Solar energy fundamentals

Dr.S.SURESH
NIT
Renewable Energy Sources
Alternate Energy Sources
or
Sustainable Energy Sources
or
New Energy
or
Non conventional Energy Sources
or
Nontraditional Energy Sources
Or
Clean energy
1.Why this new energy sources?

2.What are the Types of renewable energy sources?

 The Energy Emergency!
Seem to be running out of the cheap sources of
energy.
No solution is immediately apparent.
The date of the oil peak is widely debated in
geological circles around the world.
Need to refocus our attention to the more practical
question of ‘What next?’ rather than debating
‘When?’
 Why Energy and Infrastructure?
Energy and Infrastructure are essential for economic development
These are man made long-life assets .
Investment is crucial to support a higher level of industrial growth.
Economic growth in India demands energy and development of its
infrastructure .
Huge investments are planned for these sectors.
 STRUCTURE OF THE SUN

T= 5,777 k

Energy production: By Fusion : H atoms combine to form Helium

Effective Black Body Temperature (as seen from earth) = 5,777 K
Diameter – 1.39 x10^9 m ; Average distance between the sun and the earth =
1.15 x 10^11 m Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09
 Solar Radiation
 The sun is a gaseous body composed mostly of hydrogen .
 Gravity causes intense pressure and heat at the core
initiating nuclear fusing reactions
 This means that atoms of lighter elements are combined
into atoms of heavier elements, which releases enormous
quantities of energy
 Even when planet Earth is 93 million miles away, we still
received an amazing quantity of usable energy from the sun.
 Considering 25% efficient PV modules, if we used 1% of
the surface of the earth we could meet 29 times our current
total energy demand.
Solar Radiation

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

 Solar Radiation
• Solar Spectrum most the energy
received from the sun is
electromagnetic radiation in the form of
waves.

• Electromagnetic Spectrum is the

range of all types of electromagnetic
radiation, based on wavelength.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all types of
electromagnetic radiation, which vary with wavelength.

Almost all of the energy received from the sun is electromagnetic

radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation is radiation in the form of waves with

electric and magnetic properties.

 The waves vary in length depending on the source and energy level.

The wavelength determines the properties of the radiation.

 Extremely short wavelength (trillionths of a meter)
radiation takes the form of gamma rays, which is high-
energy radiation produced by sub-atomic reactions.
 Extremely long wavelength (millions of meters)
radiation takes the form of radio waves, which are
useful for transmitting data over long distances.
 In between are X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible
light, and infrared radiation.
 Solar radiation includes more types of energy than just
visible light.
 A similar spectrum of solar energy reaching Earth’s
surface is studied to determine how atmospheric effects
have reduced the energy levels of certain wavelengths.
•Solar radiation entering Earth’s atmosphere consists of direct,
diffuse

Solar radiation is absorbed, scattered,

and reflected by components of the
atmosphere, including ozone, carbon
dioxide, and water vapor, as well as
other gases and particles.

Cloud cover and local conditions such

as dust storms, air pollution, and
volcanic eruptions can also greatly
reduce the amount of radiation
reaching the surface of Earth.
 Solar Radiation
Air Mass represents how much atmosphere the solar radiation
has to pass through before reaching the Earth’s surface.
 We are specifically concerned with terrestrial solar radiation –
that is, the solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth.
 At high altitudes or in a very clear days, Peak Sun may be
more than 1000 W/m^2 but it is a practical value for most
locations.
 Definitions
Beam radiation (Direct): Solar radiation propagating
along the line joining the sun and the receiving
surface.
Diffused radiation: Radiation scattered by dust,
aerosols, molecules etc. No preferred direction
Total radiation =Beam + Diffused

Irradiance (W/m2): The rate at which the radiant

energy is incident on a unit area of the surface
( incident radiant flux). Denoted by G.

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

Emissive power: The rate at which the energy leaves a
surface through emission.
 Solar Constant

• The solar constant (ISC) can be defined as the rate at

which energy is received from the sun on a unit area
perpendicular to the Sun’s rays of the sun and located
outside the atmosphere , per unit of time and per unit
of area at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.
• ISC = (1353 W/m^2)
•Solar irradiance is solar power per unit area

