2nd Sem, Unit 1, Society, Culture

Contents
Semester-2nd
Society, Culture and Social Change
Chapter Description Page
Unit-I : Society : Its Nature, Definition and Types

1- Tribal Society 1
2- Rural Society 13
3- Urban Society 20
4- Industrial and Post-Industrial Society 29
Unit-II : Culture, Socialization and Social Control
5- Culture : Definition, Nature and Types 40
6- Socialization : Process, Stages and Importance 45
7- Social Control : Meaning, Types and Means 57
Unit-III : Social Groups and Processes
8- Processes of Social Change : Industrialization 66
9- Secularization 74
10- Modernization 79
11- Globalization 90
Unit-IV : Concepts and Basis of Social Stratification

12- Social Stratification : Concept and Basis of Caste 101
13- Social Stratification : Concept and Basis of Class 114
14- Social Stratification : Concept and Basis of Gender 120
Unit-I : Nature, Definition and Scope of Sociology
1
Tribal Society
If civilization is the basis of classification, then a society is classified
in two main parts - (i) Tribal Society & ii) Civil Society
There are societies found in world that are on the primitive note.
These societies live in jungles, mountains and isolated areas and are primitive
in every aspect. These are known as tribal communities. Tribal society
consists of tribals.
Tribals society is regarded as one of the most primitive community
living on earth, that's why in legal terms, they are categorised as 'Scheduled
Tribes.' The term was introduced in colonial era. Although they are spread
over wide area. Tribe name is given to them for legal convenience.
Meaning and Definition of Tribe

