Unit 1.

Introduction Laboratory Safety and Waste Management

A. Laboratory Safety Policies, Safety Data Sheet, Waste Management
The goal of the Laboratory Safety Program is to minimize the risk of injury or illness to laboratory workers by
ensuring that they have the training, information, support and equipment needed to work safely in the
laboratory.
Basic Principles of Laboratory Safety and Waste Management
Exposure Controls
Engineering Controls:  Procedure that limit contact with Hazard
 Removes or Separates Hazard from person  Job rotation - School staff training
 Local Ventilation (Fume Hoods)  Good housekeeping
 Chemical Substitution  Protects staff who use and handle hazardous
chemicals in laboratories
 Develop a hygiene plan
Administrative Controls
Training Requirements-SLPW
Specific Work Practices Lab Equipment
 Chemical hygiene plan/lab manual  Location & operation of eyewash &/or shower stations
 Location & availability of MSDSs Use of fume hoods, storage cabinets, refrigerators &
 Specific lab safety work practices or SOPs other engineering controls
 Training whenever new hazards are used in the lab

Personal Protective Equipment Waste Handling and Spill Response

 Instruction on appropriate PPE & how to use it  Chemical waste handling & disposal procedures
 Location & availability of PPE & maintenance of  Location & availability of spill kits & emergency
reusable PPE checklists
 Spill response procedures

Chemical Hygiene Plan

To provide every aspect for prudent work practices and procedures for the procurement, storage, handling and disposal
of chemicals in the laboratory, in order to protect all personnel from the potential health hazards of the chemicals they
may encounter in the laboratory.

Controlling Chemical Exposure

1. Engineering Controls (EC)
2. Administrative Controls (AC)
3. Safety Work Practices (SWP)
4. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

Chemical Inhalation- the exposure to chemical and the Inhalation of dangerous chemicals
Close containers, open windows or otherwise increase ventilation, and move fresh air.
Accidental Ingestion of Chemicals- accidental intake of chemical
Immediately contact the Poison Control Center for instructions. Do not induce vomiting unless directed to do so.
Accidental Injection of Chemicals – the administering of chemical through syringe
Wash the area with soap and water and seek medical attention, if necessary.

Fume Hoods
 use when working with probability of chemical vapors and when MSDS says so, volatile chemicals
 Keep all chemicals and equipment six inches from the sash
 The hood is not a substitute for personal protective equipment. Wear gloves, safety glasses, etc., as appropriate.
 Do not block baffles. If large equipment is in the hood, put it on blocks to raise it approximately two inches so
that air may pass beneath it.
 Do not use the hood as a storage cabinet.

Ventilation
Supply Air Diffusers & Room Air Exhausts
Should be Located So As to Avoid Intake of Contaminated Air Windows Should be Operable
Local Ventilation
Fume Hoods Used For Operations that Give Off: Noxious --Flammable or Poisonous Vapors

ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS- Changes in the method or process to reduce exposure.

These include:
  Substituting a less toxic chemical
 Reducing the amount of the chemical being used
 Reducing the length of the exposure time
 Using plastic equipment instead of glass

Types of Labels
NFPA diamonds HMIS Bars are color and number DOT symbols are usually found on
RED - Flammability coded with hazard information shipping cartons
YELLOW- Reactivity HAZARD RATING
WHITE-Special 4 EXTREME 1 SLIGHT
BLUE-Health 3 SERIOUS 0 MINIMAL
2 MODERATE
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS)- An MSDS Must Be on File & Available for Each Chemical in the Lab.
• An MSDS lists:
- Product Identity - Reactivity Data
- Hazardous Ingredients - Health Hazard Data
- Physical Data - Precautions for Safe Handling & Use
- Fire & Explosion Hazard Data - Control Measures

SAFETY WORKING PRACTICES - Access to laboratory and emergency exits

Access to Lab areas
 Must be restricted to authorized persons only.
 A plan of the laboratory area must be available.
 Each lab must have clearly designated emergency exits.
Emergency Exits - Clearly marked, not locked, kept clear, open outwards and designed to open from the inside
Means of Egress/Exit- Two or more well- marked & unobstructed evacuation exits are recommended in a lab.

PPE (PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT)

