Design and Manufacturing of A Miniature Gas Turbine: Digital WPI

Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Digital WPI
Major Qualifying Projects (All Years) Major Qualifying Projects
March 2018
Design and Manufacturing of a Miniature Gas

Turbine
Alexander Cameron Crocker
Daniel Glenn Alonzo

Eric Paul James

John David Kingston

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Repository Citation
Crocker, A. C., Alonzo, D. G., James, E. P., & Kingston, J. D. (2018). Design and Manufacturing of a Miniature Gas Turbine. Retrieved
from https://digitalcommons.wpi.edu/mqp-all/2132
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Running Head: DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE
Design and Manufacturing of a Miniature

Turbojet Engine
A Major Qualifying Project

Submitted to the Faculty of
WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Science
Submitted by:
Daniel Alonzo
Alex Crocker
Eric James
John Kingston III
Submitted on: March 23, 2018
Submitted to:
Project Advisor: Robert Daniello, WPI

DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE ii
Abstract
The goal of this major qualifying project was to design and manufacture a small
gas turbine engine. The manufactured components included: axial turbine, stator,
diffuser, compressor inlet, shaft, outer casing, combustion chamber, fuel distributer,
exhaust nozzle, and inlet flange. We reviewed literature regarding gas turbine engine
components, designed each component, and manufactured them accordingly. We then
assembled our engine and planned for testing.

DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE iii
Acknowledgements
Our team would like to take this moment to thank the many people who
contributed to the success of our project.
We would like to thank Capture 3D in South Windsor, Connecticut for helping us

scan our compressor wheel.
We would like to thank Henke Sass Wolf in Dudley, Massachusetts for helping us
laser weld our fuel distributor and donating material used for our combustion chamber.
We would like to thank Peterson Steel in Worcester, Massachusetts for donating

material used for the stator, stator housing, diffuser, turbine, and inlet shroud.
We would like to thank the staff of Washburn shops for assisting us throughout
the manufacturing process.
Finally, we would like to thank our advisor, Professor Robert Daniello, for always
pushing us to do better, his continuous support and encouragement, and his overall
commitment to the success of our project.
DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE iv
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III
TABLE OF CONTENTS IV
TABLE OF FIGURES VI
TABLE OF EQUATIONS VII
TABLE OF TABLES VIII
1.0 INTRODUCTION 9
2.0 BACKGROUND 12
2.1 Gas Turbines 12
2.2 Components 14
2.2.A. Compressor 14
2.2.B. Diffuser 18
2.2.C. Turbine & Stator 18
2.2.D. Combustion Chamber 23
2.2.E. Exhaust Nozzle 25
2.2.F. Fuel System, Lubrication & Bearings 27
2.3 Ideal Cycle Analysis 30
2.3.A. The Brayton Cycle 30
2.3.B. Ideal Component Analysis 33
3.0 METHODOLOGY 37
3.1 Compressor 37
3.2 Inlet Shroud 39

DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE v
3.3 Diffuser 41
3.4 Combustion Chamber 43
3.5 Shaft Housing 44
3.6 Fuel Distributer 46
3.7 Turbine 47
3.8 Outer Casing & Inlet Flange 50
3.9 Shaft 53
3.10 Stator & Stator Housing 55
3.11 Exhaust Nozzle 56
3.12 Bearings, Fuel Injection, and Lubrication 58
4.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60
REFERENCES 63
APPENDIX A: IDEAL CYCLE ANALYSIS 65
APPENDIX B: TURBINE BLADE STRESS 70
APPENDIX C: FUEL CONSUMPTION CALCULATION 71
APPENDIX D: CAD DRAWINGS 72

DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE vi
Table of Figures
FIGURE 1: FOUR TYPES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES (AVIATION, 2015) 14
FIGURE 2: EXAMPLE OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR 15
FIGURE 3: COMPRESSOR MAP EXAMPLE (GARRET, 2017) 17
FIGURE 4: TURBINE WHEEL (LEFT) AND STATOR (RIGHT) EXAMPLES 20
FIGURE 5: VELOCITY VECTORS FOR STATOR AND TURBINE (MATTINGLY, 2000) 21
FIGURE 6: EXAMPLE OF AN ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER 24
FIGURE 7: EXAMPLE GEOMETRY OF OPEN BRAYTON CYCLE (FLACK, 2005) 31
FIGURE 8: T-V, P-V AND T-S DIAGRAMS (MIT, 2014) 32
FIGURE 9: GT4202 COMPRESSOR MAP (LIMIT ENGINEERING, 2015) 38
FIGURE 10: G4202 ATTACHED TO DRIVE SHAFT 39
FIGURE 11: INLET SHROUD 41
FIGURE 12: CHANNEL DIFFUSER 42
FIGURE 13: COMBUSTION CHAMBER 44
FIGURE 14: SHAFT HOUSING 45
FIGURE 15: FUEL DISTRIBUTOR 47
FIGURE 16: AXIAL TURBINE 50
FIGURE 17: OUTER CASING 51
FIGURE 18: INLET FLANGE 52
FIGURE 19: SHAFT ASSEMBLY 54
FIGURE 20: NOZZLE 57
FIGURE 21: LUBRICATION SYSTEM 59
FIGURE 22: NOZZLE (LEFT) AND COMPRESSOR (RIGHT) VIEWS OF ASSEMBLY 62
DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE vii
Table of Equations
EQUATION 1: PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS COMPRESSOR 15
EQUATION 2: CHANGE IN ENTHALPY ACROSS COMPRESSOR (KAMPS, 2005) 16
EQUATION 3: POWER INPUT FOR COMPRESSOR (KAMPS, 2005) 16
EQUATION 4: THRUST VECTOR (SHRECKLING, 1992) 21
EQUATION 5: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE CALCULATION (NPOWER, 2009) 22
EQUATION 6: BLADE ROOT NOMINAL STRESS 22
EQUATION 7: THERMAL OUTPUT EQUATION (SHRECKLING, 1992) 28
EQUATION 8: FUEL FLOW REQUIRED (SHRECKLING, 1992) 29
EQUATION 9: PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS INLET 33
EQUATION 10: TEMPERATURE RATIO ACROSS INLET 33
EQUATION 11: PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS COMPRESSOR 34
EQUATION 12: TEMPERATURE RATIO ACROSS COMPRESSOR 34
EQUATION 13: COMPRESSOR T-P RELATION (NASA, COMPRESSOR THERMODYNAMICS, 2015B) 34
EQUATION 14: COMPRESSOR WORK (NASA, COMPRESSOR THERMODYNAMICS, 2015B) 35
EQUATION 15: PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS COMBUSTOR 35
EQUATION 16: PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS COMBUSTOR 35
EQUATION 17: PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS TURBINE 36
EQUATION 18: TEMPERATURE RATIO ACROSS TURBINE 36
EQUATION 19: TURBINE T-P RELATION (NASA, TURBINE THERMODYNAMICS, 2015D) 36
EQUATION 20: TURBINE WORK (NASA, TURBINE THERMODYNAMICS, 2015D) 36
EQUATION 21: PRESSURE RATIO ACROSS NOZZLE 36
EQUATION 22: TEMPERATURE RATIO ACROSS NOZZLE 36
DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE viii
Table of Tables
TABLE 1: SPECIFIC ENERGY AND DENSITY OF DIFFERENT FUELS ....................................................................27
TABLE 2: STAGES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE ...............................................................................................................31
DESIGN OF MINIATURE TURBOJET ENGINE 9
1.0 Introduction
The gas turbine engine is a machine that, according to the thermodynamic
Brayton Cycle, does work by harnessing energy from a working fluid and converting the
energy into a useable form. Various types of gas turbines are designed to perform a
range of tasks but all operate on similar principles. Air enters the engine, is compressed,
mixed with fuel, combusted, and then expanded through a rotating turbine. Common
applications of modern gas turbines include: producing auxiliary power for ground or
aircraft systems, propelling military aircraft at supersonic speeds, and driving the rotor
system of helicopters (Macisaac & Langton, 2011). Due to the extreme temperatures and
high rotational speeds experienced by engine components, design and construction of a
gas turbine demands accuracy, informed material selection, knowledge of
thermodynamics, and the ability to model and machine metal components.
As material processing techniques advanced, it became possible to manufacture
gas turbine engines small enough to power radio controlled (RC) airplanes. Modern gas
turbines for full size aircraft generally utilize axial compressors and turbines with
multiple stages of blades. These multi-stage components increase efficiency, pressure
ratios, and performance characteristics (Shreckling, 1992). However, RC jet modelers
found that small engines can be reasonably efficient and powerful with single stage
compressor and turbine stages. A centrifugal compressor matched to an axial turbine has
become a common design among RC jet enthusiasts. With this simplification, along with
advancements in CNC machining and 3D modeling, it is possible to manufacture a
complete miniature gas turbine with a relatively small investment.

