Lecture 2

Solar Radiation and other Climate

Change Concepts
 Solar Spectrum
The solar spectrum may be divided into three
main regions:
1 Ultraviolet region (λ < 0.4 mm) ~5% of the
irradiance

2 Visible region (0.4 mm < λ < 0.7 mm) ~43% of

the irradiance

3 Near infrared) region (λ > 0.7 mm) ~52% of the

irradiance

Solar irradiance is the power per unit area (watt

per square metre, W/m2), received from the Sun in
the form of electromagnetic radiation
 Components of Radiation
Solar radiation incident on the atmosphere from the direction of the Sun is the solar extra-
terrestrial beam radiation.
Beneath the atmosphere, at the Earth’s surface, the radiation will be observable from the
direction of the Sun’s disc in the direct beam, and also from other directions as diffuse
radiation.

Note that even on a cloudless, clear day, there is always at

least 10% diffuse irradiance
Geometry of Earth and Sun

C is the center of the Earth.

The point P on the Earth’s surface is determined by its
latitude ϕ and longitude ψ ϕ is positive for points north of
the Equator, negative south of the Equator.
By international agreement, ψ is measured
positive eastwards from Greenwich (G), England.
The vertical north–south plane through P is the local
meridional plane.
E and G are the points on the Equator having the same
longitude as P and Greenwich respectively.
Geometry of Earth and Sun
cont.
 Daily Solar Insolation (H)
The daily insolation H is the total energy per
unit area received on a surface in one day
from the Sun.

Difference between insolation and

irradiance?
Daily insolation varies with latitude and
season.

Variation with season and latitude of 𝐻𝐻ℎ , the

solar energy (daily insolation) received on a
horizontal plane on a clear day.
 Geometry of a Solar Collector and Solar Beam
(a) For the collector surface
Slope β: the angle between the plane surface in question and the
horizontal. In either hemisphere: for a surface facing towards the Equator0
< β< 90°, for a surface facing away from the Equator 90°< β <180°.
Surface azimuth angle γ: projected on the horizontal plane, the angle
between the normal to the surface and the local longitude meridian. In
either hemisphere, for a surface facing due south γ = 0°; due north γ = 180°;
westwards γ= 0° to 180°; eastwards γ = 0° to -180°. For any horizontal
surface, γ= 0°.
Angle of incidence θ: angle between solar beam and surface normal.
(b) For the solar beam
(Solar) zenith angle θz: angle between the solar beam and the vertical.
Note that θz and θ are not usually in the same plane.
Solar altitude αs (= 90°- θ ): the complement to the (solar) zenith angle;
z
In general, the collector orientation is angle of solar beam to the horizontal.
facing the Equator (e.g. due north in
the southern hemisphere) with a slope Sun (solar) azimuth angle γs: projected on the horizontal plane, the angle
between the solar beam and the longitude meridian. Sign convention as γ.
approximately equal to the latitude
So, on the horizontal plane, the angle between the beam and the surface
is (γ s - γ).
 Atmospheric Transmission, Absorption and Reflection.

As the solar radiation passes through the gases and vapours of the
Earth’s atmosphere a complicated set of interactions occurs that reduces
the flux density arriving at the Earth’s surface. The interactions with molecules, atoms
and particles include:
(i) atmospheric absorption (~19%)- causing heating and subsequent re-emission of
the energy as longwave radiation;
(ii) Scattering- the wavelength-dependent change in direction, so that usually no
extra absorption occurs and the radiation continues diffusely at the same
wavelength;
(iii) Reflection (~30%), from particulates, clouds, and at the Earth’s surface, which is
independent of wavelength.
Over the long term, the amount of
incoming solar radiation absorbed
by the Earth and atmosphere is
balanced by the Earth and
atmosphere releasing the same
amount of outgoing longwave
radiation.
About half of the incoming solar
radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s
surface. This energy is transferred
to the atmosphere by warming the
air in contact with the surface
(thermals), by evapotranspiration
and by longwave radiation that is
absorbed by clouds and
greenhouse gases. The atmosphere
in turn radiates longwave energy
back to Earth as well as out to
space. The continuing shortwave solar radiation in clear, cloudless conditions
at midday has flux density reduced from 1.3 kW/m2 in space, to ∼1.0 kW/
m2 at ground level.
This maximum solar irradiance of ∼1kW/ m2 is an important parameter
to remember.
Air-Mass Ratio
The distance travelled by the direct beam through the atmosphere
depends on the angle of incidence to the atmosphere (the zenith angle)
and the height above sea level of the observer.
For the direct beam at normal incidence passing through the atmosphere at normal
pressure, a standard amount (‘mass’) of atmosphere is encountered. If the beam is at
zenith angle qz, the increased path length compared with the normal path is called the
air–mass ratio (or ‘air mass’), Symbol m.
Measuring Solar Radiation -
Pyranometer
A Pyranometer measures the global horizontal solar irradiance (GHI);
which is composed of diffuse horizontal solar irradiance (DHI) from the
sky and direct normal solar irradiance (DNI) from the sun. If shaded
from the direct sun a pyranometer measures diffuse horizontal solar
irradiance (DHI).

