as a diatreme and the
Dafne Diatreme
second consists of a volcanic and volcano-sedimentary suc-
Quesquenda Unit cession probably related to the same diatreme, although
other source(s) are possible. The diatreme was emplaced in
Chimú Fm. the eastern part of the deposit in the Josefa area (Fig. 2),
MESOZOIC

whereas the eruptive products have also been preserved in

the Alexa area, 1 km north of Josefa, and overlying the
Chicama Fm. peripheral parts of the Dafne breccia, 0.5 km to the west
(Fig. 2).
The Josefa diatreme is approximately 45 by 30 m in plan
Fig. 3 Generalized stratigraphic column showing the principal litho- view and was only recognized in the open pit after mining
logic units of Lagunas Norte deposit and cross-cutting relationships
had started. It has an inverted cone shape (Fig. 6a), but in
contrast to the larger Dafne diatreme, no siltstone, shale, and
include quartzite and siltstone, and the matrix consists of carbonaceous material is present. Quartz crystals up to
rock flour and juvenile volcanic material. 5 mm in diameter occur in the largely juvenile volcanic
The apron lithofacies located in upper peripheral parts of matrix.
the diatreme is characterized by an intercalation of polymic- The breccias at Josefa have been classified using the
tic and monomictic clast-supported breccias with rock flour same scheme as for the Dafne diatreme (Table 1). The
and volcanic matrix (Fig. 5f and Table 1). This lithofacies breccia margin lithofacies consist of monolithic clast-
shows coarse bedding (also known as tephra stratification: supported breccias with angular quartzite clasts and quartz
Lorenz 2003). Quartzite and siltstone clasts are subrounded crystals in a volcanic matrix (Fig. 6b). This breccia also
to rounded and locally tabular. Clast imbrication is common contains quartz–alunite cement. The main body of the

Table 1 Summary of lithofacies and distribution in the Dafne and Josefa diatremes

Characteristics Characteristics Distribution Interpretation

Dafne Josefa

Margin Layered monomictic and Layered polymictic breccias, At the border of both Successive phreatic and
lithofacies polymictic breccias, subangular to subrounded diatremes, in contact with phreatomagmatic explosions
subrounded to subangular clasts, crude stratification the bedrock; contact generate crude stratification;
clasts, crude stratification parallel to breccias margin; steeply dipping towards later overprinted by
parallel to breccia margin; cement support; advanced the center of diatremes hydrothermal activity
matrix and cement support; argillic alteration
advanced argillic alteration
Main Polymictic breccias, matrix Polymictic breccias, matrix and In the central part of both Mainly phreatomagmatic
body supported, not stratified, chaotic cement supported not stratified, diatremes explosions which reworked
lithofacies distribution, subrounded to chaotic distribution, matrix and clasts
rounded clasts; argillic subrounded to rounded clasts;
alteration advanced argillic alteration
Crater Massive body, polymictic, and Massive body, polymictic, In upper central part Succession of violent
lithofacies matrix supported; rounded clast; matrix, and cement supported; of both diatremes phreatomagmatic explosions,
chaotic to crude stratification at rounded clast; crude capable of ejecting large
border; contains large andesite stratification at border; contains bedrock blocks
blocks with striae on surfaces; large quartzite blocks;
argillic alteration advanced argillic alteration
Apron Gently dipping tephra Gently dipping tephra Located in the northwest Succession of phreatic and
lithofacies stratification; stratified, stratification; stratified, part of the Dafne phreatomagmatic events
polymictic, and clast, matrix, polymictic and clast supported, diatreme; also similar resulting in bedded succession;
and cement supported, rounded rounded to subrounded clast; facies in the southern part each bed representing an
to subrounded clast; advanced advanced argillic alteration of the Josefa diatreme explosive event and airfall
argillic alteration deposition
Miner Deposita

Shulcahuanga dome

Milled and reworked

diatreme facies
crater and main body lithofacies
argilic alteration

Chimú Fm. quarzite

Fault

Shulcahuanga Fault
andesite flows Fault

Chimú Fm. quarzite

Stratified and silicified diatreme facies

apron lithofacies

Fig. 4 Panoramic view of the Dafne diatreme. Photograph shows the pit exposure in 2007, looking from the northeast