Although miniature gas turbines are now available for sale from a number of
manufacturers, the secrets of design and construction are still somewhat hidden from the
end customer. Accurate analysis of performance is elusive even with the utilization of
modern software, and an iterative design process offers the soundest path toward new
engine development (Stricker, 1998). However, a number of publications are available
that instruct the ambitious RC jet enthusiast on how to manufacture an engine with
amateur means.
The goal of this project is to call on the literature available regarding small gas
turbines in order to design and manufacture an engine that is self-sustaining. In order to
expedite the design process, efficiency and thrust production are not prioritized. Due to
budget and time restrictions we are unable to complete multiple iterations of a new
engine. Therefore, we rely on engine designs currently developed to aid in the design of
our major components. Subjects such as new airfoil design for turbine blades, nozzle
efficiency, and combustor efficiency can be the subject of years of research and
investment. For this reason, we drew on industry standards and recommendations of
modelers to design some of our components. We realized early that two crucial
components, the centrifugal compressor and ball bearings, would be impossible to design
and manufacture given the time frame. We made the decision to purchase these
components in order to make our project more feasible given the restrictions.
This project culminated in the manufacture of twelve major components.
• Compressor inlet shroud

• Diffuser
• Power transmitting shaft
• Shaft housing
• Annular Combustion chamber
• Fuel distributer
• Stator
• Stator/turbine housing
• Axial Turbine
• Exhaust nozzle
• Outer casing
• Inlet flange
Additionally, we assembled our components and added a fuel injection system and
bearing lubrication system. Due to time constraint, we were unable to implement a
throttle mechanism or construct a simple and safe engine stand and were not able to test
the engine. Each component listed above was first modeled with SOLIDWORKS
software and then manufactured with the material processing capabilities available in
Worcester Polytechnic Institute’s Washburn and Higgins Labs. Throughout the
experience, our team furthered our design and manufacturing skills through manual and
CNC milling and turning, TIG welding, sheet metal forming, and regular engineering
troubleshooting.
2.0 Background
This chapter reviews previous research on gas turbines with an emphasis on
small/miniature sized turbojets. We provide an introduction to gas turbines and their use
as well as methods for conducting theoretical cycle analysis. Additionally, we introduce
the components that constitute a modern small gas turbine.
2.1 Gas Turbines

A gas turbine is a type of continuous, internal combustion engine that contains
three major components: a compressor, a combustor, and a turbine. A basic
configuration, referred to as the turbojet, consists of an inlet nozzle where air at free
stream velocity is directed into a compressor (Hunecke, 1997). The air is accelerated and
compressed across the compressor stage and then redirected into the combustion chamber.
Fuel is injected into the chamber, combined with the high-pressure air, and ignited to
create combustion. The hot gas, which has expanded in the combustion chamber, is
forced through the turbine blades resulting in rotation of the shaft which ties the turbine
to compressor. From here the exhaust gas is accelerated through an outlet nozzle. The
high velocity exhaust is at a speed much greater than the free stream velocity and
therefore produces thrust.
The basis for the creation of thrust is Isaac Newton’s second law of motion, force
is equivalent to mass times acceleration (Shreckling, 1992). According to the principles
of conservation of momentum, the thrust force created by the turbojet is equal to the mass
flow rate of the exhaust gas multiplied by the velocity relative to the free stream velocity
of air entering the compressor. The more fuel that is consumed by the engine, the more
thrust is created, assuming constant efficiency. One method for increasing the amount of
thrust is by afterburning, also known as thrust augmentation. This design incorporates a
separate burner that combusts extra fuel and releases hot exhaust gases downstream from
the turbine (Britannica, 2018). Afterburners can substantially increase thrust at the
expense of rapid fuel consumption. However, afterburners are primarily used in military
aircraft to achieve supersonic flight.
Some gas turbines do not generate thrust and instead have become a popular
method for power generation due to increases in efficiencies (Boyce, Meherwan P., et al.,
2012). Although these industrial applications for gas turbines exist, this paper focuses on
aircraft propulsion applications. Four main types of turbines utilized in the aerospace
industry are the turbojet, turbofan, turboprop and turboshaft.
Turbojet and turbofan engines provide thrust generated from reaction forces
created by high velocity exhaust gas leaving the outlet nozzle. The turbofan is the most
common type of engine used in the aerospace industry (Hunecke, 1997). It utilizes a fan
that is upstream the compressor, which is also driven by the turbine. Air bypasses the
compressor and rejoins the flow downstream of the turbine adding “cold thrust.” This
design achieves better fuel efficiency than turbojet engines while operating at cruising
speeds common to civil airline travel. The turbojet engine, unlike the turbofan, does not
allow air to bypass the compressor, it is simple by design and the earliest type of turbine
propulsion engine.
Turboprop and turboshaft engines use exhaust gases to drive a separate turbine
that drives a propeller. The difference between the two is that the turboshaft utilizes all
exhaust gas to drive the propeller, whereas the turboprop also uses some of this exhaust
gas to produce thrust. Turboshaft engines are commonly used in helicopters, such as the
Sikorsky CH-53G. Figure 1 below gives a visual representation of these four engines.
Figure 1: Four Types of Gas Turbine Engines (Aviation, 2015)
2.2 Components
In order to better understand how a small turbojet engine operates, one must
understand the purpose for each component. This section reviews the conceptual
physics and thermodynamics as they relate to each individual component.
2.2.A. Compressor
As we now know, the compressor is the stage of the engine which creates high
enough pressure to achieve combustion. The two types of compressors commonly used in
turbojet engines are axial and centrifugal (Stricker, 1998). The axial compressor directs
the air flow parallel to the rotational axis whereas the centrifugal design directs the flow
radially outward, perpendicular to the rotational axis. Small gas turbines, that produce
less than 5 MW, are often designed around centrifugal compressors. Although these are
less efficient than multi-stage axial compressors, centrifugal compressors are reliable and
able to produce pressure ratios in excess of 8:1 with a single stage (Kamps, 2005). The
pressure ratio is equal to the total pressure downstream the compressor divided by the
pressure at the compressor entry.
#$
Π=
#%
Equation 1: Pressure Ratio Across Compressor
This ratio impacts thrust, fuel consumption and engine efficiency. An example of a
centrifugal compressor can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Example of Centrifugal Compressor

Regardless of the exact geometry in the centrifugal compressor, the purpose is to
redirect the air radially along the axis of rotation (NASA, Compressor, 2015a). Air flows
along the blades of the compressor and is sent out in the radial direction by centrifugal
force. The high-speed air accelerated by the compressor then enters the diffuser stage of
the engine. The increase in pressure across the compressor is accompanied by increases
in temperature and enthalpy (Kamps, 2005). Change in enthalpy across an adiabatic
compressor can be defined by:
∆ℎ = ()* (, -.$/0 − 1)
Equation 2: Change in Enthalpy Across Compressor (Kamps, 2005)

where,
?
∆ℎ = )ℎ4567 95 :5;ℎ4<=>
@6
( = A5<7; ;7B=7C4;DC7 EF 49C (G7<H95)
G?
)* = I=7J9F9J ℎ74; EF 49C 75;7C956 JEB=C7KKEC ( )
G6G
, = #C7KKDC7 C4;9E EF ;ℎ7 JEB=C7KKEC
This rise in enthalpy is proportional to the input power provided by the turbine to
the compressor, which can be seen in the following expression.
B∆ℎ
#=
L
Equation 3: Power Input for Compressor (Kamps, 2005)

where,
?
∆ℎ = :5;ℎ4<=> 95JC74K7 ( )
@6
# = #EM7C 95=D; (N)
L = :FF9J975J>
@6
B = O4KK F<EM EF 49C ;ℎCED6ℎ JEB=C7KKEC ( )
K
From empirical data and computer simulation, performance of a compressor can
be represented by compressor maps. These charts plot performance characteristics of a
compressor in order to understand the compressors’ capabilities. Typically, mass flow
rate and pressure ratio are plotted, although sometimes rotations per minute (RPM) or
efficiency are seen. An example of a standard compressor map can be seen below in
Figure 3.
Figure 3: Compressor Map Example (Garret, 2017)