A Pyranometer tilted in the plane of array (POA) of solar panels

provides critical input data to the calculation of performance ratios
and efficiencies in photovoltaic energy installations.
Measuring Solar Radiation -
Pyranometer

ISO 9060:2018 defines three classifications of pyranometer by their key

performance parameters; from Class C, to Class B, to Class A

www.kippzonen.com
www.otthydromet.com
Measuring Solar Radiation -
Pyrheliometer
A Pyrheliometer is an instrument designed specifically to measure the direct beam solar
irradiance with a field of view limited to 5°, also known as DNI: Direct Normal Incidence.
This is achieved by the shape of the collimation tube, with precision apertures, and the
detector design.

The front aperture is fitted with a quartz window to protect the instrument and to act as a
filter that passes solar radiation between 200 nm and 4000 nm in wavelength.
Pyrheliometers include a rain shield and integrated alignment aids.
Measuring Solar Radiation -
Pyrheliometer
 Measuring Solar Radiation - Solarimeters

For field use (e.g. measuring irradiance on different parts of a building) there are
much cheaper instruments, often called ‘solarimeters’ (although this term is also
used for pyranometers), which are usually solar cells calibrated against a WMO-
standardized instrument.

Their absolute accuracy is typically only ~15%, owing to the spectral response of Si
cells but for comparisons their reproducibility is likely to be better than 5%.
Measuring Solar Radiation - Solarimeters
 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites
(GOES)
Measurement and sensing of environmental parameters using satellites does not always
corelate with ground measurements
A simple example is satellite measurement of ground-level insolation. The satellite can measure
separately down coming shortwave solar irradiance (insolation) from space, and upgoing
shortwave radiation. The upgoing radiation is the sum of (i) insolation reflected and scattered
upward by the atmosphere and cloud, and (ii) insolation reflected at the Earth’s surface and
transmitted up through the atmosphere
The ground-level insolation is the down going insolation on the atmosphere, less the proportion
absorbed in the atmosphere. Therefore it is not simple to calculate ground-level insolation from
satellite measurements without further measurement and modeling. Nevertheless, satellite
measurement and maps are of great importance, especially when calibrated against reliable
ground-level meteorological data.
 Green House Effect and Climate Change

The Earth’s average surface temperature of about 14°C is about 30°C more than the
temperature of the outer atmosphere.
In effect, the atmosphere acts as an infrared ‘blanket’, because certain gases and water
vapor in it absorb longwave radiation.
This infrared absorption occurs both with incoming solar radiation in daytime and with
outgoing heat radiation continuously; the total effect produces a warmer Earth’s surface
than otherwise. This increase in surface temperature
(relative to what it would be without the atmosphere) is called the Greenhouse
Effect.
Green House Effect and Climate Change –
cont’d

Without the greenhouse effect, on Earth most water would be ice, photosynthetic rates would be far less
and life would be profoundly different. The gases responsible, notably carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous
oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4), are called greenhouse gases (GHGs).
 Green House Effect and Climate Change –
cont’d
In the past 200 years especially, mankind’s industries and agricultural practices
have led to significant changes in the rates of emission of GHGs, so that
concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere have reached levels >~30%
more than those recorded in the past 500,000 years.
This is a human induced (anthropogenic - resulting from the influence of human beings on
nature) increase, and is referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Use of fossil fuels is a major cause of this effect.