 must all wear adequate PPE when working in the laboratory
 PPE Should Be Considered Only After Administrative and Engineering Controls Have Been Applied.
 Minimum Recommended PPE:
 Chemical Resistant Gloves, Safety eye Goggles, Lab Coat, Face Shield, and Rubber Apron when Necessary, Closed
Footwear – NO Jewelry and long hair should be tied
Safety Showers and Eyewashes
 Must Be Available in All Lab Areas That Use or Store Chemicals Which Are Corrosive or an Irritant to the Eyes or
Skin
 Combination Eye Wash & Drench Hose Units at the Sink are Now Available
Good Working Practices
 Housekeeping the love must be kept neat clean and free of materials that are not pertinent to your work keep
your workplace tidy clear up waste make sure everything is safe before you leave work area unattended a title
laboratory avoids accidents for everyone apply principles of 5S whenever possible
Rules about smoking eating and drinking
 smoking is not allowed anywhere in the lab
 eating and drinking must be restricted to designated areas
 food and drink for consumption must not be placed and refrigerators intended for chemicals.
Maintenance of Laboratory Equipment
 Equipment used within laboratories must be:
 Correctly installed according to manufacturers instructions
 -Safe-to-operate
 Well maintained, according to a regular maintenance schedule
Storage of Chemicals
 Solvents must be stored in well-ventilated cabinets or explosion proof-cabinets.
 Highly toxic & carcinogenic chemicals (e.g. cyanide) must be kept under lock and key.
 Flammable chemical storage area should be kept cool, away from sources of ignition, and well- ventilated
 Do not store incompatible chemicals together.
 Chemicals/solvents storage cupboards must be used with suitable chemicals hazard warning labels on door.
Working With Flammable Solvents
Hazards
 Any of ignition may produce an explosion.
 The vapours of some volatie solvents, notably diethyl ether, petroleum ether form explosive mixtures with air
Precautions
 Designated areas, with no source of ignition.
Gas Cylinders
  Gas cylinders used in the lab are under high pressure Examples: air, nitrogen, helium, hydrogen, argon.
 Cylinders should be stored, wherever possible, outside the laboratory building under lock and key.
Fire Precautions
 Fire alarms must be installed & tested regularly.
 Fire (smoke) detectors must be installed & tested regularly.
 The lab must be equipped with fire extinguishers which are checked regularly (annually).
 Fire blankets must be visible & available in areas where inflammable solvents are handled.
 Fire Drill-regular practice of fire drill.
 Fire Extinguishers Must Be:
 Clearly labeled to indicate the types of fire they are designed to extinguish.
 Visibly inspected monthly and maintained annually.
 Class ABC Extinguishers Should Be Located: At the Laboratory Exit -Within 50 Feet of Any Point in the Lab.
 Class D Extinguishers Are Required for Combustible Metals.
Emergency Procedures: Set up for--
 Various types of accidents
 Spillage of hazardous substances
 Fires
 Emergency telephone numbers, in case of accidents or fire, must be clearly visible.
First Aid
 At least 2 of the laboratory staff must have received specific training in first aid.
 At least one trained first aider must always be available on site
 A readily accessible, well maintained, first-aid cabinet must be available.
Accident Reporting And Follow-Up
 All accidents however minor or unimportant they may seem, must be reported & recorded.
 It may also be useful to report near misses.

 Follow-up must include a root cause analysis of the accident, which will often allow weaknesses in training,
procedure or safety equipment to be recognized & corrected,
 Even a small accident may point to the risk of a more serious accidents that may have been overlooked.
Safety Manual
 Training and training records
 Safety Equipment
 Storage conditions for chemicals
 Safe handling
 Use and disposal of chemicals
 Disposal of materials used in the microbiology laboratory
 Emergency procedures
Safety Training
 Scope of training- All laboratory staff must receive adequate safety training
 Training records- Safety training must be repeated annually. Records of training must be kept for each member
of staff
Management Of Laboratory Safety And Responsibilities
Laboratory head must ensure that:
 All personnel are familiar with the contents of the laboratory safety manual
 All personnel comply with all specified precautions
Waste Management
Waste Chemical Disposal Requires: PPPR
 Proper storage- same rules apply - make sure waste chemicals are compatible –
 Proper labeling - tags should be placed on bottles name of chemical
 Pre-planning- know what waste you're creating prior to carrying out experiments; minimize purchases
 Record-keeping - of all waste chemicals on hand and those already picked up for disposal
Designated Disposal
 Metal Sharp waste (needles, bottle caps etc.) is stored in a resistant box and disposed off as per local regulation
 Broken Glass collected in the waste bag meant for broken glass. Empty reagent bottles collected in trolley
 Metal waste (Instrument small parts, SCM cups etc.) collected separately and disposed off as per local regulation
The "Don'ts" of Chemical Storage!
 Avoid storing any chemical above eye level
 Don't store incompatible chemicals together
 Don't store chemicals near sources of heat or sunlight
 Don't store chemicals in the hoods or acids on metal shelves
 Avoid storing anything on the floor, especially glass bottles
Labels
 Product Identifier
  Pictogram(s)
 Signal Word Danger or Warning
 Hazard Statement(s)- Standardized and assigned phrases that describe the hazard(s) as determined by hazard
Classification.
 Precautionary Statement(s)- Supplements the hazard information by briefly providing measures to be taken to
minimize or prevent adverse effects from physical, health or environmental hazards. First aid is included in
precautionary information.
Transporting Chemicals
 When transporting compressed gas cylinders, the cylinder should always be strapped in a cylinder cart and the
valve protected with a cover cap. Do not attempt to carry or roll cylinders from one area to another.
 Keep chemicals in their original packing when transporting, if possible.

Examples of Ignitable Wastes Examples of Corrosive Wastes

 Organic solvents (i.e. xylene, methanol or ethanol  Hydrochloric acid
greater than 24%, hexane)  Acetic Acid
 Paint thinner  Sodium Hydroxide
 Activated carbon  Ammonium Hydroxide
 Ether  Battery Acids
 Silver Nitrate Ammonium Persulfate
Characteristic: Reactive Examples of Toxic Wastes
 Materials that, under normal conditions,are:  Paint wastes containing lead, chromium or silver
 Unstable and readily undergo violent change;  Mercury waste from dental amalgams Silver waste
 React violently with water; from x-ray processing equipment
 May give off toxic gases; or  Chloroform
 May be capable of detonation or explosion
Hazardous Waste Labeling
 Any container used to contain or accumulate hazardous waste MUST be labeled with:
 The words "Hazardous Waste" The date waste was initially added to the container
 All chemical constituents and their concentrations (% by weight, add up to 100% )
 no abbreviations, chemical formulas, or trade names
 written in English