2.2.B. Diffuser
The purpose of a diffuser is to decelerate the speed of the incoming compressed
fluid, converting the speed of the gas into pressure. Essentially, the diffuser converts
high speed air in the form of kinetic energy into potential energy in the form of high
pressure. There are a variety of acceptable diffuser designs for small gas turbines. One
design, the radial wedged diffuser, has become popular among manufacturers of small
gas turbines for model aircraft. The KJ66, a primitive engine design widely popular
among RC jet enthusiasts, utilizes the radial wedged diffuser design (Ling, Wong, &
Armfield, 2007). The blade configuration of these diffusers can vary greatly and still
perform adequately, some are curved in the direction of rotation of the impeller while
others curve in the opposite direction. However, perhaps the most desirable blade design
characteristic for small gas turbines is that the blade widens to provide sufficient surface
area for bolt holes (Kamps, 2005). These bolt holes provide a convenient location that
allows the manufacturer to bolt the diffuser, compressor and inlet shroud into a ridged
body.
2.2.C. Turbine & Stator
Turbines, like compressors, are designed as either axial or radial. Axial-flow
turbines are the most widely used because they offer the possibility for higher mass flow
rates than that of radial turbines. Typically, axial-flow turbines consist of multiple stages
in order to increase efficiency and thrust production. However, when designing small gas
turbines single stage axial turbines are often used. The turbine stage usually consists of
nozzle stationary guide vanes, also known as a stator. Stator blades are airfoils with their
leading edges facing the combustion chamber (Hunecke, 1997). Their purpose is to
reduce the phenomena known as swirl and allow air to accelerate into the turbine blades.
The stator directs exhaust gases in the axial direction towards the turbine blades while
increasing the absolute velocity and kinetic energy of the exhaust gases. The stator has a
similar yet opposite role to that of the diffuser in the compressor stage. In the diffuser,
the area between the adjacent blades increase in the downstream direction whereas in the
stator this area increases.
The stator and turbine must contend with extremely high thermal loads. By
raising the turbine inlet temperature, more thrust per unit mass flow rate is generated
(Mattingly, 2000). The turbine also operates at extremely high angular velocities. These
criteria have driven the development of new materials and cooling techniques used in this
stage of the engine. Even small turbine blades can encounter exhaust gases with
temperatures in excess of 1000 degrees centigrade while rotating upwards of 100,000
RPM. Due to high pressures, temperatures, and peripheral blade speeds nickel-based
super alloys are often used (Mukinutalapati, 2011). These materials must also have high
resistance of creep due to their continuous use under these conditions. Various
companies have developed Nickel-Chromium super alloys for use in turbine blades.
Common trade names for these alloys include: Inconel 625, Altemp 625, and Chronin
625. Examples of a turbine and a stator with housing can be seen in 5.

Figure 4: Turbine Wheel (left) and Stator (right) Examples
Turbine blade design is perhaps the most critical consideration for improving
thrust creation. The goal in turbine blade design is to produce a velocity vector at the
turbine exit that is the same magnitude and direction everywhere along the blade
(Mattingly, 2000). The purpose of this design is to provide axially directed flow at
turbine exit with as little swirl as possible, considering swirl is unusable for thrust
creation. In order to better understand stator and turbine blade design it is necessary to
examine vector analysis with velocity triangles.
Three standardized variables are commonly used in velocity diagrams to
represent the interaction between the turbine blades and working fluid. These three
variables are: the peripheral velocity vector of the blade element (wr), the absolute
velocity vector (V), and the relative velocity vector (VR). Figure 5 shows how these
vectors are influenced when progressing through the turbine stage.

Figure 5: Velocity Vectors for Stator and Turbine (Mattingly, 2000)
The use of velocity triangles and diagrams is crucial to turbine and stator design.
Thrust for example, is influenced by the velocity vector that points in the axial direction
of the turbine. Sometimes called the thrust vector, this velocity can be determined using
the following equation.
PQ = RC;45(SQ )
Equation 4: Thrust Vector (Shreckling, 1992)

where,
PQ = TUKE<D;7 K=77V EF 7Wℎ4DK; 64K
RC = #7C9=ℎ7C4< K=77V EF ;DCU957 U<4V7
SQ = T56<7 U7;M775 PQX 45V RC(C7<4;9H7 K=77V EF 7Wℎ4DK; 64K)

Turbine rotors encounter extremely high temperatures and rotational speeds
which result in high centrifugal forces and therefore high stress in the blades. The
centrifugal force on a turbine blade can be calculated using Equation 5:
C% $ − C$ $
Y = ZTR$ ( )
2
Equation 5: Centrifugal Force Calculation (npower, 2009)

where,
@6
Z = \75K9;> EF ;ℎ7 ;DCU957 U<4V7 B4;7C94<
BQ
T = )CEKK K7J;9E54< 4C74 EF ;ℎ7 U<4V7 B$
C4V945K
R = T56D<4C H7<EJ9;> ( )
second
C% = cE;EC V9K@ C4V9DK B
C$ = d<4V7 ;9= C4V9DK (B)
From here, it is possible to calculate the nominal stress on the blade root with
Equation 6:
Y
e=
TXffg
Equation 6: Blade Root Nominal Stress
Where Aroot is the cross-sectional area of the blade root, which in in this project is
equivalent to the cross-sectional area of the blade, A, due to a constant cross-sectional
blade design. This nominal stress should be accounted for when selecting blade material
to ensure that the blades can withstand the centrifugal force. Turbine rotors often require
high safety factors, making sure that this nominal stress is magnitudes lower than the
allowable tensile strength of the material used. It should be noted that the center of the
turbine wheel experiences centrifugal forces up to three times as high as the blades due to
a stress concentration at the hole (Kamps, 2005). Common turbine wheel designs
account for this by employing a thicker center of the disk than along the outsides.
2.2.D. Combustion Chamber
The purpose of the combustion chamber is to retrieve air from the compressor
stage and deliver it at much greater temperatures to the turbine stage, this is where heat is
added to the cycle by burning fuel. The diffuser section of the compressor stage
decelerates the airflow in order to increase pressure before it reaches the combustion
chamber. This high-pressure air stores potential (pressure) energy and will produce better
combustion and cycle efficiency. Energy is further increased through combustion of
injected fuel, usually kerosene, and the high-pressure air (Hunecke, 1997). Average
air/fuel ratios range from around 45:1 to 130:1 for the entire combustion chamber
however fuel will only burn efficiently around the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, 15:1. As
this project is concerned with combustion chamber design, it should be noted that many
advancements in combustion chamber design have been founded upon empirical data and
experimentation (NASA, 1973). Therefore, design of combustion chambers relies
heavily on the analysis of previous, similarly designed systems.
Two common types of combustion chambers have been developed, the cylindrical,
or can chamber, and the annular chamber. A single annular chamber can be employed
quite effectively in a turbojet engine while being conducive to minimizing weight, cost,
and complexity of design (Smith, 1956). Our research focuses on small, annular
combustion chambers that can be utilized in miniature turbojet engines.
Similar to the turbine stage, the combustion chamber must account for extremely
high temperatures. For this reason, nickel-based super alloys are often used for this
component. Conditions that constitute an effective combustion stage design include:
continuous combustion, uniform combustion (no hot spots), adequate mixing of air and
fuel, low pressure losses, and short length to cross-sectional area ratio. Figure 6 shows an
example of an annular combustion chamber.
Figure 6: Example of an Annular Combustion Chamber
The combustion chamber is broken down into three zones: the primary,
secondary, and tertiary zones (Smith, 1956). These three different zones can be
associated with the three distinct hole sizes on both the outer and inner liner of the
combustion chamber. The largest holes make up the primary zone, the second largest
make up the secondary zone, and the smallest holes make up the tertiary zone. Often,
these holes are plunged in order to act as small nozzles and accelerate the incoming air.
The gas mixture ignites, traditionally through the use of a spark plug, in the primary zone
which is the first combustion zone downstream the compressor. The secondary zone is
where further air is injected and the combustion process is completed. The last section,
the tertiary zone, is where any leftover air is injected to achieve air temperatures
sufficient for entry into the turbine stage.
In order for a combustion chamber to be effective, continuous combustion
must be achieved so that the heat from a previous reaction is sufficient to vaporize the
liquid fuel for the next reaction. High initial temperatures, high fuel to air ratios and high
pressures are necessary for this continuous combustion (El-Sayed, 2015). If the fuel to
air ratio is too low, then heat generated from the reaction is mostly spent in increasing the
temperature of nitrogen and oxygen in the chamber rather than vaporizing the incoming
fuel. In order to achieve this self-sustaining combustion, engines are often started with an
alternative gaseous fuel source, such as propane. This allows for the engine to achieve
sufficient temperatures before introducing kerosene and risking partial combustion that
could result in carbon build up that can gunk up the engine or cause hot spots.
2.2.E. Exhaust Nozzle
The purpose of an exhaust nozzle is to create thrust by converting the
potential energy of incoming gas into kinetic energy (Hunecke, 1997). In the nozzle,
the mass flow rate is constant. As velocity increases in the direction of flow,
pressure decreases. Typically, length is not a crucial design consideration however,
losses due to friction can be excessive if the nozzle is too long. In an ideal nozzle,
there are minimal kinetic energy losses due to this friction. Well-designed nozzles
can commonly achieve efficiencies up to 90%.
Common nozzle designs for aircraft include the converging nozzle and the
converging-diverging nozzle. Converging nozzles are used for aircraft flying at
subsonic speeds, speeds which are less than the speed of sound throughout the
nozzle. Converging-diverging nozzles are used to achieve supersonic flows, which
are typically used in military aircraft. Flow through convergent nozzles are
subsonic when the pressure at the exit is equal to ambient pressure (Hill & Peterson,
1992). The exit area of a convergent nozzle is known as the throat. This project
focuses on the use of a converging nozzle in order to reduce noise and avoid
shockwaves.
Theoretical converging nozzle analysis uses some basic assumptions:
frictional losses between the air and the walls are neglected, the gases are treated as
ideal gases, the process is steady state and steady flow, the process is isentropic, and
mass and energy are conserved through the nozzle (Smith, 1956). These
assumptions aid in the design of nozzles, however small jet engines have been
successful using a very simple converging nozzle design with minimal reduction in
cross sectional area across the nozzle. This is done in order to avoid choked flow at
the exit (Benini & Giacometti, 2007).