breccia is polymictic and matrix supported. Clasts are sub- Overlying the QFP unit, the Dacitic units are a series of
angular to subrounded and juvenile clasts and quartz crys- pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits with pumice and
tals are present in a tuffaceous matrix (Fig. 6c). As in the lithic fragments but no quartz crystals (Fig. 7c). The lower
marginal facies, quartz–alunite cement is present. part of this unit locally shows planar stratification (Fig. 7d)
The crater lithofacies in the upper part of the Josefa and small paleochannels filled with lithic clasts up to 2 cm
diatreme is characterized by large quartzite blocks up to in size.
80 cm in diameter (Fig. 6d) in a tuffaceous matrix with Overlying the pumice- and lithic clast-bearing dacitic
abundant quartz crystals and juvenile volcanic clasts. deposits there is an ash tuff with only scarce lithic
The apron lithofacies is only partly preserved at the fragments. Within those strata between Dafne and
southern margin of the diatreme where it consists of a Josefa, abundant fossilized leaves and tree trunks that
series of crudely stratified beds (Fig. 6e). These deposits are still in vertical position have locally been found
are overlain by pyroclastic flow deposits which are (Fig. 7e). The pinnate leaves (Fig. 7f) are of campto-
inferred to be related to the eruptive activity at Josefa, drome shape, which indicates a humid and tropical flora
on the basis of lithologic similarities of the juvenile (Alvarez-Ramis 1999) comparable to that present now at
components in the diatreme. Two principal units have lower elevations in eastern Peru. The stratigraphically
been recognized: a quartz feldspar phyric unit (QFP highest rock type consists of pyroclastic deposits with
unit) and an overlying dacitic unit; the latter character- scarce quartz crystals and clasts of pumice and quartz-
ized by the absence of quartz phenocrysts. These vol- ite. The alteration of the dacitic unit is dominated by
canic units crop out at Josefa and Alexa as well as at advanced argillic assemblages (see below).
Dafne where they overlie the apron lithofacies breccias
(Figs. 2 and 3) and are generally affected by advanced Shulcahuanga unit
argillic alteration.
The QFP unit is characterized by monomictic breccias The Shulcahuanga unit consists of porphyritic andesite lavas
containing quartzite clasts. The clast sizes increase towards and andesitic to dacitic domes that crop out to the west and
the Josefa diatreme (locally termed paleosurface breccia, south of the deposit around Cerro Shulcahuanga. Andesitic
Fig. 7a). Overlying this breccia is a pyroclastic flow deposit lavas assigned to this unit overlie the Dafne unit (Figs. 2 and
with small (<2 cm) altered pumice fragments and quartz 3) and have been affected by only weak chlorite-
crystals up to 5 mm (Fig. 7b). This pyroclastic deposit is smectite/illite alteration. No conclusive stratigraphic rela-
overlain by lithic lapilli tuff containing small quartz crystals tionships with the Josefa unit have been observed, but due
and rare accretionary lapilli. The upper part of this tuff unit to the weaker alteration, the Shulcahuanga unit is interpreted
shows planar stratification. to be younger.
 Miner Deposita

Fig. 5 Lithofacies associations

of the Dafne Diatreme complex.
a Cross section (see Fig. 1 for
location of cross section),
looking northwest, through the
Dafne diatreme, showing
lithofacies distribution. b
Monomictic clast-supported
breccia showing pyrite cement
with angular clasts of quartzite
(Q) and siltstone (L). c Shulcahuanga Unit

Polymictic breccia with Tectonic breccias

Volcanic facies
carbonaceous matrix-supported
Apron
juvenile clast (CJ), quartzite (Q),

Lithofacies
Diatreme
Crater
silice parda (SP), and siltstone Main Body

(L) from central diatreme body. d Margin

Polymictic clast-supported Chimú Fm.

breccia with clasts of siltstone A Chicama Fm.

(L), juvenile clasts (CJ), and

quartzite (Q). e Polymictic B C CJ
matrix-supported breccia with SP
large andesite boulders (A) up to
1.70 m in diameter; corresponds L
to the crater lithofacies. f Close-
up photograph of a coarsely
stratified polymictic breccia with Q
L
andesite blocks (A); corresponds
to the diatreme apron facies. g
Detail of clast-supported Q
polymictic breccia, showing
siltstone (L), quartzite (Q), and
juvenile clast (CJ) from the distal
apron breccia lithofacies D E
L

CJ

F G
L

CJ

0 1cm

Two lithologies are recognized. Firstly, andesite, locally Dafne diatreme. The second lithology forms the Shulcahuanga
known as Andesitas Azules due to the pale blue–green hue dome (Figs. 2 and 3) and adjacent lava flows to the east and
imposed by clay alteration, is characterized by a fine- exhibits a porphyritic texture with plagioclase, biotite, and
grained aphanitic groundmass with hornblende phenocrysts hornblende phenocrysts. These rocks are characterized by
and occurs as dykes that crosscut the southern margin of the prominent flow banding (Macassi 2005). An age range of
Miner Deposita

Fig. 6 Field photographs of the

Josefa breccia. a The Josefa A
breccia body in pit exposure 4090
E
(4,060 to 4,090 m.a.s.l. bench). D
Letters B to E refer to close-up 4080

photographs. b Volcanic and rock

4070
flour matrix crackle breccias with B
C
quartz–alunite cement, here
lacking juvenile fragments. c
Detail of polymictic breccia with 4060

quartzite and juvenile pumice

fragments. d Phreatomagmatic
breccia with a quartzite block
from the crater lithofacies. e
Close-up of the apron lithofacies
showing coarse bedding (marked
by red dashed lines)