B. Common Laboratory Glassware and Materials

 Test tube, also known as a culture tube or sample tube, is a common piece of laboratory
glassware consisting of a finger-like length of glass or clear plastic tubing.
 Beaker is an open glass cylinder with a pouting lip used as a standard laboratory container. It is simple
container used for mixing, stirring, and heating liquid.
 Laboratory funnel -To channel liquids or fine-grained substances into containers with a small opening.
 Reagent bottle can be used for storage, mixing, and display.
 Burette is a graduated glass tube and a stop clock at the bottom, used especially in laboratory procedures
for accurate fluid dispensing and measurement.
 Erlenmeyer flask is used to heat and store liquids. The bottom is wider than the top so it will heat up
quicker because of the greater surface area exposed to the heat. Has a neck.
 Florence flask The bulb shaped bottom allows the heat to distribute through the liquid more evenly.
Mostly used in distillation experiments.
 Volumetric flask is used to make up solutions of fixed volume. It is solely used in preparing chemical
solutions
 Beaker tongs are used to move beakers containing hot liquids
 Graduated cylinder is used to measure volumes of liquids.
 Test tube holder is useful for holding a test tube which is too hot to handle.
 Test tube brushes are used to clean test tubes and graduated cylinders.
 Test tube racks are for holding and organizing test tubes on the laboratory counter.
 Rubber stoppers are used to close containers to avoid spillage or contamination.
 Spot plates are used when we want to perform many small scale reactions at one time.
 Glass rod is used to manually stir solutions. Transfer a single drop of a solution.
 Forceps (or tweezers) are used to pick up small objects.
 Watch glass is used to hold a small amount of solid, such as the product of a reaction.
 Wash bottle has a spout that delivers a wash solution to a specific area. Distilled water is the only liquid
to be used
  Bunsen burners are used for the heating of nonvolatile liquids and solids.
 Evaporating dish is used for the heating of stable solid compounds and elements.
 Crucibles are used for heating certain solids, particularly metals, to very high temperatures.
 Clay triangle is used as a support for porcelain crucibles when being heated over a Bunsen burner.
 Ringstands are a safe and convenient way to perform reactions that require heating using a Bunsen
burner.
 Utility clamps are used to secure test tubes, distillation columns, and burets to the ringstand.
 Wire gauze sits on the iron ring to provide a place to stand a beaker.
 Red litmus paper is used to identify bases. Blue litmus paper is used to identify acids.
 Medicine dropper is used to transfer a small volume of liquid (less than one mL). On top of each medicine
dropper is a “rubber bulb”
 Glass plates provide a surface for semi-micro scale experiments, such as drop reactions and testing of
acids and bases.
 Spatulas are used to dispense solid chemicals from their containers.

C. Measurements

 The study of chemistry depends heavily on measurement. For instance, chemists use measurements to
compare the properties of different substances and to assess changes resulting from an experiment.
 Meterstick measures length; the burette, the pipet, the graduated cylinder,
 the volumetric flask measure volume,
 the balance measures mass;
 the thermometer measures temperature.
 Microscopic properties, on the atomic or molecular scale, must be determined by an indirect method.
SI Units

 Related decimally, that is, by powers of 10. In 1960, however, the General Conference of Weights and
Measures, the international authority on units, proposed a revised metric system called the
International System of Units (abbreviated SI, from the French System International d’Unites).

 Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object.

 weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object.
 Volume is length (m) cubed, so its SI-derived unit is the cubic meter (m3 ). Generally, however, chemists
work with much smaller volumes, such as the cubic centimeter (cm3 ) and the cubic decimeter (dm3)
Temperature Scales

 Three temperature scales are currently in use. Their units are F (degrees Fahrenheit), C (degrees
Celsius), and K (kelvin).
 Fahrenheit scale,the most commonly used scale in the United States outside the laboratory, defines the
normal freezing and boiling points of water.

Unit 2. Matter and Energy

A. Characteristics of Matter and Calculations in Chemistry
MATTER
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass, and chemistry is the study of matter and the changes
it undergoes. 3 State of Matter:
 Solids- are rigid objects with definite shapes.
 Liquids- able to flow and assume the shape of their containers.
 Gases- can expand indefinitely.
 Atoms- The smallest building blocks of matter
 The three states of matter can be interconverted without changing the composition of the substance.
 Melting Point- Upon heating, a solid (for example, ice) will melt to form a liquid (water).
 Freezing Point- When the liquid is cooled further, it will freeze into the solid form.
SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES
 Substance is matter that has a definite or constant composition and distinct properties.
 Substances differ from one another in composition and can be identified by their appearance, smell, taste,
and other properties.
 Pure Substances—each composed of a single substance
 Mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities.
 Mixtures do not have constant composition. 2 Types of Mixture.
 Homogeneous mixture which will be uniform in composition throughout.
 Heterogeneous mixture is not uniform in composition throughout.
 Elements and Compounds
 Substance can be either an element or a compound.
 Element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.
 Alphabetical symbols to represent the names of the elements. The first letter of the symbol for an element
is always capitalized, but the second letter is never capitalized.
 Other symbols have their origin in other languages, such as some metals that were discovered by ancient
civilizations and given Latin names long ago.
 LATIN-For example, argentum (Ag) is silver, ferrum (Fe) is iron, plumbum (Pb) is lead, and hydrargyrum (Hg)
is mercury.
 Elements have been named for properties, planets, places, and people.
 Hydrogen (H) means “water former,” because hydrogen and oxygen gases burn in a flame to form the
compound water (H2O).
 Neptunium (Np) and plutonium (Pu) were named after two planets in our solar system.
 Berkelium (Bk) and californium (Cf) honor the University of California, Berkeley, lab in which they were first
produced.
 Flerovium (Fl) and livermorium (Lv) were both named after the laboratories in which the elements were
discovered.
 Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) Russian chemist has his own element (Mendelevium, Md), because the
most common way of arranging the elements—the periodic table—reflects the system he developed. This
is an orderly arrangement of all the elements based on similarities in their reactivities and properties
 Nonmetals are characterized by poor conductivity of heat or electricity, and those in the solid state cannot
be deformed without cracking or breaking.
 Metalloids—elements that lie between metals and nonmetals in the periodic table. Metalloids are also
often called semimetals or semiconductors.
 Groups serve to organize elements according to important properties they have in common, and are
numbered from left to right.
 Groups 1 and 2, are referred to as the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.
 Group 17 are known as halogens, which include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
 Group 18, consists of the noble gases. Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton and Xenon