Tribe refers to those human community which are build on the primitive
lines. These people have definite geographical area, language, religion,
customs, rituals and beliefs. Definitions of tribes are as follows :-
F Imperial Gazetear, “Tribe is the group of families which retains
a common name, a common language, a common geographical
area and it never practices inter-caste marriage. ”
F Gillin and Gillin, “Gathering or collection of regional groups
etc. that resides at a common place, speaks common language
and practices a common tradition is known as tribes."
F Dr. Reverse, “Tribes are regarded as a convenient type of social
group whose member speaks a common language and together
for common objectives like war etc.
F Dr. Majumdar, “Tribe is a family or group of families, which
carries a common name, whose members reside in a definite
restrictions regarding marriage, occupation , farms and develops
a specific and useful system of give-&-take. "
It is clear from above definitions that tribe is a human group residing
in particular geographical area who give birth too a sociology organisation by
2 Tribal Society Tribal Society 3
typing themselves in common language, religion, custom, traditions 13. Organisation of Clan - Tribal societies take birth by organisation
occupation and other social rules. number of clans. Members share relations of give-&-take.
14. Economic Activities - Tribes follow their primitive occupation
Main Characterstics of Tribal Society like hunting, collection of unique items, selling forest produce etc. Most of
1. Unfavourable Geographical Environment - The foremost tribes are engaged in agriculture and related occupation.
characterstic tribal society is that they are unfaviourable in terms of 15. Food Habits - Tribes mostly eat meat and are generally add to
geographical environment residing in jungles, mountains and isolated areas. alcohol. Howere, it is not necessary that every tribe shares the above
Somewhere these areas are so complex that they live in isolation from outer charactstics.
world. Due to these extreme conditions, They have to struggle hard to survive.
2. Small Size - As compare to modern societies, tribal society have
Nature of Tribal Society
small size somewhere, they only consist of 50 families. Due to unfavourable F According to Evans - Prityard, tribal society is that society
geographical conditions, they cannot concentrate in high number and for whose size is small on the basis of population, area and social contact and
surviving motives they gets separate. That's why, they generally have which is simple pre-industrial society as compare progressive societies and
small size. where division of labour is at minimum stage. Robert Redfield jointed absence
3. Definite Area - Tribal society resides in a particular geographical of literacy, literature, art, science and theology.
area. In the absence of definite area, there other characterstics gets
We can conclude from above definitions from various scholars that -
disillusioned. That's why definite area is important for tribal societies.
4. Feeling of unity - A tribal society will not be considered as the Tribal society on the basis of civilization is generally backward one
one, if it does not share the feeling of unity. This characterstic is a important which is unfavourable in geographical contexts living in jungles, mountain
one for tribal societies. area or in isolation, which is small in size based on highly simple pre-industrial
5. Common Dialect - Tribal society share a common dialect which and economic status with less division of labour and specialisations in absence
develops the feeling of unity. of illiteracy, literature and art, science and thedogy.
6. Endogamous Group - Members of tribal society practices But it can't be concluded from above definitions that tribal society is
endogamy but with the establishment of contact with outer world, exogamy completely alike from modern societies. Actually, it is difficult to draw clear
is now coming into practice. cut-line between them, but still pidingtor tried to explain the nature of tribal
7. Ties of Blood Relations - Community sentiment found among societies to some extent -
tribal societies is due to blood relations ties among members. Tribal societies 1. Absence of literacy, writings and linguistic methods is the forest
believe their origin in common, real or imaginary ancestors, that's why they features of tribal society that differentiate it from mainstip.
are tied in blood relations. 2. Unlike civic societies, tribal societies are not organised on states,
8. Feeling of Need for Protection - Tribal society always feel for nations or provinces but on small groups like clan, village or tribe.
the need of protection that's why they establish political organisation and 3. As compare to modern societies, tribal societies have minimal
gave supreme power to one. This political leader protects tribal society with industrial development.
its mental and physical ability. 4. Blood-relations, kinship and geographical basis for regulating social
9. Political Organisation - Every tribal society has a political relations is given more importance as compared to civil societies.
organisation which maintain the co-ordinition among members, protects them 5. Tribal societies have less specialisation and doesn't have many social
and concludes on important matters. groups.
10. Importance of Religion - Religion plays a vital role in tribal But a point to be noted is that, increasing modes of transpotation and
society. These societies establishes political and social organisations on communication in modern times, development of industrial works and
the basis of religion bebame after being accepted religiously, their rules became governmental and non-governmental efforts have led to the integration of tribals
unbreakable. in mainstream, as a result of which they are gaining the characterstics of
11. Common Name - Every tribe has a common name. mainstream, main of which is the promotion of education, industrial
12. Common Culture - Due to common language, feeling of unity, development reducing importance of blood-relations and industrialisation.
common political organisation etc. tribal society shares common culture.
Usages of Tribal Society and Their Importance from modern societies. Tit-for-tat policy is followed and penalty or punishments
Religion and other related practices play a very important role in is decided according to the crime.
tribal societies. Tribal societies are on the lines of barter system regretting Law is based on traditions, kinship, behaviour and opinion in these
currency with the aspects of collective living following are the usage of tribal societies. The simple example of kinship's importance is that the head, ruler
society and their importance- or king in these societies is hereditary means son gets the position of his
(i) More importance to Family and Clan - Family and Clan are father. It is quite simple for these societies to maintains good system and
the important basis of tribal societies. Family is the centre of all social, organization on the basis of blood-relations because these are not regretted.
economic, religious and political functions. On the other hand, clan regulates That's why, laws made by blood relatives are easy to follow. It is found that in
the marriage institutions. Clan is based on the concept that persons of a tribal societies, every clan have its important political function. The head of
same clan are brotherand sisters, so marriage is generally practised outside clan is responsible for making the laws and implementing them.
the clan. Clan also help in maintaining community sentiment for social It is hardly seen that these societies have state, government, court
organisation and unity in the way that they gave more preffered to clan rather etc on modern lines. So, punishments are decided law-breakers and security
than individuals. Clan provides security to its numbers and they help each is provided to law-followed by an organisation which is generally a kin group.
other in problematic situations. Most of the tribal societies have a hereditary head who regulates the judicial
(ii) Totem and its importance - In tribal societies totem is also an system. This judicial system consists of a council elders of which kin groups
important basis of social system and organization. Tribal not only limit their are representatives. This way head is responsible for maintaining judicial
clan-relationships to humans but extend them to material things like plants, system.
animals and other unnature things. They not only maintains relations but (v) Lack of Division of Labour and Specialization - Unlike civilized
also develop a sense of respect, trust and faith towards them. This way, an societies, tribal societies doesn't have division of labour in every field. Mostly,
intimate relationships followed bu clans with any material thing like plants, division of labour is based on male-female differences. Women are responsible
animals or with other things of nature is known as totem and related concepts, to household chores whereas male move out to earn. But in formal terms,
faith and organizations regarded as totemism. According to Hobel, "totem is women also help men in their works like agriculture, making baskets etc.
a sustance, plant or an animal to which a social group is faithfully attached But still, only men are engaged the activities like hunting and preparing fields
and who believe in emotional similarity between their relations. So, it is clear for growing crops. This way, occupations like carpentary carried out by men.
that totem plays a very great role in tribal societies. Lack of experts are found in these societies except in two fields religion and
(iii) More importance to Religion and Related Practices - Religion related practices. Every one has to engage himself or herself in number of
plays vital role in tribal societies. In these societies religion has great status occupations. So, specialization is every field of occupation is hard to find and
and practices like animism, animiatism or manaism, naturism, tolemis etc. division labour is at its minimum stage, only limited to male-female distinctions.
are related to it. for eg. Santhal tribe believe in their ancestors souls and pray (vi) Rules and Regulations for marriage and sex-relations - In
them. Similary, every tribal society believe in practices like magic and with the matters of marriage and sexual relations, tribal societies are generally
these practices they try to fulfill their objectives like ending a epidemic, bringing flexible. But still marriage is restricted between father and daughter, mother
the rain, curing the diseases, resides in tribals beliefs. For eg. they believe in and son, sister and brother whereas on the other hand parallel-cousin
some super-natural power. On the basis of this belief, they accept various marriages, liverate and sororate marriages are especially found in tribal
types of ayurvedic medicines, things touched by gods, sand of special plaoes, societie. Forms of polygamy marriage i.e. polyandry and polygyny are mostly
water from the ponds or waterfalls, skin of special animals, feather of special seen in these societies. Egs of group marriage are also found in tribes.
bird etc for the fulfilment of various objectives. Experts are found in these Sexual relations before marriage is allowed or there is less stress on situations
tribes to direct tribals for certain practices. It is generally found that in Tharu like this.
tribe of Nainital, women are experts in practices like magic etc. (vii) Lack of Literature, Art, Science etc. - Now, because of illiteracy
(iv) Traditional Basis of Law, Justice and Government and Their found in tribal societies and lack of writing, it is really impossible to develop
Importance - In tribal societies, alike modern societies there is no developed, sequential literature in these societies. Traditional stories and scriptures are
organised and well-established law, judiciary and govenment. There is no seen in place of above. This way, folk songs and folk music is represented by
count or police in tribal societies. In some of the tribal societies a decision on local music instruments. Paintings found are also simple and easy and is
law-breakers is done by family or kins. forms of punishments are quite different limited to only nature, animals and god-goddesses. Tribal also have some
knowledge about mathematics, nakshtra and weather-information. They have and Oriya (spoken by Bathudi and the acculturated sections of Bhuiyan,
tremendous and exceptional knowledge about wild plants used in curing Juang, Kondha, Savara, Raj Gond etc.).
various diseases. But still in modern terms, these societies lacks the scientific (2) Dravidian speakers—In the Dravidian language family
knowledge. there are nine languages in Orissa, namely: Pengo, Gondi, Kisan,
So, it is clear from above usages that tribal socieities are Konda, Koya, Parji, Kui, Kuvi and Kurukh or Oraon.
conceptualized on traditional lines with lack of modern amneties, residing in (3) Tibeto-Burmese speakers—ln Orissa the speakers of
wild and isolated areas with their own organised political and judicial structures, the Tibeto-Burmese language family are absent, and therefore Orissan
practising certain rules and regulations. tribes belong to other three language families.
Distribution of Tribal Population in India (4) Austric speakers—The Austric language family includes
Approximately 532 tribes resides in India. According to the census eighteen tribal languages namely, Birija, Parenga, Kisan, Bhumiji, Koda,
of 2011, they are 10.43 crores in numbers consisting 8.61 of the total Mahili Bhumiji, Mirdha-Kharia, Ollar Gadaba, Juang, Bondo, Didayee,
population. Karmali, Kharia, Munda, Ho, Mundari and Savara.
Most of the population of tribals is found in the tribal region of middle
India (Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal
Acquired Traits of Tribes
and some parts of Andhra Pradesh. Four states - Meghalaya, Nagaland, There are two main criteria of this classification — (i) means
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram and 2 UTs - Dadra and Nagar Haveli and of livelihood and (ii) integration of tribes into the mainstream Hindu
Lakshdweep island consists of 70% or more than that of STs. society.
1. Means of livelihood among tribes—In India tribes most
Classification of Tribal Societies live in forests, mountains and plateaus. Their main occupations are:
In terms of positive characterstics, tribes have been classified (i) The Hunters and Food-collectors: The following tribes
according to their 'permanent' & 'acquired' traits. come under this category: Kadar of Cochin, Malapantram of
Travancore, Palian of Madura and Paniyan tribes, who gather fruits
Permanent Traits and herbs and honey from the forests and hunt and fish to eat.
Permanent traits include region, language, physical character and (ii) The Cattle breeders: In this category fall the Gujjars of
ecological habital. Himachal Pradesh and the Toda tribe of Nilgiris. Their main sustenance
Tribals Concentrated Region comes from breeding cattle, selling milk and milk products.