2.2.F. Fuel System, Lubrication & Bearings
Gas turbines can utilize an assortment of liquid or gaseous fuels. Gaseous
fuels do not require vaporization to achieve combustion. However, liquid fuels
present a lower risk of gas escape and are therefore easier to handle and store. For
this reason, liquid fuels are common in aircraft engines. The desirable characteristic
when choosing a fuel source is a high specific heat of combustion. Also known as the
specific energy, this property is defined as the energy per unit mass of a fuel
(Shreckling, 1992). High specific energy results in lower quantities of fuel needed to
achieve high levels of energy production. Common turbine fuels include: diesel,
kerosene, propane and butane, which all have specific energy values ranging from
40-50 MJ/kg. Table 1 shows some common specific energy values for different fuel
sources.
Table 1: Specific Energy and Density of Different Fuels
Fuel Specific Energy (MJ/kg) Density (kg/m3)
Methane 55.6 423
Propane 50.3 585
Butane 49.5 601
Gasoline 47.3 716
Kerosene 46.2 830
Diesel 44.8 830

The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of the mixture is essential to achieving
combustion. This ratio defines the amount of air consumed by the engine compared
to the amount of fuel consumed. For example, gasoline engines require an air/fuel
ratio of 14.7:1, meaning for every 1 part of fuel, 14.7 parts of air are required to
achieve combustion. The proper mixture of fuel and air is critical in achieving high
engine durability and performance. Any excess fuel will not combust and form
deposits on combustion chamber components such as injectors, vaporization tubes
or even turbine blades (Flack, 2005). This can further lead to the development of
hotspots and inefficient combustion. Another important consideration is
determining the minimum required fuel consumption for the engine. By calculating
the heat output and then using the specific density and energy of the fuel, the
minimum fuel flow requirement can be determined.
h = BJ∆(
Equation 7: Thermal Output Equation (Shreckling, 1992)

Where,
h = i74; ED;=D; (N)
G?
J = I=7J9F9J ℎ74; EF 49C
@6G
B = O4KK F<EM rate
∆( = )ℎ4567 95 ;7B=7C4;DC7 4JCEKK 756957

h
Y=
7Z
Equation 8: Fuel Flow Required (Shreckling, 1992)

where,
Bj
Y = O959BDB FD7< F<EM
K
G?
7 = I=7J9F9J :57C6> EF FD7<
@6
@6
Z = \75K9;> EF FD7< ( )
Bj
In order to burn liquid fuels effectively, the fuel must first be vaporized and then
be mixed with oxygen. One method of vaporizing liquid fuel is the integration of
vaporization tubes inside the combustion chamber. These tubes act as heat exchangers
between the cold liquid fuel and surrounding hot gases. The temperature of the
combustion chamber must be high enough so that vaporization can occur using liquid
fuels (Shreckling, 1992). To achieve these temperatures, gaseous fuels can be used as a
method to starting small gas turbine engines in order to attain full vaporization.
2.3 Ideal Cycle Analysis
The goal of cycle analysis with regard to design of gas turbines is to develop
values for performance parameters. Thrust, fuel consumption, and other important values
can be calculated based on a number of assumptions and design specifications (Oates,
1997). These assumptions and specifications are as follows:
Assumptions
o Compression and expansion are isentropic and adiabatic processes
o The working fluid is taken as an ideal gas with constant specific heat specific heat
ratio
o Heat for combustion is assumed to come from an outside source and the fuel mass
is neglected
Specifications
o Compression ratio indicated prior to design
o Ambient air temperature and pressure are known
o An inlet Mach number is indicated
2.3.A. The Brayton Cycle
Jet engines operate as an open Brayton Cycle where a working fluid flows into a
compressor, is combusted, and then exhausted through a turbine (El-Sayed, 2015).
Unlike a closed system, these exhaust gases cannot be recirculated as they are instead
used to generate thrust. Figure 7 represents a typical open Brayton Cycle where a
negligible mass of fuel is injected at the combustor stage.

Figure 7: Example Geometry of Open Brayton Cycle (Flack, 2005)
The compressor and turbine are connected by a single shaft with an angular
velocity. When considering an aircraft gas turbine, the work of the engine can be
viewed as the change in kinetic energy between the incoming and outgoing fluid
(Oates, 1997). The stages of a gas turbine related to the location on the engine can be
defined as follows:
Table 2: Stages of Gas Turbine Engine
Stage Location
0 Upstream
1 Inlet Entry
2 Compressor Entry
3 Compressor Exit
4 Turbine Entry
5 Turbine Exit
6 Nozzle Entry
7 Nozzle Exit
Figure 8 represent the Brayton Cycle. These temperature-specific volume,
pressure-specific volume, and temperature-entropy diagrams are commonly used to
observe the changes in these properties between different stages of the engine.
Figure 8: T-v, P-v and T-s Diagrams (MIT, 2014)
The four processes that constitute the Brayton Cycle can be seen in these
diagrams. These processes are:
0Þ3 Isentropic Compression
3Þ4 Constant Pressure Combustion
4Þ8 Isentropic Expansion
8Þ0 Constant Pressure Heat Rejection

(Fluid is not recirculated in open cycle)
The following section introduces the equations related to each component when
observed using the ideal cycle analysis.