A.1 Classification, Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

 In matter, the particles attract each other via intermolecular forces of attraction.
 The particles are continuously moving.
 The particles of matter have spaces between them.
PHYSICAL PROPERTY CHEMICAL PROPERTY
Physical Property- A trait of matter that can be Chemical property- can undergo changes – process
observed or measured without changing the of testing the chemical property, the substance
chemical composition of the matter. No chemical changes composition if it is has that property.
reactions.
A physical property can be measured and observed H2O- know the chemical change -“Hydrogen gas
without changing the composition or identity of a burns in oxygen gas to form water” describes a
substance. chemical property of hydrogen, in this case burning
Color- object absorbs and reflects light. Egg-eat the egg – in the body enzyme -digestive
action -example of chemical change
Texture- substance looks and feels. Smooth and MEASURABLE PROPERTY OF MATTER
rough
Temperature – measure of the average kinetic Extensive Property- physical and chemical- depends
energy of particles in a substance. Freezing, melting on how much matter is being considered. Mass,
and boiling point length, volume
 Mass- amount of matter in an object (g or kg) More matter means more mass
Volume- amount of space an object occupies.(mL, L, Same values added together -how much matter is
cm3,m3,etc ) involved. Amount of matter
Density- ratio of mass to volume; reflects the Intensive Property- physical appearance – does not
degree of packing of particles in matter.(D=m/v) depend on the amount of matter being considered.
temperature
Luster- way the substance reflects the light. Extensive
(metallic, non-metallic, glassy, pearly, dull). 5 kl mangga --Coffee one cup---10 k phone
Ductility- ability of a substance to be stretched into Intensive
a wire. Deformation Hilaw o hinog-- Coffee hot--- quality
Malleability- ability of a substance to be hammered
flat and to retain the new shape. Gold bar to
necklace.
A.2 Changes of Matter
 Changing states of matter- vice versa – change state with the addition or removal of heat
 melting- changing from solid to liquid
 freezing- changing from liquid to a solid
 evaporation- changing from liquid into vapor (gas)
 vaporization- changing from liquid to gas (water to steam & water evaporates)
 condensation- changing from gas to a liquid
 deposition- changing from gas to a solid- to high temperature
 sublimation- changing from solid to gas- dry ice
PROPERTIES OF SOLID, LIQUID AND GAS
SOLIDS LIQUID GAS
stay in one place and can be held can flow or be poured easily they are invisible
keep their shape, they do not flow change their shape depending on do not have fixed shape
like liquid the container they are in.
tightly bonded, takes up the same they always take up the same spread out and change their shape
space. Can be cut or shaped amount of space, closely bonded and volume to fill up container
these bonds are much looser
OTHER STATE allowing the particles to slide over particles to move freely in all
Plasma- similar to gas, made up of each other and form random directions. Can expand or shrink to
particles that are charged with shapes within the mass of liquid completely fill whatever space they
energy that causes the particles to currently occupy.
split and form a different
configuration.

B. 1. HEAT CAPACITY AND CALORIMETRY

The Nature of Energy
 Energy - the many different forms of energy are, at least in principle, interconvertible. sun, light, nuclear,
fuel
 Assume that energy is in different forms-convert. kinetic- in motion and potential- stored energy
 Nonrenewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—
or even in many, many lifetimes.
 cannot be seen, touched, smelled, or weighed
 is usually defined as the capacity to do work.
 We defined work as “force distance,” but we will soon see that there are other kinds of work. (that is, of
exerting a force over a distance).
 Chemists define work as directed energy change resulting from a process.
Types of Energy
 Kinetic energy is the energy produced by a moving object
 Radiant energy, or solar energy, comes from the sun and is Earth’s primary energy source.
 Solar energy heats the atmosphere and Earth’s surface, stimulates the growth of vegetation through the
process known as photosynthesis, and influences global climate patterns.
 Thermal energy is the energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules. Thermal energy
can be calculated from temperature measurements.
  The more vigorous the motion of the atoms and molecules in a sample of matter, the hotter the sample is
and the greater its thermal energy.
 Chemical energy is stored within the structural units of chemical substances; its quantity is determined by
the type and arrangement of constituent atoms.
 When substances participate in chemical reactions, chemical energy is released, stored, or converted to
other forms of energy.
 Potential energy is energy available by virtue of an object’s position.
 Chemical energy can be considered a form of potential energy because it is associated with the relative
positions and arrangements of atoms within a given substance.
Energy can be neither destroyed nor created.
 Law of Conservation of Energy- This principle is summarized by the law of conservation of energy: the total
quantity of energy in the universe is assumed constant.
 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
 Chemical Reactions form new substances by breaking and making chemical bonds. Chemical reactions change
the way the atoms are arranged.
 Energy Changes- Almost all chemical reactions absorb or produce (release) energy, generally in the form of
heat.
 Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at different temperatures.
 Thermochemistry - Thermochemistry is the study of heat change in chemical reactions.
HEAT CAPACITY
 Heat capacity indicates a material’s ability to absorb heat from the external surroundings; it represents the
amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise.
 Specific Heat Q=mc∆ T
 m-mass c- heat ∆ T- change in temperature= Tf - Ti
CALORIMETRY
 Calorimeter – an instrument that measures the gain or loss of heat.
 three main factors: the amount of material, the type of material, and the temperature change.
 Calorimetry is the term used to describe the measurement of heat flow.
 Experiments are carried out in devices called calorimeters.
 The only heat flow that must be considered is that between the system being studied and the immediate
surroundings, whose temperature can be measured.
A two-step process is used to make a calorimetric measurement.
 The first step is calibration in which a known amount of heat is generated in the apparatus.
 The calibration can be done either by burning a known amount of a well-characterized material or by
resistive heating, in which a known amount of current is passed through a wire that heats due to its
electrical resistance.
 The second step is the actual measurement, in which we determine the amount of heat absorbed or
released in the reaction of a known amount of material.
 Known amount of heat = calorimeter constant × ∆ T