About 85% of the tribal population lives in 'middle India', a wide band (iii) The Cultivators: Most of the tribes of north-eastern region
stretching from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west to west bengal and orissa and central India fall in this category.
in the east with MP, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh and Maharashtra and Andhra (iv) Factory workers: Some tribes are employed as labourers
Pradesh forming the heart of this region. Of the remaining 15%, over 11% is in the factories, mines, gardens of their area. Some of the tribes in
in the North Eastern states, leaving only little over 4% in the rest of India. If Bengal, Bihar and Assam come under this category.
we look at the share of tribals in state population, then the North Eastern (2) Integration of tribes into the mainstream Hindu
States have the highest concentrations, with all states except. Assam having society—Now, most of the tribes have become a part of the Hindu
concentration of more than 30% and some like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, society. India is a Hindu dominated country, and the assimilation of
Mizoram and Nagaland with more than 60% and upto 95% of tribal population. tribes into the Hindu society has shown positive results. They have
In the rest of the country, the tribal population is very small, less than 12% in got a status by assimilating in the Hindu society. Discrimination against
all states except Orissa and MP. The ecological habitals covered includes them has reduced. They have found a new identity. They are being
hills, forests, rural plains and urban industrial areas. brought forward in all walks of life. Their role in education, politics and
Tribals Language Groups - In terms of language, D.N. matters of public importance has increased. They even have the
Majumda has categorised tribes into 4 categories - leadership in their hands. For example, in Jharkhand, the chief minister
(1) Indo-Aryan speakers—The Indo-Aryan language family from the tribes. All this is because of their integration in the mainstream
in Orissa, includes Dhelki-Oriya, Matia, Haleba, Jharia, Saunti, Laria Hindu society.
TRIBE: THE CAREER OF A CONCEPT The economic standard of various tribes as described by D N
During the 1960s scholars debated whether tribes should be seen Majumdar has been shown in Table 1.
as one end of a continuum with caste-based Hindu society or whether they The caste-tribe differences have been discussed in detail and
are an altogether different kind of community. The first school of thought there is a lot of literature available on the subject, which essentially
based their arguments on the assumption that tribes are not fundamentally points out how the tribes have been absorbed into the Hindu society
different from castes, but only less stratified and more community based. throughout the ages, through the processes of sanskritization,
On the other hand, the scholars firmly stated that tribes were wholly different acculturation etc. There are many examples in Indian history of various
from castes because they had no notion of purity and pollution, which is castes, races, tribes and religions have been assimilated in the Hindu
central to caste system. society. Foreigners like the Aryans, Dravidians, Shakas, Sythians, Huns,
Thus, the argument for a tribe-caste distinction is based on the Turks, Pathans, Mongols, etc have been assimilated in the Hindu society
notion of purity and pollution and hierarchical integration of the castes, and so well that they do not have a separate entity. Early anthropologists
egalitarian and kinship-based social organization of the tribes. have always tried to relate tribes to the mainstream culturally while
the later writers have concentrated on the exploitative and political
nature of the assimilation.
Table 2 : Economic Standard of the Tribes Some scholars say that there is no reason why tribes should
Area Hunting and State Shifting Permanent farmers,
of collecting food Cultivators potters weavers and
be treated as ‘pristine’ or original or pure. In fact, according to them
Plantation poultry breeders tribes should be considered ‘secondary’ phenomenon arising out of
construction the exploitative and colonialist contact between pre-existing states
Uttar Pradesh Raji Korva, Sahria
Tharu, Majhi, Bind, and non-state groups like the tribes. They began to define themselves
Bihar Saria, Birhor Bhuian, Kharwar
Bhoksa, Khasa, Kol as tribals in order to distinguish themselves from the common society.
Munda, Ho
Nevertheless, tribes are considered to be hunters and food
Tamaria, Uranv
Bengal Kuki Garo, Malpaharia Polia, Sunthal gatherers. But that is not true. Studies have revealed that tribes have
Assam Kuki, Konyak Naga, Lakher, Garo Khasi, Manipuri not always been the deprived sections of society. There were many
Madhya Pradesh Hilmaria Muria, dandami, Parja, Bhatra kingdoms of Gond kings in central India such as Garha Mandla or
Maria, Gond Chanda. Many of the Rajput kingdoms of central and western India
Tamilnadu Koya, Kontoreddy Khond, Kurumba, Badaga, Kota Irula. emerged through a process of stratification among adivasi
Andhra Pradesh Paliyan, Kadar Gond Parja
Hilyantara, Saura, Mundawan communities, who were quite powerful in the plains. They were
Orissa Juang Saura -- economically superior too. They traded in forest produce, salt and
Maharashtra -- -- Bhil, Gond elephants. In recent years because of the capitalist economy’s drive
By the 1970s all the major definitions of tribe were found faulty. to exploit forest resources tribes have come in contact with the
The tribe-peasantry distinction did not hold good in terms of any of mainstream society.
the commonly advanced criteria, such as size, isolation, religion, and
means of livelihood. Some Indian tribes like the Santhals, Gonds and
Mainstream Attitudes Towards Tribes
Bhils are very large and spread over extensive areas. Other tribes Although the earlier anthropological studies describe tribes
like Munda, Ho and others have settled down to agriculture long back. as isolated cohesive communities, colonialism brought about
Even the hunting and gathering tribes like the Birhors of Bihar employ irrevocable changes in their world. On the political and economic front,
specialized households to make baskets and press oil. On the other tribal societies bore the brunt of cruelty of money lenders. They lost
hand, it has been seen that some castes have turned to hunting and their land to immigrant settlers; they lost access to the forests because
gathering due to the lack of other means of livelihood. And, tribes like of the government policy of reservation of forests and mining
Santhal, Ho, Bhil and Munda have given up their traditional professions operations. The colonial government treated these hilly and forest
and are attracted towards industrial projects. areas as the main source of income. After a number of rebellions in
tribal areas in the 18th and 19th centuries, the colonial government set industrial areas of Jharkhand have suffered a dilution of the tribal
up ‘excluded’ and ‘partially excluded’ areas where the tribals could not share of population. Tribal culture is fast disappearing. Such examples
go. In these areas the British ruled through local kings or headmen. are found in the North-East as well. The population of Tripura was
reduced to half within a decade and the tribals were reduced to a
Isolation Versus Integration minority. Arunachal is facing the same problem.
In the 1940s began the debate on isolation versus integration
Tribal Identity Today
and the outcome was that tribal societies are isolated wholes. The
isolationist scholars argued that tribals needed protection from traders, Tribal culture, economy and society have felt the adverse effect
moneylenders, and Hindu and Christian missionaries who were out to of forced incorporation of tribal communities into the mainstream
reduce the tribals to landless labour. On the other hand, those in society. They have lost their original identity and are known by this
favour of integration argued that tribals were merely backward Hindus, interactional process. Since the interaction has been unfavorable to
and their problems should be solved within their framework like any the tribal community, they generally resist and oppose the non-tribal
other backward class. Finally, the debates resulted in a compromise world. After a long drawn struggle the tribals managed to achieve
which advocated welfare schemes that would enable controlled statehood for Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh.
integration. Subsequently, various welfare and development schemes Many states in the North-East have been living under special
were made which include the five year plans, tribal welfare blocks, laws that limit the liberties of citizens. Citizens of Manipur and Nagaland
special multi-purpose area schemes etc. The flip side is that integration don’t have the same rights as other citizens of India because their
has happened on the terms of mainstream society, and the tribal states have been declared as ‘disturbed areas.’ There is constant
societies have lost their lands and forests and their communities have unrest in these areas, which has further deteriorated the condition of
been shattered in the name of development. their economy, culture and society.
Because of the governmental efforts to promote education, a
National Development Versus Tribal Development new educated middle class has emerged among tribal communities.
The development of tribal societies has been given top priority This segment is visible in the North-Eastern states and other large
in formulating policies. National development for the tribal societies tribal communities. In addition, the policies of reservation have created
involved the building of large dams, factories and mines. These tribal an urbanized professional class. All this has further created different
areas were rich in minerals and forests but they got very little in bases for the assertion of tribal identity.
compensation for losing their lands. This kind of development has Tribal movements have been generated mostly by two broad
benefited the mainstream society much more than the tribal societies. sets of issues — first, issues relating to control over vital economic
The large scale hydroelectric power plants and mines that have been resources like land and forests, and secondly, issues relating to matters
set up in their areas have further exploited them and they don’t see of ethnic-cultural identity. The middle classes within tribal society assert
the profits accruing from them. their tribal identity for different reasons from why the poor uneducated
Losing forests has been a shattering blow to the tribal societies. tribals join the tribal movements. Thus, it is the relationship between
They have been losing forests from the time of the British rule and these kinds of internal dynamics and external forces that will shape
continue to do so after independence. Many of them had to move the future.
from their areas and re-establish themselves. The coming of private
property adversely affected them; their lands were taken without Unity of Tribal Culture Vs Integration from Mainstream
proportionate compensation given to them. The most recent example
is that of the Narmada Dam from which other communities will benefit. In these progressive times to save tribal culture from deterioration is
quite different but still there are some tribes who have successed in maintaining
Thus, the tribal societies have completely lost their traditional
their traditionalities and culture. One such example of such tribes is 'Tharu'
wealth and are getting poorer by the day. They have to leave their
areas out of compulsion and let the outsiders occupy their lands. The
12 Tribal Society
This is true, tribes are facing their own problems, but gradually, they are
getting rid of these problems as a result which there indulgement in national
life. Tribals have also gained self-confidence due to novel projects. Today,
they are contributing in national development. Today, they are assimilating
into mainstream society.
Two broad sets of issues have been most important giving rise to
tribal movement. These are issues relating to control over vital economic
resources like land and specially forest and issues relating to matters of
ethnic-culture identity. Due to the interaction with the outer world, changes
2
have occured in their traditional socio-economic and political organisation. Rural Society
A new idea has developed among them. Tribals are also trying to raise their
socio-economic status in urban and industrial areas. Economicaly well tribals
have turned in middle-class. Concept of Rural Society
On the other hand, there are tribal groups who are unable to improve Rural society is the society which tells us about various characterstics.
their economic status. Due to lack of education, they are unable to earn their This includes dependence on nature, intimacy of relationships, small size
livelihood. As a result of which, they are illiterate and impoverished. etc. These societies are greater in small than tribal societies but smaller
than complex or urban societies. These are also called peasant society by
Redfield because of the agriculture dominated economy. Political system is
highly affected by community sentiment. We try to understand rural society
in 2 parts - 'Rural' & 'Society'.
Meaning and Definitions of 'Rural'
When we use the word 'rural', we refer to the people living in rural
environment. The formost difficulty arising out in defining the word rural that
there is no such fine line that separates the village from cities. But still some
scholars have tried to define 'rural' in following ways -
1. Maclver - "The word rural not only specifies the geographical status
of villages and cities but also the parts of community living."
2. K. N. Srivastava - "Rural area refers to the place where people are
engaged in agrarian sector or where primary production takes place with the
cooperation of nature."
3. Landis - "That group is known as rural which is - (i) directly
dependent on nature, (ii) small in size, and (iii) whose members share primary
and intemate relations.
It is clear from above definitions that 'rural' word define that
characterstic which includes elements like dependency on nature, intimate
relations and small size.
Meaning and Definition of 'Society'
Individual try to establish inter-relations with other for the fulfilment of
his/her needs. This all happens on the basis of some rules. All this constitute
the system what we call is 'society'.
Following definitions proves the above fact -
F Maclver and Page, "Society is the web of social relationships"
14 Rural Society Rural Society 15
F Ryuter, "Society is an abstract concept which tells us about occupational observes the rules based on caste. Generally, differences
regid conventional relations found among the members of a group." between various social groups on the basis of casteism is easy to found.
This way, we can say that when a group of individual come to stay 10. Prepondence of Religious beliefs - Religion dominates the