B C

D E

16.8 to 17.3 Ma for the Shulcahuanga unit has been established using the SPECMIN database (Thompson et al. 1999) and
on the basis of 40Ar/39Ar data on biotite and hornblende local databases for interpretation of infrared spectra.
(Montgomery 2012). Stable O, S, and H isotopic analyses were carried out at
the Queen’s University Facility for Isotope Research,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada. The δ34S and d 18 OSO4 values
Analytical methods for alunite were determined using a method modified from
Wasserman et al. (1992) and Arehart et al. (1992). Sulfur
The alteration paragenesis defined by previous workers was extracted online with continuous flow technology, us-
(Guerra 2001; Araneda et al. 2003; Macassi 2005; Ríos ing a Finnigan MAT 252 isotope ratio mass spectrometer.
2005) has been refined on the basis of field observations Sulfate oxygen was extracted using the BrF5 technique of
and detailed petrography. Mineral assemblages have been Clayton and Mayeda (1963). Hydrogen isotopic composi-
identified by standard optical microscopy and, where appro- tions were measured using a Thermal Finnigan TCEA cou-
priate, by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray pled to a Thermo Finnigan Delta+ XP mass spectrometer
diffraction at the Universidad Católica del Norte. These and continuous flow technology (ConFlo III) as described in
analyses have been complemented by infrared spectroscopy Rainbow et al. (2005). All values are reported in units of per
using a Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer (PIMA) and mil (‰) relative to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water for
 Miner Deposita

Fig. 7 Volcanic stratigraphy of

the Josefa volcanic unit. a A B C
Monomictic breccia with
hydrothermal cement (by mine
geologists also referred to as
Paleosurface Breccia)
representing the basal portion. b
Detail of pyroclastic flow with
pumice fragments and tiny
quartz crystals, affected by
advanced argillic alteration. c
Pumice and quartzite clast-
bearing pyroclastic flow deposit
affected by advanced argillic
alteration. d Fine-grained
laminated ash fall deposit of the
upper volcanic member of the
Josefa volcanic unit, affected by
pervasive advanced argillic
alteration. e Remnant of a
D E F
carbonized tree (yellow arrow)
in upright position in the ash
fall deposit of the upper Josefa
volcanic unit. f Detail of
fossilized leaf present in an ash
fall deposit in the upper Josefa
volcanic unit 50cm

O and H and Cañon Diablo Troilite for S isotopic composi- zonation pattern typical for high-sulfidation systems
tions. Accuracy was monitored using standards calibrated to (e.g., Simmons et al. 2005) with a nucleus of vuggy
NIST 8556 and 8557 for sulfur and oxygen and NIST 8538 quartz, surrounded by quartz–alunite and dickite–kaolin-
biotite for hydrogen. Analytical precision for both δ34S ite ± alunite zones which indicate acidic fluids that
a n d d 18 OSO4 v a l u e s i s 0 . 3 ‰ , f o r δ D 3 ‰ . became progressively neutralized during reaction with
Paleotemperature for coexisting alunite–pyrite pairs is the host rock. Contrasting the volcanic units, alteration
calculated using the following fractionation factors: 103 affecting the quartzite is subtle and difficult to detect
ln apy
H2 S ¼ 0:40  106 T
2 (Ohmoto and Rye 1979) and (see electronic supplementary data) but kaolinite and, in
103 ln aalunðSO4 Þ
H2 S ¼ 6:463  106 T
2 þ 0:56 (Ohmoto and more silty strata, pyrophyllite have been detected by
Lasaga 1982). PIMA.
One sample has been dated by the 40Ar/39Ar method at Four hydrothermal stages have been defined at Lagunas
the Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research. Norte (Fig. 8) and are described below. Gold was introduced
Alunite was handpicked and analyzed as described in Bissig during stages 1 and 3; the latter being the principal miner-
et al. (2008). The data are included as digital appendix alization stage. Minor additional gold was also introduced
(ESM). during stage 4. Supergene oxidation to depths of up to 80 m
below the current surface made the ore amenable to heap
leaching methods.
Hydrothermal evolution and mineralization
Stage I: early hydrothermal activity
The hydrothermal alteration at Lagunas Norte manifests
itself in very distinctive ways, depending on the host The first hydrothermal event at Lagunas Norte is character-
rock compositions and textures. In the upper volcanic- ized by fine-grained yellowish to tan-colored aggregates of
hosted part of the deposit, the alteration developed a quartz, pyrite, and minor rutile, which is referred to as silice
Miner Deposita

STAGE I STAGE II STAGE III STAGE IV STAGE V

ChimúFm. /
Chimú Fm. Chimú Fm. Volcanic units Chimú Fm. /Volcanic units Volcanic units

Gold
Silice Parda

Pyrite

Dafne and Josefa Diatremes

Digenite
Chalcopyrite
Rutile
Alunite

emplacement
Coarse Disseminated Massive

Enargite
Pyrophylite
Stibnite
Carbonaceous layers
Arsenopyrite
Diaspore
Barite
Drusy Quartz
Sulfur
Jarosite
Scorodite
Hematite
Goethite

Fig. 8 Paragenetic sequence from Lagunas Norte deposit; thickness of lines shows the relative abundance of minerals