Unit 2 PART B: Energy Changes of Chemical Reactions (enthalpy)

 Enthalpy (H) is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system.
 The quantity of enthalpy equals to the total content of heat of a system, equivalent to the system's internal
energy plus the product of volume and pressure.
Exothermic Reaction
 When heat evolves from a system, the process is said to be exothermic and the value of ΔE is less than
zero.
 An exothermic process feels hot:
 The exothermic process, is any process that gives off heat—that is, transfers thermal energy to the
surroundings.
Endothermic Reaction
 When heat is absorbed by the system, the process is said to be endothermic, and the value of ΔE is greater
than zero.
 Endothermic processes feel cold

B.3. Spontaneity
 Some processes occur without any outside intervention, and we say that such a process is spontaneous.
 From a thermodynamic perspective, then, a spontaneous process is one that takes place with continuous
intervention.
Spontaneous
 The actual definition does not refer to the speed of the process at all. Some spontaneous processes are
very fast, but others occur only on extremely long timescales.
 We understand that the chemical compounds in some waste materials, like paper, may spontaneously
react to decay over time. (This process can be more complicated than a simple chemical reaction, though,
because of the involvement of bacteria).
 A spontaneous process is capable of proceeding in a given direction without needing to be driven by an
outside source of energy.
 occur without outside intervention
 spontaneous processes may be fast or slow
 many forms of combustion are fast
 kinetics is concerned with speed, thermodynamics with the initial and final state
Nonspontaneous reaction
An endergonic reaction (also called a nonspontaneous reaction) is a chemical reaction in which the standard
change in free energy is positive and energy is absorbed.
B.4. Entropy (S)
 Entropy, the measure of a system’s thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing
useful work.
 Because work is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the amount of entropy is also a measure of the
molecular disorder, or randomness, of a system.
 The concept of entropy provides deep insight into the direction of spontaneous change for many everyday
phenomena.
 Its introduction by the German physicist Rudolf Clausius in 1850 is a highlight of 19th-century physics.
 Entropy is often described as a measure of how spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among
the different possible ways that system can contain energy.
 The greater the dispersal, the greater is the entropy.
 Entropy also varies with temperature.
 heated to a higher temperature, more total energy available.
B. 5. Laws of Thermodynamics
 temperature or state of a system changes due to energy transfers.
 Bulk properties of matter.
 in explaining the correlation between these properties and the mechanics of atoms and molecules.
 development of thermodynamics paralleled the development of atomic theory.
 Thermodynamics and mechanics were considered to be distinct branches of physics.
 transfer of energy by heat in thermal processes and the transfer of energy by work in mechanical
processes.
 The concept of energy was generalized to include internal energy.
 The principle of conservation of energy emerged as a universal law of nature.
Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on a system.
 “the branch of science that deals with energy levels and the transfer of energy between systems and
between different states of matter”
 study of the inter-relation between heat, work and internal energy of a system and its interaction with its
environment.
 All of thermodynamics can be expressed in terms of four quantities: Temperature, Internal Energy ,Entropy,
Heat
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The laws of thermodynamics have been successfully applied to the study of chemical and physical
processes.
 Thermochemistry is part of a broader subject called thermodynamics, which is the scientific study of the
interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy.
 The laws of thermodynamics provide useful guidelines for understanding the energetics and directions of
processes.
CLASSICAL VS.STATISTICAL
 Classical thermodynamics concerns the relationships between bulk properties of matter.
 Statistical thermodynamics seeks to explain those bulk properties in terms of constituent atoms.
THE FOUR LAWS
Zeroth: temperature of a system- (Ralph H. Fowler.)
 states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are also in
equilibrium with each other.
First: based on the law of conservation of energy – internal energy of a system. (Rudolf Clausius)
 referred to cyclic thermodynamic processes, and to the existence of a function of state of the system,
the internal energy.
 change in internal energy in a system can occur as a result of energy transfer by heat, by work, or by
both. energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only altered in form.
SYSTEM OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
ISOLATED SYSTEM
 An isolated system is one that does not interact with its surroundings.
 No energy transfer by heat takes place.
 The internal energy of an isolated system remains constant.
CYCLIC PROCESS
 Exchange energy with surroundings.
 A cyclic process is one that starts and ends in the same state.
 This process would not be isolated.
ADIABATIC PROCESS
 An adiabatic process is one during which no energy enters or leaves the system by heat.
 Thermally insulating the walls of the system
 Having the process proceed so quickly that no heat can be exchanged a thermodynamic process in
which there is no heat transfer from in or out of the system.
ISOBARIC PROCESS
 An isobaric process is one that occurs at a constant pressure.
 A thermodynamic process during which the pressure remains constant.
 When heat is transferred to or from a gaseous system, a volume change occurs at constant pressure.
 This thermodynamic process can be illustrated by the expansion of a substance when it is heated.
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
 An isothermal process is one that occurs at a constant temperature.
 This can be accomplished by putting the cylinder in contact with some constant-temperature reservoir.
 Energy that enters the system by heat must leave the system by work.
Second: entropy of a system
 LORD KELVIN- William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) 1824 – 1907 British Physicist and Mathematician
 First to propose the use of an absolute scale of temperature
 His work in thermodynamics led to the idea that energy cannot pass spontaneously from a colder object to
a hotter object.
 Kelvin scale and thermodynamics
 In 1848, he proposed an absolute temperature scale, now called 'the Kelvin scale’. After further research,
Kelvin
 formulated the second law of thermodynamics. deals with natural or spontaneous processes.
Second law
 The function that predicts the spontaneity of a reaction is entropy.
 The connection between entropy and the spontaneity of a reaction is expressed by the second law of
thermodynamics:
 The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium
process.
 restrictions upon the direction of heat transfer and achievable efficiencies of heat engines.
Third: Absolute Zero is unattainable, negative temperatures
 Chemist Walther Nernst- This law was developed by the German chemist Walther Nernst between the
years 1906 and 1912.
 As per the third law of thermodynamics, the entropy of such a system
 is exactly zero.
 The third law enables us to determine absolute entropy values.
 The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at a temperature of zero Kelvin
(absolute zero) is equal to zero.
 The third law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of
reaching absolute zero of temperature. The most common enunciation of third law of thermodynamics is: “
 As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a
minimum value.”
 First Law Of Thermodynamics- internal energy- heat energy- work- law of conservation
 4 Laws of Thermodynamics
 Zeroth law – thermal equilibrium is transitive – equal ABC
 First law- change in total energy is equal to heat minus work done.
 Second Law- spontaneous process – energy increase
 Third law- absolute zero
 Thermochemistry -absorption of heat -heat change is measured by a calorimeter.
 Constant-pressure and constant volume
 Enthalpy(H)- thermodynamic property = H=U+PV
 Atm- atmospheric pressure