together and develop social relations for establishment of a society. Indian rural society and most of the behaviouors and functions are conducted
on religious beliefs. Dominance of traditions and rituals give rise to conservative
Nature or Characterstics of Rural Society ideas in rural society.
1. Agriculture Occupation - The formost characterstic of rural 11. Low status of women - Women generally have low status rural
society is that most of its members depends on agricultural occupation societies because of illiteracy and lack of financial social independence.
approcimately 72% of the village population is engage in agricultural and They are only assigned to household chores whch reduce their status to
related occupations. 'servants'. Polygamy and child marriage are equally responsible for their low
2. Lack of Specialization in Occupation - Rural society lacks status.
specialization in occupation. Indian rural society is generally engaged in 12. Fatalism and illiteracy - Fatalism and illiteracy is found in
agrarian sector but still one can perform various tasks like vetnerian, labourer Indian rural societies in abundance. Due to the importance of physical strength,
etc. So, rural population knows about various field, yet lacks specialization the value of education is generally ignored Illiteracy in term gives rise to
in occupation. fatalism, due to which religion, luck etc gains ground.
3. Dominance of joint family - Dominance of joint family is a feature Changes are gaining ground in Indian rural society due to modern
of rural society. Now, because agriculture is the unit of economic production developments. Due to contact with urban society improvement in transportation
and needs lot of individual. So all members of rural society, near or far blood and communication facilities and means of education have all contributed to
relatives lives under one roof, following common religion using common wealth, changes in society. In the traditional sense, rural society was self-sufficient
eating same food and all help in agricultural occupation. but now, because of the increasing needs, they are connecting themselves
4. Direct relation to nature - Rural society shows direct relation to to outer world.
nature, It will not be wrong to say that rural life is completely dependent on
nature, Rural population offers several prayers to the god of rain 'Indian for Structure of Rural (Peaseant and Folk) Society
rain, ripens the crop over rainfall etc. Depending on nature, members of rural Structure of rural (peasant and folk) society is different from other.
society struggles with nature along with compromise with it. Andre Bitai said by defining the concept of peasant society that it is wrong to
5. Less density of population - Area of rural society is larger due to say entire society as agrarian one but still most of the part of society is
fields but density of population is relatively less. Due to the less density of dominated by agrarian sector.
population life of the members of rural society is completely different from Basis Characterstic of Structure of (Rural and Folk) Society
posh sites of urban areas.
1. The way of living peasant life - Peasant is the one who accept
6. Homogeneity - Members of rural society have homogeneity as
agriculture as a way of life. Number of generations are earning through
their major characterstics, Means of life styles, traditions, rituals, religious
agriculture in his family. He doesn't see profit-loss in farming occupation. If
beliefs, occupation, ethnic-cultural of members are same. So, we can say
he see all this, then he is a farmer not a peasant.
that, members of rural society are homogenous.
2. Peasant is attached to his land - Peasant not only resides on his
7. More stable life - Members of Indian rural society have more stable
land but also improve it through his hardwork. Farming on rent is conducted
life. Due to traditional norms & dominance of religion, effect of social change
by a labourier not peasant. A peasant is attached to his land mentally as
is minimal. Newness doesn't have any place. This way, life styles of various
well as well as emotionally. Land determines his status in society.
generations remains same.
3. Peasant is own responsible for control on his farming land-
8. Lack of social mobility - Rural society lacks social mobility
Peasant has the right on his land and he is the owner of his farming land.
because of the same occupation from generation to generation. Lack of
4. Peasant produces for his own consumption - He does not produce
education is also responsible for the absence of social mobility.
the crops for selling in market.
9. Importance of Caste System - Caste plays a dominant role in
5. Upper class is the mentor of peasant - Whenever a peasant is
Indian rural society. Every specific field like social, religious, economical and
faced with a problem, upper class acts as a mentor for him because of his
educational and social capital.
6. Peasant society is a homogenous one - All peasants shares the contributed to agriculture, whereas in England it was 2%, 3% in Ameria, 4%
characterstics of homogeneity in their way of lives, ideals, life styles, in Canada and 5% in Australia. Indian economy is still an agricultural economy.
behaviours and social structure. The more the country is developed, the less is the share of the agricultural
7. Peasant society is an unstratified and less hierarchical group. Peasant sector. In 2012-13, India's home production consists of 14.% of agricultural
society doesn't have differences like urban societies on the basis of based production. In India, 0.3% of GDP is assigned to agro-research whereas
higher and lower. in America it is 4%.
8. Peasant society is different from urban and town's upper class. Instead Due to less production in agricultural sector, the rural population in
they are effected by various fields. these countries earns very less resulting in low standards of life style. Then,
9. Peasant society is different from other societies on economic basis. less ability to save, limits the investment in agriculture. Agricultural works
10. Peasant society have social and Economical differences. are done through primitive and backward means which is responsible for
11. Peasant society is on traditional lines. poverty and less-production. Summarizing, we can say that in under-developed
12. Peasant society's cultural behaviour is on the lines of conservative makes rural population vulnerable and on the other hand limits the economic
traditions. development. So, the main objectives of these countries should be to incease
13. Peasant society's status of lie style is really low. the agriculture production.
14. Joint family as a feature of peasant society. Now, because the main problem for agricultural production in these
15. Low status of education in peasant society. countries in their primitive social and cultural structure that's why the foremost
16. Peasant society is also classified in various parts-little peasant and effort isto bring out changes in present rural structure. So, national govt. has
peasant workers etc. promoted various five year plans and implemented various policies develop
17. Presence of seasonal unemployment in peasant society. the agricultural sector. Along with that, various programmes have been started
18. Peasant society is limited in the sense of social relations. for peasants and workers, which is known as Special Programmes for Rural
19. Peasant society is not dependent on personal relationships. Development. This has helped in developing agrarian sector.
This way, structure of peasant society is simple but is not independent Types of Villages
of modern agents, as a result of which changes have occured in its structure.
The concept of rural in our country is not same in all states and in
Economic Structure of Rural (Agrarian) Society administrative terms their boundaries are registered in state department. Kerala
Agriculture is the basis of livelihood of most of the people of the have big villages. The population of Orissa, MP and Assam resides in medium
world. Almost 10 years ago, when humans tried to grow plants, from then villages whereas population of Andhra Pradesh lives in big villages.
onwards, techniques of production has grown at a tremendous rate. First This way, there are various types of villages. Villages are classified
from hands, then from animals and today with the help of machines. However, in small, medium and large villages on the basis of population. In the terms of
after 1950 , economic development is most of the developing and developed area, they are divided not expanded and limited. On the basis of urban
countries have speeded up, but still agriculture is the dominant occupation in elements, they can classified as agricultural-dominant villages, industrial
rd
these countries. Today, 2/3 population of thse countries are engaged in villages and mixed villages on the basis of economy, whereas on the basis of
agrarian sector. facilities they can be divided into, full-facilitated villages, sub-facilitated villages
However, agriculture is the dominant occupation of these countries and without facilities.
but still as compared to developed nations, they are at the poor stage. For Prof. Dube has classified villages on the following grounds -
instance, 8% of population of USA is engaged in agrarian sector and yet 1. Size, population and caste structure
produce for the entire population, whereas developing nations are unable to 2. Ethnic composition and caste structure
produce for its population having 70%, 80% engaged in agriculture. This is 3. Pattern of land ownership
the main cause for these country's poverty. As a result of which, most of 4. Structure of authority and power hierarchy
people in these countries poverty. As a result of which, most of people in 5. Degree of isolation
these countries are unable to meet their 2 ends. 6. Local tradition
As compare to other countries, India's agricultural production is In 2011, there 6,40,867 villages in India concentrating 68.8% of
estimated through analysis. In 1977-98, 26% of national income of India is population of the country. These villages are classfied in 3 categories on the
basis of population -
Type of Villages Population Percentage difference is only on comparitive lines and in both these communities, thered
Small Less than 500 27% is a line which joins them together."
Medium 500 to 2,000 49% Rijman also critize those scholors who present the differences
Large 2,000 to 5,000 24% between the two on strong notes. In his words, "Rural-urban differences are
This way, most of the villages are medium in India. States have only important during exams and is limited to student's text books"
differences regarding population in India. For eg. - U.P. has highest number of Thus, the characterstics of size, density, heterogeneity and
villages i.e. 1,06,704. After that, MP has 54,908, Orrisa has 51,313, Bihar occupation exhibit differences in degree from place to place and time to time.
has 44,874 and Maharashtra has 43,663 villages. The lowest number of villages Sharp and absolute divisions between rural and urban communities do not
are in Mizoram and Sikkim i.e. is 830 and 452. exist and, therefore, we must recognise the fact that rural and urban
communities do not exist and, therefore, we must recognise the fact that
Concept of Rural-Urban Continuum they may be found at many points on the so-called "Continuum" that extend
The two foremost communities are rural and urban. Differences are there in from one extreme pole to the other. In realit, the processes of change have
both the communities. Before industrial revolution villages and cities were helped both the communities to come togeher.
not only completely different but even doesn't have any sources of contact In detail, Following are the differences between rural and urban
and interaction at all. But gradually, when the processes of urbanisation and community -
industrialisation accelerated, interaction gained momentum and difference Basis Rural Community Urban Communities
blurred.
Today, a new concept has emerged in sociology known as rural- 1. Occupation Agriculture and related Urban population is
urban continuum, due to the increasing interaction among the two works is the main engeged in specialised
communities. When in 20th century, as a result of various changes when the occupation. works like, engineers,
differences in both the communities became relatives, so some though that business, industries and
both the communities are tied to each other and continuum is found among other occupations.
them in place of separation. This concept is the result of all the struggles to 2. Environment Nature is dominant over Distance from natue and
explain this reality. In the decade of 1960-70, these books were published population. People are di- dominance of population
which attracted various scholars to the concept of relations between rural rectly related to nature. over natural environment.
and urban communities. the books were : 3. Size of Communities The rural community has Urban community con-
1. Dewey - The Rural -Urban Continuum : Real but Relatively a small size population. sists of a big sized popu-
Unimportant (1960) Density of population is lation.
2. Benet - The ideology of the Rural-Urban Continuum (1963) and 4. Density of Population less. Density of population is
3. Hauser - Urban Rural Dichotomies as forms of western high.
Ethmocentrism (1965) 5. Homogeneity and The rural society is ho- The urban society is het-
Dewey, Benet and Hauser presented the concept the rural - urban Heterogeneity mogeneous in groups erogeneous with diversity
continuum can be studied separately because their are differences in nature of Population and heterogeneous in and complexity.
among both communities, Other scholars (like Gimmerman and Wirth etc) mental feelings.
have supported this idea. But today various developmental projects, new 6. Social Stratification Social stratification and Positively related to so-
organizations and means, various welfare policies have affected the life style and distinctions is less as cial stratification distinc-
of rural population. Distinctions compare to urban cities. tions.
Due to the gradual contact between rural and urban communities 7. Mobility It is less mobile. It is more mobile. It is an
have led to the inducement of urban features into rural one. The result for all Oppotunities for social "open" society. It pro-
this was that separation in both life styles to demarcate is really different. movements are lesser. vides more chances for
Other than this, due to the continous development in cities Status is mostly "as- social mobility. Here sta-
urbanisation has took place in bordering village areas and role of networks cribed." tus is "achieved."
has gained grounds in social life. According to the concept of rural-urban 8. System of Social It is dominated by pri- It is dominated by
continuum "The supporters of continuum principle feels that rural and urban Interaction mary relations. It is seconday relations. It is
hence more cohesive. not united. People are
There is a strong we feel- not strongly attached to
ing. each other.
Urban Society 21
variety of occupations are there.