parda by mine geologists, a term also used herein. This abundance, type, shape, and size of clasts. A minimum age
assemblage is restricted to the Chimú Formation where it for the brecciation events is given by the oldest age of
was generally emplaced along a network of preexisting alunite within the overlying volcanic sequence of 17.05±
fractures and is best developed in silty layers, but also forms 0.12 Ma (Montgomery 2012).
the cement of small fault controlled monomictic breccia
bodies (Fig. 9a, b). Stage III: main mineralization stage
In the area between Josefa and Dafne and in the southern
part of the Josefa zone, silice parda is accompanied by Most of the gold was introduced during this stage and is
chalcopyrite and digenite (Fig. 9c, d). Gold is not visible contained within the pyrite but not visible optically. The
by SEM or optical microscopy, but company internal min- main mineralization and alteration stage is difficult to detect
eralogical studies show that gold is associated with pyrite, in the quartzite. However, fracture infill of coarse alunite
and we assume that gold is present in solid solution or as (Fig. 10a) associated with pyrite and enargite (Fig. 10b), at
nanoparticles in the pyrite, as in other Andean high- depths below 80 m from the present surface, is observed. In
sulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g., Pascua; Chouinard et the quartzite, disseminated kaolinite has been detected by
al. 2005a). As indicated by the presence of silice parda PIMA. In the more silty beds of the Chimú Formation in the
clasts in the Dafne diatreme, the first mineralization stage core of Lagunas Norte, pyrophyllite is present, whereas
preceded the diatreme emplacement. Absolute age con- kaolinite occurs in the periphery of the deposit. In beds
straints for silice parda were not determined due to a lack where coal is present, a sulfide assemblage containing py-
of dateable minerals in this assemblage. However, rite, stibnite, and arsenopyrite is observed locally.
Montgomery (2012) reports an age of paragenetically early In both diatremes alteration patterns are lithologically con-
alunite hosted in the Chimú Formation of 17.36±0.14 Ma, trolled. The margin of the Dafne breccia is intensely silicified
which may be considered a minimum age for this stage. with minor alunite, whereas in the main body, dickite–kaolin-
ite alteration affected juvenile fragments, and fracture con-
Stage II: phreatic and phreatomagmatic activity trolled silicification is present locally. The crater facies shows
a weak dickite–kaolinite alteration restricted to matrix and
The breccia lithofacies present in the Dafne and Josefa juvenile fragments. In the apron lithofacies, the matrix com-
diatremes suggest that they formed by phreatic and phrea- position determines the alteration intensity and assemblages.
tomagmatic activity which here is defined as the second Where the matrix is predominantly carbonaceous, the juvenile
hydrothermal stage. This stage was important as ground fragments are preferentially altered to alunite–dickite–kaolin-
preparation for subsequent mineralization by fracturing the ite, whereas in beds with volcanic matrix, quartz–alunite is the
adjacent rock and as host of a portion of the ore. dominant alteration assemblage. The Josefa breccias are per-
Mineralization in the diatremes is controlled by the perme- vasively altered to quartz–alunite and juvenile fragments have
ability, which in turn is controlled by matrix type and commonly been replaced by pyrite and alunite.
 Miner Deposita

Fig. 9 Photographs showing

the principal characteristics of A B
the first stage of mineralization.
a Monomictic breccias with
tan-colored quartz cement
(silice parda, see text for
details). b Replacement of silty
layers of the Chimú Formation
by silice parda. c Polished
section photograph of first stage
of mineralization showing the
granular texture of silice parda
and interspersed small pyrite
crystals (Py). d Detail of
polished section photograph of
pyrite crystals (Py) in digenite
(Di) present in quartzite (Qz)

C D
Qz
Py
Di

Py

0 0,1mm 0 0,01mm

40
In the volcano-sedimentary levels at Dafne, Josefa, and Ar/39Ar plateau age of 17.0±0.22 Ma (Fig. 12), which is
Alexa as well as in the Josefa marginal facies and the Dafne consistent with the age range of 16.7 to 17.1 Ma inferred for
breccia, an alteration zoning pattern typical for high- the main hydrothermal activity (Montgomery 2012). The
sulfidation epithermal deposits is observed. The distribution andesitic volcanic rocks surrounding the deposit have been
of vuggy quartz zones is controlled by small E-oriented affected by weak to moderate argillic alteration where illite
faults and the permeability of volcanic or breccia facies. partly replaces hornblende and quartz–chlorite veinlets have
Within the volcanic package, vuggy quartz is best developed been observed (Fig. 11b).
in pumice- and crystal-rich pyroclastic flow deposits where
pumice fragments and feldspar phenocrysts were leached Stage IV: late-stage alteration
and the volcanic matrix was completely replaced by residual
quartz (Fig. 10c, d). Surrounding the vuggy quartz zone, the Late-stage alteration is characterized by massive alunite
assemblage quartz–alunite–pyrite altered the rocks. Alunite forming the cement of local fault breccias and filling thin
has replaced feldspars and pumice clasts (Fig. 10e, f) and the fractures in Chimú quartzite. This alunite is white to
groundmass has been replaced by fine-grained quartz and yellowish in color (Fig. 11c), forming fine-grained and
pyrite. Pyrite has generally been oxidized but is preserved massive aggregates. Pyrite in textural equilibrium with
together with alunite in some silicified strata at Alexa this type of alunite is observed (Fig. 11d). Traces of
(Fig. 11a), whereas at Josefa, it occurs together with rutile. kaolinite and, at Alexa, diaspore are generally present
The matrix of the breccia at the base of the volcanic pile has as well. The massive alunite has cut pyrophyllite-altered
been affected by pervasive quartz–alunite ± kaolinite–dick- siltstone beds and overgrown coarse-grained alunite. The
ite alteration. Disseminated alunite from the volcanic Josefa last manifestation of hydrothermal activity is barite, ru-
unit representing this main mineralization stage gives an tile, and drusy quartz as well as late native sulfur filling
Miner Deposita