2.3.B. Ideal Component Analysis
By determining the pressure and temperature at the first stage of the cycle,
pressures and temperature downstream can be calculated. To achieve this, these
properties are taken as ratios across each component. The ideal analysis for our
engine follows the following equations and can be seen in Appendix A.
I;4654;9E5 #C7KKC7 j74H956 )EB=E575;

#C7KKDC7 c4;9E (p) =
I;4654;9E5 #C7KKDC7 :5;7C956 )EB=E575;
I;4654;9E5 (7B=7C4;DC7 j74H956 )EB=E575;

(7B=7C4;DC7 c4;9E (t) =
I;4654;9E5 (7B=7C4;DC7 :5;7C956 )EB=E575;
Inlet
Flow across the inlet is assumed to be isentropic and adiabatic. Throughout
the inlet, there is no change in pressure or temperature and the enthalpy is constant.
Therefore,
#C7KKDC7 4; )EB=C7KKEC :5;C> #$

,k = =
YC77 I;C74B T9C #C7KKDC7 #-
Equation 9: Pressure Ratio Across Inlet
(7B=7C4;DC7 )EB=C7KKEC :5;C> ($

lk = =
YC77 I;C74B T9C (7B=7C4;DC7 (-
Equation 10: Temperature Ratio Across Inlet

Compressor
The compressor has pressure and temperature ratios that are not constant.
Enthalpy, temperature and pressure increase across the compressor as energy is added to
the fluid.
#C7KKDC7 4; )EB=C7KKEC :W9; #Q

,m = =
#C7KKDC7 4; )EB=C7KKEC :5;C> #$
Equation 11: Pressure Ratio Across Compressor
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; )EB=C7KKEC :W9; (Q

lm = =
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; )EB=C7KKEC :5;C> ($
Equation 12: Temperature Ratio Across Compressor
Because flow is considered isentropic across the compressor, the two ratios can be
related using the following equation:

n
,m = lm no%
Equation 13: Compressor T-P Relation (NASA, Compressor Thermodynamics, 2015b)
where,
p = I=7J9F9J ℎ74; C4;9E
If the pressure ratio across the compressor is specified and the inlet temperature
and pressure are known, the conditions at the exit of the compressor can be found.
Furthermore, the compressor work can be calculated using the relation:

Nm = J* ((Q − ($ )
Equation 14: Compressor Work (NASA, Compressor Thermodynamics, 2015b)

where,
G?
J* = I=7J9F9J ℎ74; EF 49C
@6G
Combustor
During combustion pressure remains constant and temperature increases, resulting
in:
#C7KKDC7 4; (DCU957 :5;C> #r

,q = =
#C7KKDC7 4; )EBUDK;EC :W9; #Q
Equation 15: Pressure Ratio Across Combustor
However, temperature does increase and is calculated using:
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; (DCU957 :5;C> (r

lm = =
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; )EB=C7KKEC :W9; (Q
Equation 16: Pressure Ratio Across Combustor
The heat input and the minimal fuel requirements for combustion can be
found using Equations 7 and 8 shown in Chapter 2.1.E.
Turbine
Temperature and pressure both drop across the turbine stage due to the fact
that energy is being removed from the fluid in order to rotate the shaft.
#C7KKDC7 4; (DCU957 :W9; #s

,g = =
#C7KKDC7 4; (DCU957 :5;C> #r
Equation 17: Pressure Ratio Across Turbine
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; (DCU957 :W9; (s

lg = =
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; (DCU957 :5;C> (r
Equation 18: Temperature Ratio Across Turbine
Because flow is also considered isentropic across the turbine, the two ratios can
be related using the following equation:

n
,g = lg no%
Equation 19: Turbine T-P Relation (NASA, Turbine Thermodynamics, 2015d)
Furthermore, turbine work can be calculated using the relation:
Ng = J* ((s − (r )
Equation 20: Turbine Work (NASA, Turbine Thermodynamics, 2015d)

Nozzle
Flow across the nozzle is also to be assumed isentropic and adiabatic.
#C7KKDC7 4; uEvv<7 :W9; #/

,t = =
#C7KKDC7 4; uEvv<7 :5;C45J7 #w
Equation 21: Pressure Ratio Across Nozzle
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; uEvv<7 :W9; (/

lt = =
(7B=7C4;DC7 4; uEvv<7 :5;C45J7 (w
Equation 22: Temperature Ratio Across Nozzle

3.0 Methodology
This chapter explains how we designed and manufactured each component
of our engine. We present each component and outline the considerations and
challenges encountered during the design process. Additionally, we discuss the
materials and manufacturing methods used to produce each component. We have
included the two-dimensional CAD drawings of each part in Appendix D.
3.1 Compressor
In order to simplify the design and manufacturing process and complete the
project within the given time constraint, our team decided to purchase a
compressor wheel. After examining the literature regarding compressor wheels
used in small gas turbine engines, we concluded that a single stage axial compressor
would not offer a high enough compression ratio or efficiency to be used in an
engine of our size. Engines similar in size to our own design, such as the SR-30
described in Chapter 2.2, utilize a centrifugal compressor in order to achieve
adequate compression ratios and efficiencies. For these reasons, we chose to
investigate centrifugal compressor wheels used in automotive turbochargers. We
found that the Garret GT4202 compressor wheel provided a mass flow rate and
pressure ratio, at our desired RPM, similar to those recorded in SR30 test data
(Witkowski, White, Ortize Duenas, Strykowski, & Simon, 2003). Additional benefits
of selecting this compressor were its availability for purchasing and the accessibility
of its compressor map. The compressor map for the GT4202 can be seen in Figure 9.
Figure 9: GT4202 Compressor Map (Limit Engineering, 2015)
The GT4202 incorporates a curved profile on the diffuser side. We quickly
realized that removing the profile and machining the diffuser side flat would allow
us to more easily match this compressor to a diffuser without the need to match this
unknown profile. Therefore, we decided to machine the diffuser side flat using a
manual mill. Pictures of the altered GT4202 compressor attached to the shaft can be
seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10: G4202 Attached to Drive Shaft
3.2 Inlet Shroud

The primary challenge we faced while integrating the GT4202 compressor
into our engine design was obtaining the profile of the rotating compressor wheel.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) models of the compressor are proprietary and
unavailable to consumers. However, it was essential that we find these dimensions
in order to design an inlet shroud. The space between the compressor blades and
the inlet shroud cannot exceed 40/1000 of an inch and to achieve reasonable
efficiencies, should be as small as possible (Kamps, 2005). Therefore, our team was
forced to find a way of designing a shroud to meet this high tolerance.

After considering the use of a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) as well
as an Optical Comparator, we determined the best course of action was to obtain a
3D scan of the compressor. We reached out to a company in Windsor, Connecticut
called Capture 3D, their staff donated their time, equipment, and expertise to
generate a stereolithographic (STL) file of our compressor wheel. We then
imported this STL file into SolidWorks. In order to design the inlet shroud to match
the curvature of the rotating compressor profile, we drew concentric circles around
the fins of the compressor and connected them with a spline. Rotating this spline
around a centerline generated a surface matching the compressor profile. By
offsetting this surface, we were able to design an inlet shroud that is within the
acceptable tolerance.
The shroud was machined from a six-inch bar stock of 6061 t651 aluminum
and was turned on a Computer Numerical Control (CNC) lathe in the Worcester
Polytechnic Institute (WPI) Washburn Shops. A total of sixteen bolt holes were
drilled around the perimeter of the shroud in order to facilitate assembly. The
completed inlet shroud can be seen below in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Inlet Shroud
3.3 Diffuser
The first decision to be made when designing the diffuser stage was which
diffuser style to choose: veined or channel. After reviewing the literature on small
gas turbine engines and other similar designs, we chose the wedged channel diffuser
design. This same style diffuser was used successfully in the KJ66 engine.
Additionally, the wedges provide a convenient location to drill bolt holes in order to
fasten the inlet shroud. Considering the diffuser does not experience extremely high
temperatures, we decided to machine it from 6061 t651 Aluminum. Aluminum
provided us with adequate strength for the components purpose, while enabling an
easier machining process.

We machined the part on a Haas VM-2 vertical milling machine. After the
operation to machine the wedges was completed, we drilled the holes with a
separate CNC program and hand tapped the holes. In order to machine the vanes on
the side of the diffuser, we fixed the stock in an indexing head and moved the
indexing head a determined angle evenly properly locate the fins. Finally, we
implemented a program to machine the holes on certain fins. The completed
diffuser can be seen in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Channel Diffuser

3.4 Combustion Chamber

Based on the literature reviewed, our team decided to manufacture an
annular combustion chamber. Annular combustion chambers allow the
manufacturer to create an engine of smaller diameter, which we found to be
desirable. Additionally, we determined utilizing another combustion chamber
design, such as the can combustor, would have provided a more substantial
manufacturing challenge. Because most combustor design is based off empirical
data, and we were not focused on optimizing a design, we decided to model our
combustor after successful combustion chambers that have been widely
implemented on turbocharger based amateur gas turbine engines.
Our combustion chamber design incorporates an outer line and inner flame
tube. Both of which contain 3 separate zones of holes. Primary, secondary, and
tertiary holes in the combustor that assist the mixing of air and fuel. Due to its
ability with withstand extremely high temperatures, we chose to manufacture our
combustion chamber out of Inconel 625. A local company donated a 0.02-inch-thick
sheet of the material which we then cut into four pieces. We rolled two pieces into
the inner flame tube and outer line while the remaining two pieces were cut into
two annular end caps. We then welded eight vaporization tubes, about 5 inches long
and ¼ inch diameter, to the turbine side endcap. Finally, the two caps were welded
to the outer line and the compressor side cap was welded to the flame tube,
completing the assembly. An image of the completed combustion chamber can be
seen in Figure 13.