3. Division of Labour and Specialization - In urban society,
differentiation and specialisation is visible in every walk of life. Urbanities
are engaged in various activities such as educational, technical,
financial, artistic etc. People are chracterised by different degree of
3 skills they achieve. People are specialise in particular activity.

4. Individualism - In cities people are more individualistic in
their attitudes and behaviour. People are more selective in their choice
and more individualistic in their preferences. They are guided by their
Urban Society own whims and fancies.
5. Congestion - Another characterstic of cities is the presence
Meaning and Definitions of Urban Society of dense population. The more the industrial value of the city, the more
Both villages and cities have an important place in social life is the population. Not only that, due to the presence of hetergeneity in
organisations. In India, 'urban area' means both towns and cities. cities, population become dense.
Various changes have taken place in definitions of cities. Various 6. Lesser Importance of Religion and Family - Due to the
scholars have tried to define cities on the basis of population size and connection with education and science, religion and family plays minimal
density. Some definitions are as follows - role in cities. Even, urbanities are dependent on other for entertainment
Sombert, "City is that place which is that much big, where purposes, so family is limited only to personal sphere.
individuals are not aware of each other." 7. Social Mobility and Tolerance - An urban community is
Prof. Vilcocks, "All those areas are sumed up under cities characterised by intense social mobility. Due to large scale division of
whose density of population is more than per 1,000 sq km and where labour, competition and heterogeneity, social mobility is found in its
there is no agriculture to all." intense form. An individual's position is determined more by his
Bergail - "That particular area is known as city where most of achievements than by his birth. Change is at its great pace in other's
the population is engaged in occupations other than agriculture. Urban field also. Other than, becuase of increasing social boundaries and
areas include those residing places whose residents are engaged in coming tolerance develops.
occupations other than agriculture. So, urban word can be used for 8. More Mental Conflicts - Every individual in cities, generally
town, cities, meteropolis, suburb, Megapolis etc. This way, city refers faces mental conflicts, because on the one hand, if opportunities like
to those centred residing places which includes systematic occupational permanent jobs, health and sanitation, so on the other hand incidents
field, administrative, unit, developed means of transportation and other like unemployment, accidents etc. curbs the mind. Not only that,
urban facilities. increasing pollution and noise in cities is responsible for mental agitation
and problems.
Nature or Characterstics of Urban Society 9. Extravagance and Artificiality - In cities, social status highly
1. Social Heterogeneity - The foremost characterstic of cities depends on extravagance. Extravagance is found in every aspect of
is the social heterogeneity found in social life. Cities have lack of life, behaviour, life style all is influenced by artificiality and extravagance.
homogeneity. Due to the facilities of industrial - occupation, business 10. Prominence of Secondary Association and Control -
etc, people from various religions, castes, class, states etc migrate Secondary association dominates the urban life like college, industries
here in cities. Every aspect of urban society have stringes of etc. These association or groups work for the fulfilment of their
heterogeneity. objectives. In that working area, problems of controlling arises. So, to
2. Variety of Occupations - Variety of occupations is yet control these situations secondary means of control are used like police,
another features of urban society. Here, one is writer, other is teacher, law, army, court etc.
one is private clerk, then other one is a government official. This way,
22 Urban Society Urban Society 23
11. Impersonal Social Relationship - In urban society, Actually, urbanisation is gradual process, which show the
intimacy and personal relationships are hard to found. Most of relations instances of rural as well as urban aspects. Urbanisation and
are established through telephones, internet etc. lack of personal social Industrialisation is responsible for the development of industries and
relations is yet another characterstic of urban life. cities emerge. Along with that new cities came into existence. Urban
12. Competition and Social Opportunities - For the fulfilment development is impossible without the process of urbanisation. Urban
of one's own needs and desires, individuals are engaged in competition. development is as a result of industrialisation.
Along with that social opportunities are present in abundance which Situation leading to Emergence of Urbanisation
helps to develop the personality. Subject-matter of urbanisation includes those elements which
13. More Crimes and Problems - Another important characterstic gave emergence to such situations, which gears up process of
of urban society, that crimes and problems are present in abundance. urbanisation. These situations are -
With the development of science and technology, individual has also 1. Industrial development and revolution prepares the good
developed the new patterns of crime. Due to various problems like environment for the purpose of urbanisation.
unemployment, poverty etc has led to the crimes like drug addiction, 2. Those geographical situation which simply and easily
theft, murder etc. provides the environment for fulfilment of needs, urbanisation guides
Along with above characterstics, other features like unstable this way towards.
families, lack of community sentiment, life far from nature, occupational 3. Scientific progression, new inventions, development of new
entertainment, relatively high status for women, love-marriage, inter- means, progression in the means of transportation and communication
caste marriage are a part of urban society. are the elements which creates the sufficient situations for the process
of urbanisation.
Concept of Urbanization Cities are the centre of trade. Countless industries and business
Briefly, cities refers to the group with social differences, with are established regularly in cities. Mills, factories, industries etc are
secondary relations and modes of control, dense population and established in large numbers. These places becomes the centre of
dominance of impersonal relationships. Urban society is characterised trade which gears up the process of urbanization.
by number of opportunities, due to which people from various religion, Materialised civilization and culture attracts a large number of
caste, class ect. come to stay there. That's why, cities have dense individuals to cities. Materialistic culture helps in the process of
population and is generally heterogeneous. urbanization.
Due to dense population, personal relationship are hard to Due to the increasement in the population, individuals works
establish. So, dominance of secondary control is there. But these for the fulfilment of his/her whims or fancies. For movement of people
developments are not all of sudden, it is a gradual process. This process has gained momentum which classifying cities into different categories
is known as urbanization. is a tough job because some cities are establish on one cause and
others on the different cause. Instancely, it is impossible to imagine
Meaning and Definitions of Urbanization the establishment of large scale population in Rajasthan but in places
Urbanization is that process through which a village gets where facilities like water, industries, gradually turns into cities and
converted into a city, gradually. This is the process through which, then into megapolis. These are places which have some unique features
situation in a villages changes that way that village turns into a city and which then turns into small cities but can't turn into metro cities. Examples
village starts tilting towards urban lifestyle. Bergail also believes in this of such cities are Prayag, Mathura, Ajmer, Nainital, Mussorie, Jammu
process of urbanization. etc.
Bergail - "The process of villages turning into cities is known Generally, in urban hierarchy, villages are smaller than towns
as urbanization. This process highly impacts the economic structure and towns are smaller than cities. But every country has different
of village. In which percentage, the population of village goes down, in definition for its cities. In India, cities are the concept after villages.
that particular percentage, the population of city gets increased." Emergence of cities or urban communities is not a sudden
phenomenon, but the places which offers some facilities gradually turns
into urban communities are related to the production and services in Some of the features of towns are as follows -
offices. These communities are not related to agriculture based 1. Those areas which have both urban as well as rural features together.
occcupations. In urban communities, a special to agriculture based 2. The process of industrialisation and professionalism has gained momentum
occupations. In urban communities, a special system of life style is in the respective areas.
there which is completely different from rural communities. 3. Population residing nearby that area are able to fulfill their needs in the
respective area.
Cities have dense population. Urban population is increasing 4. A large size of population resides in that place permanently.
a tremendous rate. According to a report of United Nation urban 5. Population size has risen to 5,000.
population will take over the rural population till 2070. According to the
City
census of 2011, population was about 31.2% in cities whereas in 1901
City has the web of rush, large number of means of transportation and
it was less than 10% and more than 17% in 1951. Urban life is a complex
communication. These are centre of commerce and entertainment. There
one. Due to the increasing industrialisation, individuals are migrating are various organization for education, religion and occupation. A large number
towards cities for their livelihood. That's why, density of population is of population resides in cities.
increasing continously in cities. But there exists artificiality no pure Urban areas foremostly include those groups of slums, whose people
water is available, no hygienic food and no pure air. Entire environment are engaged in occupations other than agriculture. So, 'urban word is used
is pulluted. for cities, suburb, megapolis, metropolis etc.
Towns are becoming cities and cities are turning into metro cities. In
modern era, those cities are known as megapolis whre multiple needs are Metropolis
satisfied along with a population of more than 10 lakhs. In 2011, number of In India, cities having population of more than 10 lakhs are categorised as
metropolis were 53 whereas in 1901, only kolkata was the metropolis whose metropolis. According to the census of 2001, there were 35 metropolis in
population was 10 lakhs. That metropolis whose population is more than 50 India and according to the census of 2011, there were 53 metropolis.
lakhs is known as megapolis. In present limes, Mumbai (1.84 crores), Delhi Following are the features of metropolis -
(1.68 crores), Kolkata (1.41 crores), Chennai (86 lakhs), Banglore (84 lakhs) 1. Increasement in the density of population.
and Hyderabad (77 lakhs) are categorised as megapolis. 2. The centre of educational institutions.
3. Centre of industries and trading centres.
Town 4. Web of roads and traffic jams.
Town is the category between village and cities. Most of the time it is also 5. Air pollution
referred as suburb. In the view of size of population, when the people of village 6. Establishment of slums.
turn their thoughts towards, so they are reffered as 'towns' rather than villages. 7. Individuals of various society, culture and religion live collectively together.
As a compare to villages, towns have multiple objectives. In towns, facilities 8. Large organization of art, literature, science, technical science etc.
like bank, Insurance companies, means of transportaton and health and
sanitation are more easily available as compare to villages. Town is facilitated Megapolis
with administrative and political functions. Extending size of 'metropolis' is referred to as 'megapolis'. In India, that city/
According to modern figures, following are the deciding metropolis which have a population or more than 50 lakhs is categorised as
elements for town - megapolis. Today Mumbai (1,84,14,288), Delhi (1,63,14,838), Kolkata
1. Those places which are facilitated with municipality can't broad and (1,41,12,536), Chennai (86,96,010), Banglore (84,99,399), Hyderabad
reserved area etc. (77,49,334) are megapolis. These are characterised by high density of
2. Those places which have, population. These have large shopping malls, multi-plexes, PVR, It hubs,
(a) atleast 5,000 population Cabres, Dancing Clubs and wine bars. All night parties are common in
(b) 1/3rd of population employed engaged in occupations other than megapolis. Public and personal health are available in abundance. Megapolis
agriculture, and have perfect system for drainage and excretion. Environment is safe and
(c) a density of 400 per sq. km. secure through the facilites of polic and fire brigade. Development of
industrialisation has provided new forms to politics, government, economic i) Change in Infrastructure - The process of urbanisation is
policies, distribution system and social organizations. Means of transportation rapidly changing. Towns, Cities and metropolis are continously
and communication are there in abundance in megapolis. Various changes connecting with new means of transporation and media. Individuals
have grab over due to the availability of means of transportation. In megapolis are affected through direct and indirect urban socio-cultural
types of city roadways like D.T.C. in Delhi. Best Buses in Mumbai are cheap phenomenon. These all are responsible for changing infrastructure.
and safe which gave rise to transportation as a result of which socio-cultural
relationships have strengthened. In megapolis, a large size of population ii) Impact of Globalization - The world's most modern concept
travels through personal vehicles. 'Metro' in Delhi has facilitated the daily is Global Village. The different nations of the world are developing that
travelling of people. Cities/Metropolis/Megapolis are characterised by
kind of mindset, that they are becoming a member of global village as
luxury,outer shine on the one hand but on the other, they face challenges like
compared to restricted ideas. This concept motivates the individual to
increasing density of population, increasing residence population, inceasing
change his life-style, eating habits, dressing style etc. This the new
residence population, pollution, slums, environmental problems etc.
process in urbanisation.
iii) Increasing Mechanical Tendencies in Personality -
The Central City After the independence era, on the one hand industrialisation has
Metropolis areas are known as central city industrial society are the rapidly grown and on the other new fields of living has emerged or
milestone of modern cities. Development of industries is along with developed. Traditional industries have disintegrated whereas in cities
machine production along with that concentration of workers also new factories-mills-industires has established with the help of machines.
increase in industrial cities. These area are generally characterised To get employed in thse firms, one needs to be skilled. This way
by high density of population. They have different culture. Central city individuals have become an important part of machines. His life-style
have highly intelligent, skilled and high educated employers. This have is all becoming mechanised. Cities have led to the mechanisation of
capitalist category's bussinessman. Generally, the people of central individuals. This way, urbanisation has led to the increasing mechanical
city live in the outskirts of central city and daily up-down for their job. tendencies in personality.
Population living in central city have high living standard. iv) Class Conciousness and Urbanization - Along with
material and industrial progression, class-consciousness has changed.
Suburb If we analysis the city and metro cities then we get to know that every
Rich and effecting class try to reside outside the central city because individual want to live like high or upper class. For this, he also struggles.
this have high density of population and unavailability of open and for instance, a normal servant's house is also furnished with A.C, fridge,
safe environment. This place have all economic and cultral urban T.V. and other basic amenities. The boys and girls of status also wants
facilities. This type of places are known as 'Suburb' or 'Posh Area'. to get good education and high-paid jobs. This all leads class-
This suburbs are situated under the boundaries metropolis area. These consciousness and urbanized thoughts.
have low density of population. Some of the examples of suburbs are v) Working Women and Urbanization - Almost every women
Rohini, Shalimar Bagh, Janakpuri, Noida, Faridabad, Gaziabad, in cities wants to work according to her abilities. For this, they are
Gurgoan etc. engaged in hard work. They are seen everywhere from govt. office to
private firms at different positions, Women residing in metropolis are
Emerging Trends of Cities generally strong and bold. They are equal in every sphere of life. It is
Various changes have grabbed over cities and metropolis from the gift of urban culture that the women of cities are able to face complex
beginning till 21st century. Changes are rapidly taking over urban situation.
industries on the one hand and on other urban infrastructure is changing vi) Urbanization of Township mentality - Generally, a man
its forms. With the introduction of Global Revolution in 1990, global is attached to some village, is connected to some traditions. rituals
market was established. Individuals have become the members of global and rural values. Whereas cities are the centre of different culture. Hi-
village now. Emerging modern trend in cities evolving are as follows - Hello and Western culture completely turn over an individual's life-
28 Urban Society
style. Township culture gets disillusioned. These tendencies separate