Fig. 10 Photographs showing

characteristics of hydrothermal A B Qz
stage III. a Coarse alunite
crystals in fracture of Chimú
quartzite. b Polished section
microphotograph of enargite En
(En) and pyrite (Py) in quartz
(Qz) gangue, indicative of
Py
alunite–pyrite–enargite related
fluids (Deyell et al. 2005). c
Vuggy quartz texture in
volcanic unit at Alexa. d
Disseminated alunite (Al) 1cm
0 0,25mm
replacing feldspar, Josefa
volcanic unit. e Alunite (Al)
replacing feldspar crystals and C D
pumice fragments in a tuff
deposit from the Josefa volcanic
unit. f Thin-section
microphotograph of tabular
alunite crystals (Al) replacing
plagioclase phenocrysts Al

E F

Al

Al

0 1mm

open spaces in the volcanic rocks. Barite-filled fractures Stable isotopes

occur in the quartzite at Alexa and Josefa. Only modest
gold mineralization is associated with this late-stage al- Stable isotopic compositions were obtained for each para-
teration. The youngest 40Ar/39Ar age on alunite reported genetic stage. δ34S values (Fig. 13) were obtained for
by Montgomery (2012) is 16.45±0.28 Ma and is herein sulfides from all paragenetic stages, whereas δ34S, δD,
interpreted to constrain hydrothermal stage IV. and d 18 OSO4 values were obtained for alunite from stages
III and IV (Fig. 14). The δ34S values and Δ34Salu–py
Stage V: supergene stage precipitation temperatures were calculated for alunite and
pyrite occurring in textural equilibrium at different loca-
Lagunas Norte has been affected by extensive supergene tions in the deposit (Table 2 and Fig. 15).
oxidation (up to 80 m below the current surface) which has
produced hematite, goethite, and locally jarosite and scor- Stage I
odite. Iron oxides occur mainly as cement of tectonic and
hydrothermal breccias as well as on fracture surfaces where Three δ34S values for sulfides were obtained. Pyrite has
they commonly present iridescent colors. Oxidation was values of 1.7 and 2.2‰, and coexisting digenite has a value
crucial for liberating the gold which made exploitation of of 2.1‰. A maximum fluid temperature of 360 °C is given by
the deposit economically viable using cyanide leaching Δ34S thermometry on the digenite–pyrite pair (Hubberten
methods. 1980).
 Miner Deposita

Fig. 11 Photographs showing

characteristics of hydrothermal A B
stages III and IV. a Monomictic
breccia with dark quartz–pyrite
cement. b Detail of weakly
propylitically altered andesite
of Shulcahuanga unit showing
quartz veinlet with Fe oxide
halo. c Massive alunite (Al)
filling open spaces in
monomictic breccia. d Thin-
section microphotograph
showing a monomictic breccia
with quartzite clasts (Qzt) in
fine-grained clastic matrix, with
alunite (Al) cement C D

Al
Al

Py

Qzt

0 1mm

Stage III below the current surface, while the lowest values come
from samples near the surface. Fluid inclusion microther-
Both coarse and disseminated alunite from stage III was mometry was not possible because of a lack of suitable
analyzed. Coarse alunite is translucent to pale pink in color, material. The δD vs. d 18 OSO4 values of the alunite and the
with a tabular crystal habit. Eight samples were analyzed calculated isotopic compositions of their apparent fluids are
and show a range of δ34S values between 24.8 and 29.4‰. consistent with magmatic vapors and a predominantly mag-
Six of these alunite samples are in textural equilibrium with matic origin for the fluid (Fig. 14).
pyrite δ34S values of 4 to −0.5‰ and locally with enargite Disseminated alunite from stage III is usually white, but
(δ34S=−1.2‰). The temperatures calculated for alunite– locally pale pink. Eight samples were analyzed and gave δ34S
pyrite pairs for this hydrothermal stage are between 190 values between 21.7 and 28‰ and a range of d 18 OSO4 values
and 270 °C (Table 2 and Fig. 15); the highest temperatures from 6.8 to 13.9‰. These values are typical for alunite
have been recorded near the diatremes at ∼200 m depth precipitated from a dominantly magmatic fluid (Fig. 14; Rye
et al. 1992; Rye 2005). However, one of the samples located
Sample Lc5014: Stage III Alunite near the eastern margin of the deposit has values of d 18 OSO4 =
30 6.8‰ and δD=−40.2‰, which suggest influence of a mete-
oric fluid component. This sample has a δ34S value of 27.2‰.

Plateau age = 17.00+/- 0.22 Ma Stage IV

20
Age (Ma)

The massive alunite of this stage is white and has an earthy

texture. Seven samples were analyzed and have δ34S values
between 19.1 and 29.2‰ (Fig. 14) and d 18 OSO4 values
10
between 11.5 and 11.6‰ (Fig. 14). Pyrite is commonly
MSWD = 1.4, probability=0.23 present in textural equilibrium with stage IV alunite and
Includes 91.2% of the 39Ar
has δ 3 4 S values between −1.4 and 1.4 ‰ (n = 5).
0 Temperatures calculated from the Δ34Salu–py pair (Table 2)
0 20 40 60 80 100 range between 210 and 280 °C, with higher temperatures
Cummulative 39Ar percent near the diatremes and lower temperatures near the surface
Fig. 12 40Ar/39Ar age spectrum for alunite sample of stage III from (Fig. 15). For this stage, barite has δ34S values from 27.1 to
Lagunas Norte. Errors are given at the 2σ level 33.8‰ and d 18 OSO4 values from 8.1 to 12.7‰.
Miner Deposita