 Green House Effect and Climate Change –
cont’d
Some GHGs contribute more than others to the radiative forcing of the enhanced greenhouse
effect.
The essential physics is that infrared radiation is absorbed when the electromagnetic radiation
resonates with the natural mechanical vibrations of the molecules.
The more complex are the molecules, the more the vibrational modes and the greater the
likelihood of absorption at any particular radiation frequency.
Thus 1 kg of CH4 (five atoms per molecule) added to the atmosphere has as much
greenhouse impact as 21 kg of CO2 (three atoms per molecule).
This comparison with respect to CO2 is called the Global Warming Potential (GWP); e.g. the
GWP of CO2 is (by definition) 1.000, the GWP of CH4 is 21.
Similarly the GWP of N2O is 310, while that of most hydrofluorocarbons (e.g. as used in
refrigerators) is over 1000.
 Green House Effect and Climate Change –
cont’d
The measurement of Global Warming Potential (GWP) from anthropogenic emissions is
complex because it depends on the amount of the gases already present and their lifetime in
the atmosphere. Only gases whose molecules persist in the atmosphere for decades are
considered to have a significant greenhouse effect.
For example, methane has a half-life ~12 years, CO2 ~100 years water vapor is generally not
listed as a GHG because its molecules pass in and out of the atmosphere in a relatively short
time frame (<~1year). The GWPs quoted here are those for a 25-year period, as used for the
purposes of the Kyoto Protocol

What is the Kyoto Protocol? | UNFCCC

Climate Change: Observations
The global average atmospheric concentration of CO2 increased from 280 ppm in 1800 to 380
ppm in 2005, and is still increasing (passing 396 ppm in 2013).

Measurements of gas trapped in polar ice show

unequivocally that the concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere has increased markedly
since the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century.
The ice cores show that at no other time in the past
600,000 years has the CO2 concentration exceeded
300 ppm

From about 8000 years ago through to about 200

years ago, there was a fairly steady balance in the
flows of CO2 to the atmosphere from land (plants
and animals) and sea, and vice versa, such that the
CO2 concentration in the atmosphere kept within
about 20 ppm of a mean value of about 280 ppm
Climate Change: Temperature

The evidence that links the observed

global warming to an anthropogenic
increase in GHGs, rather than to
various ‘natural’ forcings (such as solar
variability and volcanoes), is less direct
than that for the anthropogenic origin
of the increase in CO2.
Global Dimming and Brightening
The amount of solar radiation received at the Earth surface
was assumed to be stable over the years.
However, there is increasing observational evidence that this
quantity undergoes significant multi-decadal variations,
which need to be accounted for in discussions of climate
change and mitigation strategies.
Specifically, we noted a decrease of surface solar radiation
from the 1950s to the 1980s in the worldwide observational
networks ("global dimming") and a more recent recovery
("brightening"), These variations are often in accord with
anthropogenic air pollution patterns.
Global Dimming and Brightening – cont’d
Global Dimming and Brightening – cont’d
What causes global dimming?
Most likely air pollution, in the form of tiny particles produced when we burn fossil
fuels. Pollution particles block sunlight in two ways. First, they cause more water
droplets to condense in the air, forming darker clouds that block light (see
Columbia University article). Second, some airborne particles – particularly aerosols
– reflect sunlight on their own.
Global Dimming | Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (columbia.edu)

The cooling effect of global dimming has significantly slowed global warming –
ironic, more than half the warming effect of our greenhouse emissions has been
masked by the cooling effect of particle pollution."
Global Dimming and Brightening – cont’d
Global dimming has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing
evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas. Global dimming has
been attributed as the leading factor in the 1984 Ethiopian famine by reducing
heating at the tropics which drives the annual monsoon, or ‘wet season’

This switch from a "global dimming" trend to a "brightening" trend happened just
as global aerosol levels started to decline.
Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS)
Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term
storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2and may refer specifically to:
1. The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a
reservoir. When carried out deliberately, this may also be referred to as carbon
dioxide removal, which is a form of geoengineering.
2. Carbon capture and storage, where carbon dioxide is removed from flue gases
(e.g., at power stations) before being stored in underground reservoirs.
3. Natural biogeochemical cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and
reservoirs, such as by chemical weathering of rocks.
Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to
petroleum refining or from flue gases from power generation. CO2 sequestration
includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale,
artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced CO2 using subsurface
saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks.
 Carbon
Capture and
Sequestration
(CCS)
- Cont’d
 Peak Oil

Peak oil refers to the hypothetical point at which global

conventional crude oil production will hit its maximum rate, after
which production will start to decline.

“Conventional” oil sources are easily accessible deposits

produced by traditional onshore and offshore wells, from
which oil is removed via natural pressure, mechanical
walking beam pumps, or well-known secondary
measures such as injecting water or gas into the well in
order to force oil to the surface. The peak oil theory does
not apply to so-called unconventional oil sources, which
include oil sands, oil shales, oil extracted after fracking
“tight rock” formations, and oil found in deepwater wells
far offshore—in short, any deposit of oil that requires
substantial investment and labour to exploit
BP Energy Outlook 2020