the individual from his prime culture. This leads to the urbanization of
township mentality.
vii) Balanced and Urbanized Development of cities -
Every city is not characterized by same form of urbanization individuals.
For instance, metro cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata etc. have
individuals whose behaviour, life-style, habits are like those of civilized
and progressive society. This way, their urbanization is according to
that one.
4
In a single megapolis, high class individuals has megaplis Industrial and Post-Industrial Society
civiliation and culture whereas as poor ones are unable to highlight
such values. Generally, the tendencies which are produced in cities
are imported. That's why development of cities are balanced is Industrial and post-industrial society marked its beginning after the
unbalanced in different aspects. development of tribal, rural and urban societies. Industrial society is
viii) Emergence of New Tendencies in cities - For the the product of industrial revolution, which came into line in late 18th
making a decoration of the society, the trading in industries try to century. This is known as industrial revolution because this change
advertise their products in every possible sense. They advertise their has all over turned the hand-made work and small industries into large
products through film stars. cricketers. t.v. models etc. Viewers accept manufacturing units and most of work was carried out by big machines
their ways as their product. That's why trade organizations play a vital in England.
role in affecting individual's thinking and mentality. This gave emergence In the words of Professor Strong, "Actually, industrial revolution
to new tendencies in cities. not only means the changes occuring in economic-processes and
ix) Modern Tendencies and Media - Reaching to 21st institutions but it also includes the great social, economic and political
century, communication means have played an important role in affecting results originated due to the processes and institutions leading to the
the society. From interior decoration to life-style every particular thing development in England and other countries."
tells us about urban culture. So media and other related organisation Briefly, Industrial society is that society which is known by its
give to modern tendencies. industrial activities whereas the post industrial society is the highly
x) Open Society - The new generation want to develop a modernised stage after the industrial society.
society which is free from all bonds. Every individual wants to be
independent in his/her decisions, which eventually gives rise to an Meaning and Definitions of Industrial society
open society. Which is anti-social in traditional, plays no meaning in an Industrial society is that society where the work of economic
open society. production is carried out by modern machines placed in large industries
So, at last urban society undergoes tremendous changes from and other industrial units and which is a great community of social
time to time, which eventually shapes its future. diversities where secondary relations and groups, secondary means
of control, trade and commerce, dense population, impersonal relation
etc. prevails.
The main definitions of industrialisation are as follows -
1. Prof. Willcocks - "Industrial society is that community
absorbing social, economical and political diversities where large scale
manufacturing takes place in modern industrial units and where working
equilibrium is mantained in social organisation and dis-organisation
through formal means of control because of the presence of the formal
30 Industrial and Post-Industrial Society Industrial and Post-Industrial Society 31
means of control because of the presence of the formal means of occupations are found in industrial society from writer to engineer,
control because of the presence of the artificiality, individualism, from government official to industrialists. That's why, multiplicity of
competition and dense population. occupation is a significant feature of this society.
2. Prof. Richard Devo - "Industrial society is the one which 8. Division of labour and Specialization - All works in
have technological features where division of labour and specialisation industrial society, especially in industries are conducted at a large scale,
is unseparable due the large scale production through modern due to which division of labour becomes highly important. In the context
machines and impersonal relation and secondary means of control of division of labour, doing work at large scale and managing them
identifies the social life." demands specialists. That's why, industrial society features lawyers,
professors, doctors, engineers etc as experts in their respective fields.
Nature of Characterstics of Industrial Society Not only that, there is a need of experts in the various epartment under
1. Economic Production in Large Industrial Units - The a particular profession, like - Cardiologist among doctors, managing
foremost characterstic of industrial society that large industrial units executives among industrialists etc.
takes place for small-scale industries. These industrial units can be 9. Individualism - In industrial society, status is not based on
private-owned or may be public-owned. birth but that of individualistic qualities and abilities. This norms makes
2. Large Scale Production-As economic production is carried an individual selfish and thus everyone indulge themselves in the
out in large industrial units through modern machines, that's why, profit fulfilment of their own needs. This lead to individualism.
can be gained only through large scale production. Thus, the work of 10. Congestion - Another important characterstic of industrial
manufacturing in large industrial units is carried out 24x7 under the society is the presence of congestion. From the industrial viewpoint,
shift system. that city is the most important will have more population. Not only that,
3. Huge Capital Investment - Huge capital is required to generally as compared to agrarian societies, industrial societies have
establish large industries and to carry out large scale production. That's more options of business, commerce, education, politics etc. due to
why, we can see that a large sum of money floats in the indusrial society. which it have dense population.
4. Profit Making Tendency - The one who invests capital, 11. Lesser Importance of Religion and Family - Due to
also wants to earn profit. Industrial society's main objective is to earn more connection towards education and science, there is lesser
more and more profit. Similarly, people engaged in industrial sector importance of religion and family. Conservativeness erodes out from
and commerce have also the tendency in industrial sector and education, as a result of which individuals doesn't accept religious
commerce have also the tendency of more and more profit making conventions. Other than this, presence of all facilities in society, one
and for this they are ready for every right and wrong. can eat in hotels, dryclean their clothes and moreover agencies for
5. Greater Importance of Money - Industrial society are daily entertainment are there, due to which family plays only a formality.
characterised by greater importance of money because social prestige 12. Social Mobility and Tolerance - In Industrial society,
is only based on wealth. In these societies, money is also a weapon to intensity of social mobility is more due to the presence of division of
gain political power. labour, competition and diversities. Change can occur in occupations
6. Social Hetrogeneity - Another characterstic of industrial at any time with the help of individualistic abilities. Other than this, due
societies is that various diversities prevails in the social life. Due to the to the expansion of social limits and collective living, feeling of tolerance
presence of facilities in industries, trade and commerce, people from increases.
various castes, communities, states, classes, religion etc comes 13. More Mental Conflicts - Industrial societies features a
together. Due to this diversity. Homogeneity is hard to establish in the mental conflict in the mind of individuals because on the one hand
life styles, attitudes and attires among society this gaving birth to social there are facilities of eating, earning, life-styles etc. but on the other
heterogeneity. hand, accidents unemployment etc. are daily phenomenon. This all
7. Variety of Occupations - Variety of occupations is yet leads to mental disturbances. Not only that, noise popullation due to
another characterstic of industrial societies. A large variety of machines leads to mental diseases.
14. Prominence of Secondary Association and Control -