STAGE I STAGE III STAGE IV

I Pyrite III Pyrite IV Pyrite
I Digenite III Enargite IV Alunite (massive)

10
III Alunite (coarse) IV Barite
Frequency

III Alunite (disseminated) IV Sulfur (native)

IV
III IV IV
III IV IV IV
III IV III III IV
5
III III IV IV III IV IV
III III IV III IV III III III IV IV IV
IV III IV III III IV III IV III IV III IV IV IV
III III III IV III III III I III IV IV III III III IV III IV IV
III I I III IV III III I I IV III III III III III III III III III III IV III IV
0

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
34
S (‰)
Fig. 13 Histogram of δ34S values of sulfides and sulfates in the Lagunas Norte deposit. Alunite samples are colored according to paragenetic stages

Supergene stage The first stage is restricted to the Mesozoic rocks and is
characterized by silice parda (quartz ± pyrite ± rutile),
Two samples of supergene goethite were analyzed; they which was precipitated in fractures and preexisting faults
have δD values of −187 and −183‰ and δ18O compositions and also replaced siltstone beds of the Chimú Formation.
of −5.9 and −5.4‰. These values likely reflect the isotopic Silice parda locally cemented monomictic breccias, which
composition of local meteoric water in equilibrium with suggests that the magmatic-hydrothermal fluids of this stage
goethite well after hydrothermal processes ended. had enough pressure to hydraulically fracture the quartzite.
Locally and 40 m below the surface, pyrite, chalcopyrite,
and digenite form the sulfide assemblage. The presence of
Discussion digenite suggests a high sulfidation state for the fluid
(Einaudi et al. 2003; Rye 2005). Sulfur isotopic composi-
Most high-sulfidation epithermal deposits are related to tions (δ34S 1.7 to 2.2‰ and 2.1‰ for pyrite and digenite,
magmatic-hydrothermal activity affecting volcanic or igne- respectively) are consistent with a magmatic source of sul-
ous rocks (e.g., Cooke and Simmons 2000), but Lagunas fur. The fluid temperature of 360 °C estimated on the basis
Norte differs because part of the mineralization is hosted in of sulfur isotope fractionation between sulfide (pyrite–
unreactive quartzites. Four different hydrothermal stages digenite pair) species likely overestimates the true paleo-
have been defined. temperature which is unreasonably high for epithermal

Fig. 14 δD and d18 OSO4 diagram 0

showing data for stage III and IV VV
alunite. The fluid data were
calculated according to Stoffregen
-20
et al. (1994) at 200–280 °C (based
on temperature range obtained
L
MW

from Δ34Salu–py). The lines and

fields are: MWL = meteoric water -40
FMW
INE

line (Craig 1961), kaolinite line

D Alunite fluids
L

(200°to 280°C)
(Savin and Epstein 1970), FMW =
TE

felsic magmatic water (Taylor

(‰)
INI

-60
OL

1988), VV = volcanic vapor, i.e.,

KA

range of fumarole water

(Giggenbach 1992) -80 Fluids
Coarse Alunite
STAGE III
Disseminated Alunite
STAGE IV Massive Alunite
-100
-15 -5 5 15 25
18
OSO 4
(‰)
 Miner Deposita

Table 2 Summary of isotopic

data for coexisting alunite–pyrite Sample name Type Alunite δ34S Pyrite δ34S Δ34Salu–py T (°C)
pairs. T is calculated using the
following fractionation factors: 1 LD6-006 Coarse 28.93 0.76 28.17 195
03 ln apy
H2 S ¼ 0:40  106 T
2 LD6-196 Coarse 25.7 −0.52 26.22 213
(Ohmoto and Rye 1979); 103 ln
aalunðSO4 Þ
H2 S ¼ 6:463  106 LD6-104 Coarse 24.82 2.61 22.21 256
T
2 þ 0:56 (Ohmoto and LD6-070 Coarse 27.39 0.33 27.06 205
Lasaga 1982) LD6-176 Coarse 25.65 −0.59 26.24 213
LD7-178 Coarse 23.39 −4.43 27.82 198
LD6-111 Disseminated 25.25 −0.73 25.98 215
LC5-014 Disseminated 26.82 2.01 24.81 227
LD7-002 Disseminated 22.7 −4.34 27.04 205
LD6-177 Massive 25.48 −1.39 26.87 207
LD6-101 Massive 23.88 1.43 22.45 253
LD6-112 Massive 24.64 −1.77 26.41 211
LD6-068 Massive 19.13 −1.37 20.5 278
LD7-168 Massive 27.19 2.02 25.17 223