Figure 13: Combustion Chamber
3.5 Shaft Housing

We designed the shaft housing to accommodate the shaft and bearing
dimensions. There is substantial flexibility regarding the design of the housing
outer profile, various models can be seen throughout the world of miniature gas
turbines. We decided to go with a simple, straight profile that widens at one end to
allow space for bolt holes to fix the housing to the diffuser. The inner tube
incorporates two bearing seats. The bearing seat at the diffuser end, which can be
seen in Figure 14, accommodates half of the bearing thickness. When bolted to the
diffuser, the shaft housing sandwiches the bearing halfway between the diffuser and
the housing. The turbine end bearing seat is designed to allow space for a spring
and sleeve system which places ten pounds of preload on the bearing. The purpose
of this system is to increase the longevity of the bearing when experiencing high
rotational speeds and temperatures near the turbine.
The shaft housing was manufactured from a three-inch diameter, 6061 t651
aluminum rod. We first drilled and then bored the inside diameter to accompany
the shafts dimensions. We then drilled and bored the inner area on the turbine side
to accommodate the sleeve spring system and turned down the outside. The
component was then flipped, centered and then bored and turned again to achieve
the features on the compressor side. Finally, eight holes were drilled on the base on
the shaft housing in order to fixture it to the diffuser. The completed shaft housing
can be seen in Figure 14.
Figure 14: Shaft Housing

3.6 Fuel Distributer

The purpose of the fuel distributor is to transport fuel from an outside source
into the vaporization tubes of the combustion chamber. We chose a simple
distributor designed similar to those seen in many small gas turbines. The
distributor consists of eight, 0.08-inch diameter fuel injectors mounted normal to
our ¼ inch injector ring. Each injector is matched to a corresponding vaporization
tube on the turbine side endcap of the combustion chamber. The injector ring sits
on the outside of this endcap where it is held in place by the stator housing. Tubing
connects to the ring which runs alongside the length of the combustion chamber and
through the outer case of the engine. It is here where the distributor connects to an
outside fuel source.
The fuel distributor was manufactured entirely from 316 stainless steel
tubing. We first cut and rolled the larger tubing to make the five-inch diameter
injector ring. Next, we drilled eight 0.08-inch diameter holes in the injector ring to
accommodate the fuel injectors. An additional hole was drilled perpendicular to
these holes for the fuel supply line. We then cut eight, 0.08-inch diameter fuel
injectors each 3 inches in length. We determined that conventional welding
methods would not be feasible due to the small diameter and wall thickness of the
tubing. Therefore, we decided to reach out to a local company with laser welding
capabilities. They agreed to weld the assembly together and the resulting fuel
distributor can be seen in Figure 15.

Figure 15: Fuel Distributor
3.7 Turbine
The development of airfoils and turbines for new engines is a subject of years
of study and it was impossible to design and test our own original airfoils.
Therefore, to simplify turbine design we chose the NACA 23012, a common airfoil
used for turbine blades. In order to ensure that the turbine rotor could handle the
centrifugal forces experiences at high angular velocities, the stress at the roots of the
blade were calculated and compared to the allowable tensile strength of the
material. These stress calculations can be found in appendix B.
The turbine was initially designed to be machined from Inconel 718 four-inch
bar stock due to the materials ability to maintain strength during high temperature
rotation. In order to achieve the desired airfoil geometry and a curved channel floor
between fins, we attempted to complete the machining operation in a mill with 5-
axis capability. However, our first attempts at machining the Inconel proved quite
difficult. Machining the channels between our fins required a 1/8” end mill. From
speaking with WPI shop staff and consulting popular online machinist forums, we
found that it is nearly impossible to avoid breaking 1/8” carbide end mills while
machining Inconel for an extended period. We considered a variety of feeds and
speeds, lubrication techniques, and tool paths in order to design a more efficient
machining procedure for the turbine fins. However, we eventually determined that
machining our turbine from Inconel 718 would incur too great of a financial cost
and consume more than an acceptable amount of our time table.
The failure of the Inconel turbine consumed an excessive amount of our time.
Our initial attempts to machine the turbine from the Nickel super-alloy resulted in
multiple broken end mills per blade and the machining operation was calculated to
take upwards of twenty hours. In retrospect, we became too attached to the idea of
using Inconel and committed to troubleshooting the problem instead of making an
early decision to change the material. Eventually, we decided to machine the
turbine from a disk of 316 stainless steel thus greatly reducing the machining time,
tooling cost, and difficulty.
The primary change in design, apart from the material, was a transition from
a curved channel floor to a flat channel floor. The ramifications of this change are
likely to be a slight decrease in efficiency due to the sharper edge of the blade
channels. Additionally, 316 stainless steel does not maintain strength at elevated
temperature as well as Inconel. Therefore, the change also decreased the turbines
critical rotational speed. On the positive end, this decision decreased our machine
time, machining cost, and labor. However, after we completed the turbine and
attached it to our shaft, we realized that the turbine was slightly asymmetrical.
We determined the most likely cause of asymmetry in the turbine to be a
failure in properly fixturing the component during CNC operations, resulting in the
stock piece being not perfectly centered in the lathe chuck. As a result, the turbine
blades on one side of the disk were machined approximately 20/1000 in shorter
than those on the other side. Due to the difference in the length of the blades, we
were forced to either re-machine the rotor or remove 20/1000 in from the overall
diameter. We determined that we did not have enough time to machine a second
turbine and decided to repair the original. The resulting turbine, prior to balancing,
produced substantially less vibration when spun with compressed. However, the
alterations to the blade length resulted in a gap between the turbine and the stator
housing of 30/1000 in. The specified tolerance between these two parts was
10/1000 in in order to achieve minimal gap losses and maximize efficiency.
Although the turbine will be adequate for operation it is not ideal and will suffer
from unnecessary gap loss during operation. The completed turbine wheel attached
to the shaft can be seen in Figure 16.

Figure 16: Axial Turbine
3.8 Outer Casing & Inlet Flange

Perhaps the simplest component to design was the outer casing. A six-inch
diameter tube with eight bolt holes placed around the circumference of the
compressor side. Bolts passing through these holes secure the inlet flange, outer
casing and diffuser into a rigid body and ensure that the spacing between
compressor and shroud is maintained. While the compressor end is enclosed by the
compressor and inlet shroud assembly, the turbine end is enclosed by the stator
housing and an annular endcap.

We chose to manufacture the outer housing from a six-inch outer diameter
length of 304 stainless steel tubing. The primary challenge during manufacturing
was properly holding the tube on a lathe in order to machine the outer and inner
diameters. Due to the size and length of the tube, we decided to use a four-jaw
chuck to hold it from the inside. We encountered a large amount of deflection and
chatter while turning down the outer diameter. To solve this problem, we welded a
piece of steel across the inside diameter of one end of the tubing. We then center
drilled the piece of steel and utilized a tailstock and live center to reduce deflection
and ensure a uniform surface finish. Following the turning operation on the outer
diameter, we flipped the tube and bored the inside to the exact outer radius of the
diffuser fins. Once the tube diameters were properly sized, we drilled eight holes
around the circumference of the diffuser end and welded an annular endcap to the
turbine side. The primary feature of the annular endcap is to allow for the
attachment of the nozzle. The outer housing can be seen in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Outer Casing

We also designed and manufactured a simple inlet flange to cover the
compressor side of the outer casing and hold the assembly, and engine, together.
We designed the flange to fit loosely over the outer casing to allow proper spacing
for gasket material. Bolt holes placed around the perimeter of the flange line up
with holes on the casing and diffuser. We machined the flange from 7-in diameter
6061 t651 aluminum stock. The machining operation was performed on a HAAS
VM-2 utilizing Esprit. We used ½-in end mills to pocket the material and a 3-in face
mill in order to give it a flat surface finish. We also drilled the holes on the side using
an indexing head and the manual mill. The completed flange can be seen in figure 18.
Figure 18: Inlet Flange