UNIT 2 PART C: ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electricity and Chemistry
 The relationship between chemical reaction and electricity
 Electrochemistry is the science that unites electricity and chemistry. It is the study of the transfer of
electrons. If a chemical reaction is driven by an external applied voltage, as in electrolysis, or if a voltage is
created by a chemical reaction, as in a battery, it is an electrochemical reaction.
CONVERSION OF ENERGY
 certain chemical reaction can create electrcity.
 Electricity-movement of electrons through something (wire, battery, etc.)
 Meaning: movement of electron through chemical reaction
Electrochemistry deals directly with electrons and their movement. Whether the electrons move under the
driving forces of spontaneous chemical processes or external electric potential, respond to an applied their
movement brings about a whole new set of opportunities and challenges.
CORROSION
 The formation of rust-iron oxide-is just the most familiar example.
 When rust forms on steel, it weakens the metal, and weaker materials are more prone to failure. The
degradation of metals by chemical reactions with the environment.
 Corrosion generally involves a slow combination of oxygen with metals to form oxides.
 The rusting of automobile bodies is an example of uniform corrosion and is one of the most visible forms
of corrosion
 Galvanic corrosion, which occurs only when two different metals contact each other in the presence an
appropriate electrolyte.
CONTACT OF TWO DIFFERENT METALS
 Crevice corrosion is a major problem in many large machines. When two pieces of metal touch each other,
they tend to leave a small gap (unless the joint is covered with a coating, such as paint). At that gap, or
crevice, the metals are more likely to corrode.
OXIDATION-REDUCTION
 Electrons move between atoms
 Meaning: electricty can make certain chemical reactions happen
 OIL-RIG: Oxidation is the loss of electrons from some chemical species whereas reduction is the gain of
electrons.
 Reactions involving the transfer of electrons are known as oxidation-reduction reactions. (The term is often
inverted and shortened to redox reactions.)
 This leads directly to one of the most important principles of redox chemistry: the electrons lost in
oxidation must always be gained in the simultaneous reduction of some other species. In other words, we
can't have oxidation unless we also have reduction.
GALVANIC CELL
 Certain chemical reactions create electricity
 Galvanic cell AKA Voltaic cell-devices that use chemical reaction to create electricity (oxidation reduction
process)
Electrolysis is the process of using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This reaction takes place
in a unit called an electrolytic cell or electrolyzer.
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
 Cosmic rays are high-energy particles originating from space that travel through the universe, including our
solar system, at nearly the speed of light. They consist of various subatomic particles, such as protons,
 electrons, and atomic nuclei, like helium and heavier elements. Cosmic rays can have extremely high
energies.
 Solar Flares- Some cosmic rays emanate from the sun, where solar flares can accelerate highly charged
cations until they approach the speed of light. The distribution of elements in these cosmic rays reflects the
composition of the sun itself.
ENERGY
 Chemical energies are usually expressed in kilojoules per mole, but those of cosmic rays are typically
expressed in electron volts (eV) or 1 eV = 596.5853 kJ/mol.
 The energy released in a chemical reaction is on the order of a few electron volts, whereas the energy of a
cosmic ray is typically in the megaelectron volt or gigaelectron volt range.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
 Nuclear reactions are reactions that take place within the nucleus. These reactions involve changes in the
number of protons and neutrons, which can transform one element into another. Unlike chemical
reactions, which involve changes in the arrangement of electrons in the outer shells of atoms, nuclear
reactions alter the composition of the nucleus itself.
 A free neutron is absorbed by a nitrogen nucleus. The result is a carbon nucleus and a proton.
 It is similar to a chemical reaction: the neutron and the nitrogen nucleus are reactants, and the carbon
nucleus and the proton are products
ALPHA, BETA GAMMA
 The more massive and positively charged particle is an alpha particle.
 The negatively charged particle is an electron but electrons emitted from the nucleus are usually called
beta particles.
 The particles unaffected by the magnetic field are gamma rays, high-energy photons of electromagnetic
radiation
o Gamma particles are not a distinct type of subatomic particle like alpha or beta particles. Instead,
"gamma particles" are often a colloquial or imprecise way of referring to gamma rays, which are a form
of electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays are composed of high-energy photons and have no mass or
charge.
o Gamma rays are typically produced during certain nuclear processes and radioactive decay. They are
emitted from atomic nuclei in a process called gamma decay or gamma emission.
NUCLEAR STABILITY
 REASON FOR INSTABILITY: Too many protons, Too many neutrons, Too much of both
 Nuclear stability refers to the condition in which an atomic nucleus is in a relatively balanced and stable
state, meaning it is less likely to undergo spontaneous changes or nuclear reactions.
 The stability of a nucleus is determined by the forces that hold its protons and neutrons together and the
overall energy of the nucleus.
STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE
 The primary force responsible for holding the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus is called the
strong nuclear force. This force is extremely powerful at close distances, overcoming the electromagnetic