systems and inconsistent with the sulfide and alteration The main stage hydrothermal alteration and mineraliza-
paragenesis and the near-surface geomorphologic setting tion (stage III) affected the volcanic rocks as well as the
of the deposit where mineralization directly underlies the underlying Mesozoic basement. The alteration mineralogy
25–26 Ma subplanar Pampa la Julia erosional surface and sulfide assemblages are generally as expected for high-
(Montgomery 2012). This indicates that the calculated fluid sulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g., Simmons et al. 2005).
temperature probably has no geological meaning and that The distribution of gold and the alteration zonation are
the two sulfide species are not in isotopic equilibrium. mainly controlled by the permeability of the host rock.
The second hydrothermal stage reflects the emplacement However, a number of deviations from the norm exist and
of diatreme breccias. Diatremes have widely been docu- can be related to host rock characteristics. For example,
mented in epithermal deposits (e.g., Sillitoe 1985; Kelian, locally in silty beds where organic carbon is present, the
Davies et al. 2008; Pascua; Chouinard et al. 2005b). At assemblage pyrite–arsenopyrite and stibnite is present. This
Lagunas Norte, the emplacement of the diatremes was in- sulfide assemblage would be expected in a low-sulfidation
strumental for ground preparation for the mineralization environment (e.g., Cooke and Simmons 2000; Einaudi et al.
introduced during stage III. The Dafne diatreme intersects 2003), but at Lagunas Norte, it can readily be explained by
shale of the Chicama Formation as well as quartzite of the the locally strong reducing conditions.
Chimú Formation. The involvement of shale resulted in The d 18 OSO4 values for disseminated alunite from the
some milled breccia lithofacies being relatively imperme- volcanic levels reflect a large component of magmatic fluid
able to later fluid circulation which is reflected by the which is common for Andean high-sulfidation systems (Rye
limited alteration of the central parts of the diatreme. 2005; Deyell et al. 2005; Rainbow et al. 2005). However, near
Similar relatively impermeable breccias have been docu- the periphery of the deposit, the hydrothermal fluid had a
mented from Kelian, Indonesia (Davies et al. 2008). The meteoric component. The coarse alunite samples from depths
Josefa Diatreme, in contrast, only cuts quartzite which of more than 80 m below the current surface have δ34S of 24.8
resulted in a more permeable breccia body that was to 29.4‰, values consistent with a H2S-dominated fluid,
cemented throughout by quartz–alunite. The smaller diame- which again is typical for Andean high-sulfidation systems
ter of the clasts in the center of both diatremes together with (Baumgartner et al. 2009; Rainbow 2009; Rye 1993, 2005).
the rounding of clasts and crude stratification near the margin The observed sulfide and alteration assemblage indicates
of the breccias suggest multiple explosive brecciation events
(Lorenz and Kurszlaukis 2007; Walters 2006), but the absence
of breccia-in-breccia clasts indicates that the breccias have not
Fig. 15 a Distribution map of principal alteration zones and fluid„
been consolidated or cemented hydrothermally between the temperatures obtained using the Δ34Salu–py thermometer at Lagunas
individual explosions and that brecciation probably occurred Norte. Red numbers correspond to stage III and blue numbers to stage
over a short time interval. The violent emplacement of the IV. Note that the highest temperatures were obtained near the Dafne
and Josefa diatremes. b Schematic cross section (see A for section line)
diatremes not only generated permeability along their borders,
showing the lithology and calculated fluid temperatures from samples
but probably also improved the secondary permeability in the projected onto the section plane. Red letters correspond to temperatures
surrounding host rocks by means of fracturing. from stage III and blue letters to stage IV
Miner Deposita

803000 804000
A Vuggy quartz
SampleLocation
Quartz+Alunite (Projected)
A A’
Alunite+Dickite+Kaolinite Cross Section
Fm. Chimú (dk+kao+po) Pit Limit

WeaklyAltered (argillic-propylitic) Fault

9122000
9122000

ALEXA

A’

JOSEFA

9121000
9121000

DAFNE

803000 804000

A A’ B
Sample Location
4200 Projected Sample
Location
Open Pit limit

4100 Oxide/Sulfides limit

Main Faults

Silice parda
4000
Shulcahuanga Unit
Josefa Unit
3900
256 Dafne Unit
Quesquenda Unit

Santa-Carhuaz Fm.