Minimizing gap losses and ensuring a tightly sealed engine is crucial to the
efficiency of gas turbines. In addition to the turbine, the seal between the outer
casing and the flange is an area of concern for gap losses in our engine. Because the
flange is bolted to the housing, it is necessary to implement a gasket between the
two parts in order to eliminate any leaks. We initially decided to use gasket paper
between the two parts but once the engine was assembled we found that the gasket
paper did not provide a reliable seal. We decided that a simpler method might be to
seal the gap with a high temperature silicon gasket sealer. The silicon sealer can
better fill any small gaps or leaks that might be formed in gasket paper when
securing the flange.
3.9 Shaft
After reviewing various shaft designs used in similar engines, such as the
KJ66 and SR30, we decided to use a design very similar to the KJ 66. Our engine is
slightly larger than the KJ 66 therefore, we scaled up the shaft design while
maintaining the overall style.
The shaft, made of 316 stainless steel, was cut to about 11.5-in in length and
then turned down on a lathe to meet our specifications. The design includes a taper
on each side of the shaft intended to decrease stress concentrations and eliminate
the sharp edges that might infringe upon lubricant flow through the shaft housing.
There are two locator steps/bearing seats that serve to position the bearings on
each end, these steps are machined to allow a light press fit upon bearing
installation. In order to ensure that the shaft was manufactured to be concentric

and as balanced as possible, we utilized an indicator to establish a true rotation in
the chuck whenever the workpiece needed to be manipulated. Additionally, during
any turning operations the shaft was held by a live center tailstock to minimize the
chances of deflection and inaccuracies. To complete the shaft, we cut left hand
threads into each end in order to accommodate the turbine and compressor. The
shaft can be seen in Figure 19.
Figure 19: Shaft Assembly

3.10 Stator & Stator Housing

The stator housing was designed to be machined from 316 stainless steel bar
stock. The primary purpose of the housing is to hold the stator in place and allow
the turbine to rotate at full speed while maintaining the high tolerance necessary for
efficiency. We designed a simple geometry which includes a simple thin walled
hollow cylinder with a flange on either end. The flanges provide surfaces where the
combustion chamber and exhaust nozzle can be attached. On the combustion side,
the flange was designed to be welded to the combustion chamber while the nozzle
could be attached with bolts feeding through small tabs on the nozzle and into the
housing.
The stator was machined in the same fashion as the turbine. Once, we
machined the stator as a bladed disk, we then installed the disk into the stator
housing and welded the blades to the outer walls. The stator housing was machined
using 35° and 55° ferrous inserts and a ferrous boring bar to bore out the inner
diameter. We then drilled holes on the sides of the housing evenly so that the holes
would line up with the blades in order to plug weld the stator inside of the housing.
We machined a small lip so that the stator could sit inside of the housing before it
was plug welded. The completed stator and stator housing assembly can be seen in
Figure 21.
Figure 21: Stator and Stator Housing
3.11 Exhaust Nozzle

The primary function of an aircraft gas turbine exhaust nozzle is to generate
thrust used to propel the aircraft forward (El-Sayed, 2015). This project focused on
the design and manufacturing of a self-sustaining engine and we did not prioritize
thrust. Our nozzle design objectives were to avoid choked flow and ensure ease of
manufacturing. Therefore, we decided to choose a simple converging nozzle design
derived from a popular RC jet turbine, the KJ-66. Our nozzle consists of a short
outer cone with a 15-degree taper and a longer yet smaller in diameter inner
cone. Additionally, we included eight tabs on the perimeter of the outer cone that
allow the nozzle to be bolted to the stator housing and outer casing. All of the
components are manufactured from Inconel 718 sheet metal.
We used SolidWorks to create a model of the nozzle and generate a 2-
dimensional template of the cones which we then transferred to a 0.02-in thick
sheet of Inconel. We cut the sheet into two shapes, one for each cone, and tig
welded them together. The outside cone was then bolted onto the casing using the
tabs. The nozzle can be seen in Figure 20.
Figure 20: Nozzle

3.12 Bearings, Fuel Injection, and Lubrication

In order to build and operate an engine, it is essential to first consider the
bearing, fuel, and lubrication that will keep rotating components moving efficiently.
During the first stages of our design process we determined that it would not be
feasible to design and build the ball bearings or the fuel and oil pumps. Through
research regarding bearings used by RC jet modelers and manufacturers of small
gas turbines, we identified a set of bearings that would be capable of withstanding
the extreme temperatures and rotational speeds to be experienced in our engine.
The bearings we chose are specifically offered, by BOCA Bearing, for miniature jet
turbines, they are stainless steel/ceramic hybrid angular contact bearings capable of
withstanding RPM up to 100,000 with proper lubrication.
Originally, the combustion chamber was designed specifically to
accommodate liquid fuels through the use of the vaporization tubes. However, it
became apparent later in the design process that we would be unable to purchase
and assemble a fuel pump and throttle system within the allotted timeframe and
budget. However, our engine is capable of running on multiple fuels, both liquid and
gaseous. Therefore, we decided to run the engine on gaseous fuel in order to
eliminate the need for a fuel pump and achieve throttling through the use of a valve.
The theoretical minimal fuel consumption calculation using propane can be seen in
Appendix C.
In order to ensure that the bearings would not fail at high rotational speeds
and temperatures during operation, we incorporated a bearing lubrication system
into our design. The system consists of two ¼in stainless steel tubes entering
through the outer casing, running along the blackface of the diffuser, and entering
the shaft housing at the location of each bearing. We also purchased an oil pump to
push oil from a reservoir into the engine. The lubrication design can be seen in
Figure 21.
Figure 21: Lubrication System

4.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
Over the course of this project we successfully designed and manufactured
all twelve of the components outlined in Chapter 1 that constitute our jet engine.
Additionally, we successfully assembled the engine. Figure 22 at the end of this
section show the nozzle and compressor ends of the dry fit assembly. However, due
to substantial manufacturing setbacks we were unable to test the engine before the
deadline. These setbacks included the failed Inconel turbine and steel turbine
asymmetry. In order to complete the manufacturing aspect of our project, we
postponed our plans to manufacture a test stand, balance the shaft assembly, create
a throttle mechanism, and seal the engine for operation.
In order to operate our engine by the end of this academic year, we plan to
continue working towards creating the necessary components. We have contacted a
local company specializing in balancing rotating components and they agreed to
balance our shaft assembly. Creating a throttle mechanism for our engine has been
simplified by the use of gaseous fuel. We plan to use an adjustable valve that
controls the flow of propane therefore increasing or decreasing throttle. To ensure
our engine is properly sealed, we will abandon the use of gasket paper and employ a
high temperature silicon gasket sealer around the flange during final assembly.
Finally, we plan to construct a simple static engine stand that will support the
engine during operation and safeguard operators in the event of engine failure.
Despite our setbacks and failure to operate the engine in the given timeframe,
we are working to complete the engine before the end of this academic year. In
order to provide assistance to any future project groups interested in manufacturing
their own miniature gas turbine, we have provided a list of recommendations that
will expedite the design and manufacturing process and possibly facilitate the
integration of instrumentation, thrust considerations, and efficiency into their
design.
• We recommend avoiding super alloys, like Inconel 718, when constructing a
turbine unless the group has access to proper CNC tooling and equipment and
experience machining with other similar alloys.
• We recommend that when selecting or manufacturing a compressor, ensure a
CAD model is available. A CAD model enables the use of computer software to
quickly design a compressor inlet shroud that meets tolerances necessary for
engine efficiency.
• We recommend further research into flange design in order to create a flange
that can integrate gasket material and ensure a proper, reliable seal.
Reflecting on the process we have gone through during the design and
manufacturing of our engine has led us to realize the difficulties of designing and
building an original engine. Many design advancements in gas turbines have been
developed through experimentation and iteration. The design of any component
manufactured during this project could be challenging enough to warrant a project
of equal magnitude. Years of research and development could be spent designing a
turbine blade or new combustion chamber. Additionally, the volume of research
and information regarding gas turbines is simply immense and often difficult to
navigate. Considering these factors, it becomes evident that our project was quite
ambitious. However, through our struggles, we gained first-hand knowledge of gas
turbines and the challenges faced during their design and manufacturing.
Figure 22: Nozzle (left) and Compressor (right) Views of Assembly

References
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differences-between-a-helicopter-engine-turboshaft-and-an-aircraf
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Boyce, M. P. (2012). Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (4th ed.).