Industrial societies have the prominence of secondary associations Industrialization Vs Socio-Economic Change
like colleges, labour unions etc. These all associations like colleges, l Change in Social Life
labour unions etc. These all associations or groups work for the fulfilment 1. Weekening of caste system - Industrialization has
of their own needs. This gave rise to the problem of controllation. This weekened the caste system. Industrialization gave rise to various
associations are so many, that controlling them through customs, occupations, number of mills and industries were establish. People of
traditions or religion is impossible. That's why means of secondary all castes gained the opportunity of working in them. This is not
control like law, police, court, army etc. are used. characterised by division of occupations on the basis of caste. Not
15. Impersonal Social Relationship - Another important only that, this is also leading to the erosions of caste-based marriages.
characterstic of industrial society is that, the relation among individuals 2. Lack of residences and increment in slums - The
in this society is neither intimate nor personal. The main cause for this population of cities is increasing due to industrialization but the
is that the scope of social relations is so wide that it is impossible for residential facilities are not increasing by that rate. This resulted in the
individuals to establish personal relations with all. The another fact in lack of residences and to fulfil this lack, slums are developing in big
this context is that there is prominence of secondary groups in industrial industrial societies like 'Ahata' (Kanpur), 'Chawal' (Mumbai) etc. This
societies whose nature 'touch' and 'go'. Actually, most of relations in slums are for away from sanitation, pure air and sufficient light which
industries list societies are established through post, telephon, e-mail, affects the health of the labours.
sms, internet etc, due to which there is a complete absence of personal 3. Professionalism of entertainment - An important impact
relations. of industrialization is the professionalism of entertainment. Now-a-days,
16. Extravagance and Artificiality - In industrial societies, professionalism of entertainment means like video, cable, cinema, clubs,
an individual's prestige highly depends on extravagance and artificiality, internet has increased so much that lot of money is invested in these
An individual who will highlight more artificiality in the context of means. Film companies of Mumbai and Chennai invest crores of rupee
life-style, dressing sense, food etc in his attitude, he will have that in one film. Most of the films are C-grade which helds a bad impact on
much social prestige. teenagers.
17. Competition and Social Opportunities - Industrial 4. A life distant from nature - Common environement of
societies have various types of social associations and individuals. industrial society is distant from nature, highly artificial. Life of urban it
These all are engaged in the fulfilment of their own needs, which gives is surrounded by bricks, cement, iron, buses, mills, tall buildings.
rise to competition. Along with that, there is a wide variety of opportunities highways, chimney and smoke. Nothing is at all natural.
for individualistic development. 5. Development of individualistic norms - Industrialisation
18. More Social Problems and Crimes - Development in has gave rise to wealth and individualistic qualities in society. That's
science and education in industrial societies on the one hand led to why today every individual thinks of himself/herself. In other words,
the success of individuals but on the other hand gave rise to the new development of individualistic norms is on high note in Indian society.
crimes. This has gave rise to the various types and numbers of crimes. 6. Crimes, juvenile crimes and competition-Industrialisation
In various social problems, problems of residence, poverty and have gave rise to such situations, which have gave birth to various
unemployement, addiction and prostitution are main. crimes. Problems of residence, lose control of joint family, prostitutes,
Other than above characterstics, there are some other alcohol, fixing, cinema etc. in cities are the causes which have motivated
characterstics of industrial societies like instability of families, Lack of crimes and harassment. That's why, competition has increased in trade
community sentiment, distance from nature, love-marriage, higher and commerce due to industrialisation.
status for women etc. 7. Mental Conflicts, Disease etc - Industrialization is also a
cause for mental disturbances and diseases. New diseases which have
grasped society, are the gift of industrialization. Unstability of
occupations, artificial environment, slums, etc. are the situations for
which the industrialization is responsible has gave birth to various economic and sex differences, resulting in the increased rates of
mental conflicts and diseases. divorce.
l Change in Family Life l Change in Economic Life