repulsion between positively charged protons.
 It helps maintain the nucleus's stability by binding its constituents.
 Other points that promote stability are Proton-Neutron Balance, Radioactive Decay, Nuclear Binding
Energy, Isotopes, and even Astrophysical Implications
FISSION V.S. FUSSION
FISSION
 Fission is the process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei, along with the release of
a large amount of energy. This process is commonly associated with elements like uranium-235 and
plutonium-239.
 Fission releases energy when the nucleus of a heavy atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei, as well as
several neutrons. The energy release in fission is significant and is used in nuclear power plants and nuclear
weapons.
 Fission typically uses heavy, unstable isotopes of elements like uranium or plutonium as fuel. These
isotopes are called fissile materials.
 The products of fission include smaller nuclei, neutrons, and a release of energy in the form of heat. Fission
may also produce radioactive byproducts.
FUSSION
 Fusion is the process of combining two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. This process is most
commonly associated with the fusion of hydrogen isotopes, such as deuterium and tritium, to form helium.
 Fusion releases energy when light nuclei come together to form a heavier nucleus. The energy release in
fusion is even more substantial than in fission and powers the sun and other stars.
 Fusion uses light isotopes of hydrogen, such as deuterium (hydrogen-2) and tritium (hydrogen-3), as fuel.
These isotopes are more readily available and less hazardous than fissile materials.
 The primary product of fusion is a heavier nucleus, such as helium, along with the release of a tremendous
amount of energy. Fusion does not produce long-lived radioactive waste as a primary byproduct.
UNIT 2 PART E: FUELS
INTRODUCTION TO FUELS & COMBUSTION
FUELS
 A fuel is any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance that may be combusted (burned) to produce heat or work.
Sources of fuel date back to prehistoric times, where solids such as grass and straw were burned for heat.
DESIRABLE TRAITS OF A FUELS
o if it ignites easily at a low temperature and produces a large quantity of heat during its combustion.
o fuels should be inexpensively isolated and have properties that allow for their safe and efficient storage
or transport.
o a desirable fuel should leave little residue behind after being burned, and produce by-products that are
not harmful to human health or the environment.
 Humans currently use coal, petroleum products (e.g., gasoline, diesel, propane, etc.), and natural gas as
our primary sources of fuel.
 In a very real sense, these fossils may be thought of as ancient solar energy (sunshine) stored in solid,
liquid, and gaseous states.
 Contrary to popular belief, these so-called fossil fuels are not the prehistoric remains of dinosaurs.
 Burning fossil fuels for energy fails to meet the criteria of sustainability in two ways.
o First, the fuels themselves are nonrenewable. Once gone, they cannot be replaced—at least within a
useful timescale.
o Second, the waste products of combustion have adverse effects on our environment, both today and in
the future.
 Burning coal also releases pollutants such as soot, carbon monoxide, mercury, and the oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen.
o These emissions affect us right now because they lower the quality of our air, acidify our rain, aggravate
existing health conditions, and accelerate global climate change.
 There are three necessary requirements to generate a fire—a source of heat, a fuel, and an oxidizer. The
fire will continue to burn until either the oxygen or fuel source is removed.
 The great majority of fuels are hydrocarbons, compounds made up only of the elements hydrogen and
carbon. A few basic rules for chemical bonding can help you create order out of the seeming chaos of
hydrocarbons. One is the octet rule.
 Another useful rule is that carbon forms four bonds in hydrocarbons. One possibility is four single bonds, as
in methane.
HEAT VS TEMPERATURE
o Heat is the kinetic energy that flows from a hotter object to a colder one. When two bodies are in
contact, heat always flows from the object at the higher temperature to one at a lower temperature.
o Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms and/or molecules present in a
substance.
 The ability of a substance to provide heat energy makes it a good fuel.
 The calorie (cal) was introduced with the metric system in the late 18th century and was defined as the
amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius.
 When Calorie is capitalized, as in a nutritional Calorie, it generally means kilocalorie on the metric scale.
The values tabulated on food package labels and in cookbooks are, in fact, kilocalories
 1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1000 calories (cal) = 1 Calorie (Cal)
 Food as Fuel-The process of combustion is actually an oxidation process—a reaction with oxygen.
 Carbohydrates (sugars) and fats are categories of biomolecules that provide our bodies with energy. They
do so because when they react with oxygen, their products have less potential energy than the reactants.
 This energy difference is both transformed into usable energy in the body, and dissipated as heat
throughout the body
 The calorimeter is a device used to experimentally measure the quantity of heat energy released in a
combustion reaction.
 The reaction is initiated with a spark and the heat evolved by the reaction flows from the container to the
water and the rest of the apparatus.
 The greater the temperature increase (measured in °C), the greater the quantity of energy evolved from
the reaction (measured in J).
 Heats of combustion are typically reported in units of kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol), kilojoules per gram