Chimú Fm.
Temp. Al. (IV) 253º
? Chicama Fm.
 Miner Deposita

relatively acidic and moderately oxidizing conditions at 230 °C Boiling could have been enhanced by water-table lowering
(pH=0–2 and logfO2 =−28 to −30: Fig. 16). due to erosion near the hydrothermal system. The deposit
The last hydrothermal event (stage IV) is characterized directly underlies the 25–26-Ma subplanar Pampa la Julia
by massive alunite–pyrite in fractures in the quartzites, erosional surface (Montgomery 2012), but the deposit lies
whereas in the volcanic rocks, late barite and quartz as immediately southeast of the Rio Chicama valley pediment
well as late native sulfur precipitated in open spaces. which likely incised concurrently with mineralization
Isotopic data indicate that hydrothermal stages III and (Montgomery 2012) and erosion may have enhanced mineral-
IV had overall similar characteristics and a magmatic izing processes at the steep back scarp of the valley, much like
origin for the fluids. suggested for the El Indio belt in Chile (Bissig et al. 2002).
The apparent fluid temperatures calculated for stages The calculated fluid temperatures for stage III are in appar-
III and IV from the sulfur isotopic composition of ent disagreement with the presence of pyrophyllite in silty
alunite–pyrite pairs range from 190 to 280 °C and are beds of the Chimú Formation, since pyrophyllite normally
highest near the diatremes (Fig. 15) and lowest near the forms above 300 °C (Hemley et al. 1980). However, in a fluid
present surface some distance away from the diatremes. with high silica activity, which is a reasonable assumption for
Based on the calculated fluid temperatures, hydrother- Lagunas Norte given the abundance of quartzite, pyrophyllite
mal activity was probably focused around the Dafne may be metastable to significantly lower temperatures
diatreme for stage III, whereas stage IV was centered (Hemley et al. 1980; Mojares et al. 2001), such as those of
at Josefa. This is also consistent with the observation 280 °C from Δ34Salu–py thermometry.
that volcanic deposits likely originating from the Josefa The isotopic compositions of goethite, particularly the
diatreme post-date those sourced from Dafne. Coarse strongly negative δD, are indicative of high elevations of
alunite–pyrite pairs (Δ34Salu–py) consistently have higher 3,000–4,000 m (Poage and Chamberlain 2001). Similar
fluid temperatures than disseminated alunite–pyrite isotopic signatures for goethite have also been documented
pairs. This is in agreement with the interpretation that by Montgomery (2012) who suggested that the goethite
coarse-bladed alunite habits may indicate fluid boiling, formed in response to rapid late Miocene uplift. The paleo-
whereas fine-grained disseminated alunite was precipi- botanic evidence, on the other hand, suggests significantly
tated from cooler, non-boiling fluids, although no sup- lower elevations or warmer climate at the time of volcanism
porting fluid inclusion evidence is available. and hypogene mineralization than at present, indicating
surface uplift of 2,000–3,000 m after 17 Ma (cf., Garzione
et al. 2008; Montgomery 2012).
-24
HSO
- Al Kao T=230 oC
The hydrothermal activity at Lagunas Norte pre-dates the
4
-26
S=0.01 m intermediate sulfidation polymetallic vein system of
K=0.01 m
Quiruvilca, 10 km to the west, for which an age of 15.2 to
-28 15.7 has been determined by 40Ar/39Ar on muscovite/illite
2-
-30 SO4 from the selvage of a base metal quartz–carbonate vein
(Montgomery 2012). However, all other important high-
-32
Hem sulfidation epithermal deposits in northern Peru, including
-34 En Pierina (14 Ma; Rainbow 2009) and Yanacocha (13–8 Ma;
O2

Tn Longo et al. 2010) were emplaced significantly later than

-36
Lagunas Norte and also post-date Quiruvilca. Further south,
Log

-38 Py in Central Peru, the majority of magmatic-hydrothermal

-40
deposits have been emplaced during the middle to late
Mag
Miocene (e.g., Bissig et al. 2008; Baumgartner et al. 2009;
-42 Kouzmanov et al. 2008). The flattening of the subduction
-44 Po angle between about 14 and 10 Ma that generally coincided
H S0 HS
- with the onset of Nazca ridge subduction (Hampel 2002) is
-46 2
thought to have played a role in generating favorable con-
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 ditions for mineralization in central and northern Peru
pH (Rosenbaum et al. 2005; Bissig et al. 2008; Bissig and
Tosdal 2009). The slightly older age of Lagunas Norte
Fig. 16 Log fO2–pH diagram at 230 °C and saturated vapor pressure, cannot confidently be assigned to initiation of ridge sub-
showing the stability fields of alunite (Al, gray box), kaolinite (Kao),
enargite (En), tennantite (Tn), hematite (Hem), magnetite (Mag), pyrrho-
duction, but the leading edge of the Nazca ridge may have
tite (Po), pyrite (Py), and sulfur species from Lagunas Norte deposit. The collided with the trench at that time (cf., Rosenbaum et al.
probable fluid composition for stage III is indicated by the gray box 2005).
Miner Deposita

Conclusions Nizama, and several geologists from Servicios Técnicos of Lagunas

Norte—Barrick. Sulfur and oxygen analysis was carried out in collab-
oration with Kerry Klassen and QFIR Lab in Queen’s University,
The Lagunas Norte deposit is a high-sulfidation epithermal which is supported by NSERC Discovery, CFI, and OIT grants to
system that is hosted in both normally unreactive rocks (quartz- Kurt Kyser. Teresa Velarde’s continuous assistance in spectrometric
ite of the Chimú Formation) and dacitic to rhyolitic volcanic data is very much appreciated. Víctor Carlotto, Luis Miguel Muñoz,
GR-13 team, and my co-workers of Regional Geology from Geological
rocks (Miocene). It is at 17 Ma likely the oldest high-sulfidation
Survey of Perú (INGEMMET) have greatly helped with this project,
deposits in the middle Miocene metallogenic belt of Peru. The and their continuing enthusiasm and support are appreciated.
magmatic and hydrothermal evolution was controlled by at Discussions with Allan Montgomery, Amelia Rainbow, Huayong
least two diatremes (Dafne and Josefa), which cut the basement Chen, and Fernando Tornos have greatly helped with this project and
reviewers Regina Baumgartner, Noel White, and David Cooke as well
composed of quartzite of the Chimú Formation and in the case as Editor Bernd Lehmann are thanked for their constructive reviews.
of Dafne also slate of the Chicama Formation.
At Lagunas Norte, four hydrothermal stages are recog-
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