1. Disintegration of joint families and nuclear families - 1. Development of capitalism - Due to industrialization,
In the context of family life, the foremost impact of industrialization that economic production is carried out in mills and factories on a large
it has disintegrated the joint families and gave rise to nuclear families. scale. Actually, manufactoring at large scale requires huge capital. So,
Industrialization on the one hand deteriorated house-hold industries those one have the right on the means of production who have more
in villages and other hand gave rise to jobs and professions in cities. capital. Those individuals who are not capitalist, sell their labour to
This has led to the movement of people to cities. This contributed to earn. This way, industrialization has divided present society in 2 classes
the disintegration of joint families. Due to the problem of residence in - capitalist and labourers. Due to industrialization, production is carried
industrial societies, individuals are unable to live with their families. out at large scale, this has make possible the sufficient development
This way, we can say that indusrialization have gave birth to nuclear of business and commerce.
families. 2. Production on large scale and expansion of trade-
2. Jobs for women and their high status - In present times, Production is carried out through large machines in industrialization
industrialization not only provided job opportunities to men but also and huge profit can be earned only through large scale production.
women. That's why, women go out and work. This had deteriorated the Large scale production is carried out because of industrialization,
'purdah' system altogether. Along with that, there social status has leading to the sufficient expansion of trade and commerce.
also increased. Today, women are not only to cook food and fulfiling 3. Division of labour and specialization - Earlier farmer of
sexual desires but they are playing important roles in every field. a village was considered as the Jack of all trades. He used to make
3. Limited family functions - Industrialization has limited the ornaments, repair houses and this way he used to do all small chores
family functions in society. Earlier, family was responsible for fulfiling himself. But industrialization has led to the production at large scale
almost every need but due to industrialization, these functions have and without division of labour it is impossible. Other than this, repeatedly
transferred towards private accociations and organisations. Today, doing a same work specialises the individual in that particular work.
clothes are washed in drycleaning works, various means are there like This way it is clear that industrialization has implemented division of
clubs, cinema halls etc. for entertainment purpose and this way other labour and specialization.
works are done by private agancies. 4. High living standard - Industrialization has helped
4. Lessening family control - Family was the important individuals to raise their standard. Production at large scale, industries,
means of family control in agrarian societies. The main member of the trade and commerce has led to the improvement of economic situation
family controlled the entire family. Due to industrialization, on the one of individuals and thus gained living standard.
hand joint families disintegrated and on the other hand men and women 5. Poverty and unemployement - Poverty and unemployment
have to go out due to increasing opportunities of profession. This has in present times is because of industrialization. Industrialization has
led to the lessening of control by parents on children. destroyed the house-hold small industries leading to the large scale
5. Love marriage, Inter-caste marriage, late marriage and unemployment in villages. Other than this, concentration of means of
divorce - Due to industrialization, trend of love marriage, inter-caste production in fewer hands in making poor people more poorer.
marriage, late marriage and divorce has started. Co-education, together 6. Industrial conflicts and accidents - In present times
working in offices and industries, independence of open romance etc. development of that capitalist economy as a result of industrialization
has led to the trend of love-marriages. These all situations are originated where capital class harasses the labour class. Due to this, industrial
through industrialization. Caste distinctions doesn't play any importance conflicts are a dialy phenomena because today's labour class is more
in love-marriages. Other than this, due to education and busy life, conscious towards its right. Every year in this country thousands of
independence among women, family tensions rises on the basis of lock-outs and strikes are there to see. This way, labourers faces
economic loss on one hand along with loss to owners and nation on included from social viewpoint, these societies are know by social
the other one. This way, industrialization gave birth to accidents leading diversities, individualism, impersonal relations, social mobility and
to a great loss for workers and nation. formal control."
l Change in Religious Life Nature of Characterstics of Post-Industrial Society
Industrialization has led to the revolutionary changes in religious 1. Diverse Field of Socio-Culture Contacts - Post-industrial
life. Industrialization is directly related to science. That's why, scientific societies have diverse field of socio-cultural contacts. The main cause
inventions and progressive ideologies have affected the religious for this is that because of the availability of various types of facilities in
beliefs. Along with that, various factories, business and commerce these societies, people from different countries of various caste, religion,
indulge individuals from various religious with gave rise to religious community etc. come and stay here. Individual's not only get to mee
tolerance and erosion of religious restrictions. Today, because of with different people but with their traditions, customs, norms, ritruals,
industrialization, people have start believing in machines rather than social value etc. Other than this, members of these societies are not
god for success. This way it is clear that industrialization has reduced able to know about their country but also with foreign countries because
both dominance and importance of religion. of the easy availability of means of communication, radio, T.V. Internet,
computers etc.
l Increase in Political Dynamism 2. Facilities for Education and Training - Post-industrial
Industrialization has also affected the state. Due to society have the expanded facilities of education and training. The
industrialization, economy has become extremely complex which has expansion of industries that took place in these societies, due to which
led more responsibilities over state. Instancely, labour's problems, there is a need of quality education and training and because of this
inflation, poverty etc arising out because of industrialisation has made requirement Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) are established.
state responsible for there solution. That's why, India government has 3. Expansion of Trade and Commerce - Post-industrial
nationalised the banks, insurance etc for the objective of protection of society helps in the expansion of trade and commerce. Actually,
economic interests of citizens. This way, it is clear that industrialization population increases at a cibstabt rate in industrial societies, due to
has contributed to the expansion of state's work-field. which needs also increases and the fulfilment of these needs, expansion
of trade and commerce definitely took place. That's why, daily new
Post-Industrial Society market, mills, companies etc. are established.
Actually, post-industrial society is an advanced form of industrial 4. Expansion of means of transportation and
society. Thus, its nature is more complex as compared to industrial Communication - Post-industrial society are highly characterised by
society and because of dominance of machines it make individuals as the increased means of transportation and communication. Actually, in
machines. Prof. Landis has called it a 'Cold World', where personal these societies, trade, industries etc also expand along with
relations, intimacy and cooperation is harly experienced. development, due to which there is continous expansion of
transportation and communication facilities. Thus, along with
Meaning and Definition of Post-Industrial Society development, facilities like post office, railway station, telephones, e-
Prof. Robertson - "Post-industrial society is that developed mail, sms. courier also develops.
form of industrial society which includes inter-related but separed 5. Social Telerance - Social tolerance is yet another featurs
factors and situations, like-novel machines and change in industrial of post- industrial society. The main factor for this is that due to
field, great investment and investors, grand improvement in development, people of various religions, caste, communities and
transportation and communication, economy, development of currency countries come to stay there and everyone gets the chance to contact
and finance related new principles, changes in labouring and values, with each other. Actually, this contact leads to social tolerance.
intese conflict in capitalist and labour class, dominance of labour union,
poverty-estimation and trend of new principal of centre and state
administration etc are the important developments which can be
Dynamics of Post-Industrial Society 5.Social Disintegration - The cause for the social
1. Change in Family Structure - Post-industrial society has disintegration is the urbanisation along with the distinctions of religion,
entirely changed the family structure. Due to development in these rituals, caste, law, tradition, custom etc, along with the instability of
societies functions of family had reduced. Drycleaning, breakfast, community living. Actually, this instability and dynamism have gave rise
control, education, entertainment etc. are all transferred to outer to the disintegration of post-industrial societies. Another point of social
agencies. That's why, importance of family have declined. Similarly, disintegration is the dynamic changes in these societies, the result of
individuals viewpoint towards marriage has also changed. Marriage is the which is the activation of process of disintegration.
now not considered a lifetime relation but only a means of personal 7. Political Maturity and Education - The defining change
satisfaction, which have affected the stability of families. Other than that had occured in politics due to industrialization is the rise of political
this, presence of co-education, together working of men-women, affect parties. Every party wants to defame the other. This entrenches the
of cinema etc. in these societies have led to the expansion of romance, political mobility and education among individuals.
love marriage, inter-caste marriage, divorce etc. In these societies, 8. Other Social Dynamics - Development of capital
there is lack of residence which led to disintegration of joint families economics, unequal distribution of national income, economic crisis,
and emergence of nuclear families. industrial conflicts, unemployment, mental conflicts and tension,
2. Change in Social Values and Relationships - Due to diseases, conflict and competition, instability of social life, slums,
the situation arised out of industrialization, revolution, changes have professionalisation of entertainment etc. are all important changes
occured social values and relations. These situations have gave rise occured in post-industrial society.
to wealth and individualists qualities, as a result of which man has 9. Family and Personal Disorganisation - Situation of post-
become self-centred. For the desire of gaining more and more social industrial societies have also stimulated the family and personal
prestige, they are ready to compromise other's wishes. Not only that, disorganisation. In these societies, crime rate is increasing at a
personal relations have also grasped changes. Mega-cities have large tremedous rate because of poverty, unemployment, professional
apartments to live in but even individuals living in same apartment entertainment etc. Similarly, there is expansion of prostitution, addiction
doesn't know each other. etc. which is a symbol of personal disorganisation. In these big cities,
3. Change in Caste-Structure - Urban areas have grown at especially in cities important from religious view-point people not only
a high rate in post-industrial societies. People have to travel altogether beg because of poverty, starvation and unemployment. These all results
in buses, trains, metros, taxi etc, which have losened the food-sharing in personal disorganisation.
restrictions. Now, in cities people of different castes interact with each Personal disortanisation is a main cause for family
other, thus leading to love marriage where there is no question of disorganisation. Various situations in post-industrial society give rise
caste. In this sense, it has also losened the marriage restrictions. to poverty, unemployment, family tensions, divorce, break-ups, love-
Now only that, these societies are occupied by a number of marriage, women's economic development etc in society which leads
occupations where stratification on the basis of caste system is to family disorganisation.
impossible. Reality is that, these societies have dense population where
no one remembers the caste rules and regulations. Thus, it is clear
that, post-industrial societies have disintegrated caste system in
many ways.
4. Accident, diseases and waste - In such societies, where
means of transportation and industries grow at a higher pace, these
also results in accidents. Daily we use to see road, train, airplane,
accidents. Other than this, new diseases originating from industries
are easy to see. These diseases spread out from factories, dense
population and slums in cities.

2nd Sem, Unit 1, Society, Culture

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2nd Sem, Unit 1, Society, Culture

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Contents

Society, Culture and Social Change

Chapter Description Page

Unit-I : Society : Its Nature, Definition and Types

Unit-IV : Concepts and Basis of Social Stratification

Meaning and Definition of Tribe

variety of occupations are there.

3 skills they achieve. People are specialise in particular activity.

style. Township culture gets disillusioned. These tendencies separate

14. Prominence of Secondary Association and Control -

l Change in Family Life l Change in Economic Life

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