(kJ/g), kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol), or kilocalories per gram (kcal/g).
 The combustion of methane is exothermic, a term applied to any chemical or physical change accompanied
by the release of heat.
 In terms of heat energy released during combustion, the more energy released, the better the fuel.
 Photosynthesis is endothermic. This process requires the absorption of sunlight per mole of glucose
(C6H12O6) formed.
The complete process involves many steps, but the overall reaction can be described with this equation
o Heat added to reactants > heat evolved by formation of products: endothermic (e.g., baking bread,
producing sugar by photosynthesis)
o Heat added to reactants < heat evolved with products: exothermic (e.g., combustion of fuels)
CALORIFIC VALUES
 Calorific value, also known as heating value or energy value, is a measure of the energy content or heat-
producing potential of a substance, typically a fuel.
 It is usually expressed in units of energy per unit mass, such as joules per gram (J/g) or kilocalories per
gram (kcal/g).
 Calorific value is an important parameter when evaluating or comparing different fuels because it helps
determine the amount of energy that can be obtained from a given quantity of the fuel when it is burned
or oxidized.
 Higher calorific values indicate that a substance has more energy potential.
GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE (GCV) OR HIGHER HEATING VALUE (HHV)
 This value includes the heat released when the water vapor produced during combustion is condensed and
the latent heat is recovered.
 It represents the maximum amount of energy that can be obtained from the complete combustion of a
fuel.
NET CALORIFIC VALUE (NCV) OR LOWER HEATING VALUE (LHV)
 NCV does not account for the latent heat of vaporization of water formed during combustion. It considers
only the heat released after subtracting the energy required to vaporize the water produced during
combustion.
 NCV is typically lower than GCV and represents the energy available for useful work.
 Energy production: Determining the energy content of different fuels helps in optimizing combustion
processes in power plants, boilers, and industrial furnaces.
 Fuel selection: Choosing the most efficient and cost-effective fuel for specific applications.
 Environmental impact assessment: Calculating the emissions and environmental impact of burning
different fuels.
 Economic analysis: Evaluating the economic viability of using specific fuels for energy generation or
industrial processes.
CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
Based on Physical State:
 Solid Fuels: These are in a solid state at room temperature and include materials like coal, wood, peat, and
biomass.
 Liquid Fuels: These are in a liquid state at room temperature and include fuels like gasoline, diesel,
kerosene, and various oils.
 Gaseous Fuels: These are in a gaseous state at room temperature and include natural gas, propane,
butane, and hydrogen.
Based on Origin or Source:
 Fossil Fuels: These fuels are derived from the remains of ancient plants and animals that have undergone
geological processes. Examples include coal, crude oil, and natural gas.
 Renewable Fuels: These fuels are derived from sustainable sources and can be naturally replenished.
Examples include biomass, biofuels (e.g., biodiesel and ethanol), and hydrogen produced from renewable
energy sources.
 Hydrocarbon Fuels: These fuels primarily consist of hydrogen and carbon atoms and include fossil fuels like
gasoline, diesel, and natural gas.
 Non-Hydrocarbon Fuels: These fuels contain elements other than hydrogen and carbon. For example,
hydrogen gas (H2) and some specialty fuels used in rockets and high-performance engines.
Based on Calorific Value:
 High-Energy Fuels: Fuels with a high calorific value, providing a lot of energy per unit mass or volume.
Examples include hydrogen and natural gas.
 Low-Energy Fuels: Fuels with a lower calorific value, providing less energy per unit mass or volume.
Examples include peat and some types of biomass.
 Clean Fuels: Fuels that produce fewer pollutants and have a lower environmental impact when burned.
Examples include natural gas and some biofuels.
 Dirty Fuels: Fuels that produce more pollutants and contribute to environmental problems. Examples
include coal and some heavy oils.
 GOOD FUELS
 High Calorific Value: Good fuels should have a high calorific value, meaning they contain a significant
amount of energy per unit mass or volume. Fuels with high calorific values provide more energy when
burned, making them efficient for energy production.
 High Energy Density: Energy density is a measure of how much energy is stored in a given volume or mass
of fuel. Fuels with high energy density are desirable because they can store a lot of energy in a relatively
small space or weight.
 Readily Available: A good fuel should be readily available in sufficient quantities to meet demand.
Accessibility and availability are crucial for ensuring a stable energy supply.
 Low Impurities: High-purity fuels are preferred because impurities can lead to incomplete combustion,
increased emissions, and engine or equipment fouling. Clean fuels produce fewer pollutants and are more
efficient.
 Stable and Safe: Good fuels should be stable under normal storage conditions and safe to handle. Fuels
that are prone to spontaneous ignition or explosive reactions are hazardous.
 Environmental Impact: Environmentally friendly fuels produce fewer harmful emissions when burned.
Fuels with lower greenhouse gas emissions and reduced air pollutants are considered more sustainable.
 Efficient Combustion: Good fuels should burn efficiently, with a high combustion efficiency and minimal
waste products, such as unburned hydrocarbons or soot.
 Cost-Effective: Good fuels should be economically viable, with a reasonable cost compared to the energy
they provide. Affordability is a crucial factor for consumers and industries.