Amsterdam:Boston: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann.
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https://www.britannica.com/technology/afterburner-mechanical-
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https://www.turbobygarrett.com/turbobygarrett/compressor_maps
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Wiley.
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http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/chapter_5.htm
Mukinutalapati, N. R. (2011). Advances in Gas Turbine Technology. InTech.
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Chambers. United States.
NASA. (2015a, May 5). Compressor. Retrieved from NASA:

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/compress.html
NASA. (2015b, May 5). Compressor Thermodynamics. Retrieved from NASA:

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/compth.html
NASA. (2015c). Turbojet Engine. Retrieved from NASA:

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/aturbj.html
NASA. (2015d). Turbine Thermodynamics. Retrieved from NASA:

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/powtrbth.html
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Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
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Publications.
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Integrated Approach. Wright-Patterson AFB, Air Force Research Laboratory.
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Minnesota.
APPENDIX A: Ideal Cycle Analysis

Appendix B: Turbine Blade Stress

Appendix C: Fuel Consumption Calculation

Appendix D: CAD Drawings

Shaft
2 1
B B
11.486
2.701 6.504 1.020 .748
.327 .787 .935
.394
.572
.315 .315 .394
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED: NAME DATE
A DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
Shaft
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL
THREE PLACE DECIMAL MFG APPR.
INTERPRET GEOMETRIC Q.A.

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL TOLERANCING PER:
COMMENTS:
THE INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THIS MATERIAL
DRAWING IS THE SOLE PROPERTY OF SIZE DWG. NO. REV
<INSERT COMPANY NAME HERE>. ANY
REPRODUCTION IN PART OR AS A WHOLE
WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF
<INSERT COMPANY NAME HERE> IS
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
PROHIBITED. APPLICATION DO NOT SCALE DRAWING SCALE: 1:4 WEIGHT: SHEET 1 OF 1
2
SOLIDWORKS Educational Product. For Instructional Use Only. 1
Shaft Housing
2 1
B B
7.697
4.61
2.241 .515
1.388 6X .13 THRU 2.89 .360
B M4X0.7 - 6H THRU
.427
1.165 .782 1.026
B
SECTION B-B

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
Shaft Housing
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL

COMMENTS:
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Combustion Chamber
2 1
40X .164 THRU ALL

11X .253 THRU ALL
B 14X .441 THRU ALL
17X .253 THRU ALL 9X .441 THRU ALL B
60X .164 THRU ALL
12X .236 5.118 5.197
5.197 R2.250 3.541 .039
2.587 5.984 2.587 5.079
A
.039
A
SECTION A-A
SCALE 1 : 3

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
Combustion
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL
PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

INTERPRET GEOMETRIC
TOLERANCING PER:
Q.A.
COMMENTS:
Chamber
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Outer Casing
2 1
6.620
4.000 8X .197 THRU
3.424
A .050 8.887
B B
A SECTION A-A
SCALE 1 : 2

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
Casing
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL

COMMENTS:
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Turbine Wheel
2 1
56.92°
R.04
R.02
54.97°
SECTION B-B
B SCALE 1 : 1.5 B
B B
.71 A .20
.20
.31
3.50 2.19 2.59
A SECTION A-A
SCALE 1 : 1.5

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL

COMMENTS:
SIZE DWG. NO. REV
Turbine
DRAWING IS THE SOLE PROPERTY OF
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Stator & Stator Housing

2 1
R.049
12.000°
R.030
49.184°
SECTION B-B
B 1.417 2.587
B
1.217 2.193
.100 1.389
B B
A
.098
20X .125 THRU
4.600 4.150 3.570
A
SECTION A-A

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL

COMMENTS:
SIZE DWG. NO. REV
Stator 2
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Diffuser 2 1
5.55
5.00
4.27
1.82
4X .20 THRU ALL 6.64°
A
B 1/4-20 UNC THRU ALL .26
B
19.00°
.35 R.04
6.34 4.27 4.04 .60 1.023 5.31

2X R.03
16X .15 THRU ALL 6X .19 THRU

10-24 UNC THRU ALL .31 .20
A
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED:
SECTION A-A
NAME DATE

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
DIFFUSER
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL .01
THREE PLACE DECIMAL .003 MFG APPR.

COMMENTS:
SIZE DWG. NO. REV
DRAWING IS THE SOLE PROPERTY OF 6061-T6511 ALUMINUM
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Compressor Shroud
2 1
5.560
B 1.100 4.053 B
.100 .409 3.141
16X .189 THRU ALL
R2.500

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
Compressor
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL
PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

INTERPRET GEOMETRIC
TOLERANCING PER:
Q.A.
COMMENTS:
Shroud
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Inlet Flange
2 1
6.82
5.00
4.50
A .95
B B
R.25
16X .19 THRU ALL

A 1.40
SECTION A-A

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL

COMMENTS:
SIZE DWG. NO. REV
Flange
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Outer Nozzle
2 1
1.287
B B
7.32°
3.434 3.063

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
Outer Nozzle
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL

COMMENTS:
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Inner Nozzle
2 1
4.000
B B
15.283°
2.586 .400

TOLERANCES:
FRACTIONAL
DRAWN
CHECKED TITLE:
A
Inner Nozzle
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL

COMMENTS:
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2
Engine Assembly
2 1
B B
C C
SECTION C-C
SCALE 1 : 2

TOLERANCES:
DRAWN
TITLE:
A
Turbine
FRACTIONAL CHECKED
ANGULAR: MACH BEND
ENG APPR.
TWO PLACE DECIMAL
Assembly

COMMENTS:
NEXT ASSY USED ON
FINISH
A
2

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Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Design and Manufacturing of a Miniature Gas

Daniel Glenn Alonzo

Eric Paul James

John David Kingston

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.wpi.edu/mqp-all

Design and Manufacturing of a Miniature

A Major Qualifying Project

Submitted on: March 23, 2018

Project Advisor: Robert Daniello, WPI

components, designed each component, and manufactured them accordingly. We then

assembled our engine and planned for testing.

We would like to thank Capture 3D in South Windsor, Connecticut for helping us

We would like to thank Peterson Steel in Worcester, Massachusetts for donating

TABLE OF EQUATIONS VII

TABLE OF TABLES VIII

2.1 Gas Turbines 12

2.2.C. Turbine & Stator 18

2.2.D. Combustion Chamber 23

2.2.E. Exhaust Nozzle 25

2.2.F. Fuel System, Lubrication & Bearings 27

2.3 Ideal Cycle Analysis 30

2.3.A. The Brayton Cycle 30

2.3.B. Ideal Component Analysis 33

3.2 Inlet Shroud 39

3.4 Combustion Chamber 43

3.5 Shaft Housing 44

3.6 Fuel Distributer 46

3.8 Outer Casing & Inlet Flange 50

3.10 Stator & Stator Housing 55

3.11 Exhaust Nozzle 56

3.12 Bearings, Fuel Injection, and Lubrication 58

4.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60

APPENDIX A: IDEAL CYCLE ANALYSIS 65

APPENDIX B: TURBINE BLADE STRESS 70

APPENDIX C: FUEL CONSUMPTION CALCULATION 71

APPENDIX D: CAD DRAWINGS 72

high rotational speeds experienced by engine components, design and construction of a

gas turbine demands accuracy, informed material selection, knowledge of

thermodynamics, and the ability to model and machine metal components.

As material processing techniques advanced, it became possible to manufacture

multiple stages of blades. These multi-stage components increase efficiency, pressure

ratios, and performance characteristics (Shreckling, 1992). However, RC jet modelers

advancements in CNC machining and 3D modeling, it is possible to manufacture a

complete miniature gas turbine with a relatively small investment.

engine development (Stricker, 1998). However, a number of publications are available

turbines in order to design and manufacture an engine that is self-sustaining. In order to

investment. For this reason, we drew on industry standards and recommendations of

This project culminated in the manufacture of twelve major components.

• Compressor inlet shroud

bearing lubrication system. Due to time constraint, we were unable to implement a

Worcester Polytechnic Institute’s Washburn and Higgins Labs. Throughout the

This chapter reviews previous research on gas turbines with an emphasis on

as well as methods for conducting theoretical cycle analysis. Additionally, we introduce

the components that constitute a modern small gas turbine.

2.1 Gas Turbines

three major components: a compressor, a combustor, and a turbine. A basic

therefore produces thrust.

is equivalent to mass times acceleration (Shreckling, 1992). According to the principles