Solar irradiance is the power of

solar radiation per unit area.
Solar irradiance is commonly
expressed in units of watts per square
meter (W/m2) or kilowatts per square
meter (kW/m2).
Irradiance is measured with respect
to area as if the solar radiation is
striking an imaginary unit surface.
 Insolation
 Another term for solar radiation energy is insolation.
 Insolation is the solar irradiation received over a
period of time, typically one day. It is typically
expressed as kWh/m2/day or equivalent peak sun
hours.
 Insolation is usually used to rate the solar energy
potential of a location by calculating the average
energy received on a surface per day.
Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship
• The amount and intensity of solar radiation reaching the
Earth’s surface depends on the geometric relationship of the
Earth with respect to the Sun.
Any location on Earth is described by two angles,
latitude (φ) and longitude (λ).
The latitude corresponds to the elevation angle between
a hypothetical line from the center of Earth to any point on
the surface and its projection on the equator plane.
Latitude values fall between 90° < φ < –90°;
latitude is zero at the equator, 90° at the northern pole,
and –90° at the southern pole.
As for the longitude angle, imaginary lines extended
from pole to pole are called meridians; these lines are at
constant longitude.
For each meridian crossing the equator’s circle, there is
an angle assigned.
Longitudes are measured from 0 to 180° east of the
Prime Meridian and 180° west (or –180°).
 Earth coordinate system
North Pole
φ = 90º

Equator φ = 0º

Lines of constant
latitude Lines of constant
longitude
 Two major motions of Earth affect the apparent
path of the sun across the sky:
1. Its yearly revolution around the sun.
2. Its daily rotation about its axis.
These motions are the basis for solar timescale and the reason
why we have seasons, days and nights
 Ecliptic Plane is the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun.
 Equatorial Plane is the plane containing Earth’s equator and
extending outward into space.
Solar Radiation
 Solar Radiation
 Solar Declination is the angle between the equatorial plane and
the ecliptic plane.
 The solar declination angle varies with the season of the year,
and ranges between –23.5º and +23.5º
 Declination
The declination is the angle between the earth-sun line (through
their centers) and the plane through the equator. Its value is given
by
 284  n 
  23.45 sin  2 
 365 
where n is the day of the year ( n=1 for January 1 ).

δ varies from +23.450 to -23.450

Declinations are positive in the northern hemisphere and negative in
the southern hemisphere.

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

DERIVED SOLAR ANGLES

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

Slope (β)
The angle between the plane of the surface and the
horizontal, also called the tilt angle; 0º ≤ β ≤ 180º .
Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09
Zenith Angle, θz
The angle between the beam radiation and the vertical;

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

Angle of Incidence
Surface Azimuth Angle, γ
The deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of
the normal to the surface from due south, east is negative
and west is positive; -180º ≤ γ ≤ 180º
Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09
Solar Azimuth Angle, γs
The angle between south and the projection of the beam
radiation on a horizontal plane, east is negative and west
is positive.
Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09
Solar Altitude Angle
Angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun (or the
sun’s rays), the complement of the zenith angle.
Solar Altitude Angle is the vertical angle between the sun
and the horizon –added to the Zenith angle is equal to 90º.
Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09
 Solar hour angle
Solar hour angle is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the
local meridian: morning negative, afternoon positive.

This angle is zero at solar noon and varies by 150 per hour from solar noon.

The solar angle ω is given by the equation

s  (150 h 1 )  (hours  from  local  solar  noon)

When the sun is due north ( southern hemisphere) ,the hour angle is zero

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

Different Angles
 The equation of time is the difference between
apparent solar time and mean solar time, both taken
at a given place (or at another place with the same
geographical longitude) at the same real instant of
time.
Apparent (or true) solar time can be obtained for
example by measurement of the current position (
hour angle) of the Sun.
 Solar Time

 Solar time is based on the mean solar day, but

the time that Sun reaches its highest point
each day (around noon) varies through out
the year.
 The difference between noon at Greenwich
and when the sun is at its highest point (or
highest elevation angle) is call the Equation of
Time.
 Solar Time
The relation between the local solar time and local standard
time (LST) is given by
Solar Time = LST+ET +(Ist – Ilocal) x 4 min / deg
where Ist is the standard time meridian and Ilocal is the local
longitude. The equation of time (ET) is given by
ET (minutes) = 9.87sin 2B-7.53 cos B -1.5 sin B
where
360(n  81)
B
3640

At local solar noon

ωs= 0 , Θs = 900- ( ψ-δ) and Φs =0
Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09
•The Equation of Time adjusts for variations in Earth’s orbit and
rotation that affect solar time.

Another difference between standard and solar time is

caused by small eccentricities in Earth’s rotation and orbit
around the sun.
The Equation of Time is the difference between solar time
and standard time at a standard meridian.
This difference varies over the course of a year and can be
as much as +16 min or –14 min.
The Equation of Time is computed from a formula or
determined by looking up the date in a table or on a graph.
 Sunrise and Sunset Times
At sunrise or sunset, the sun elevation angle Θs is zero. The
local solar time for sunrise/sunset is computed with


 cos 1   tan  tan   
Sunrise / Sunset  12.00noon 


 15 deg/ hour  

For the tip of the sun at the horizon (apparent sunrise/sunset) subtract/add 4
minutes )

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

 Length of the day

The number of hours between the sunrise and the sunset are given by the
equation

N 2  15 cos 1
( tan tan  )
where Ψ is the latitude and δ is the declination of the place.

Variation of solar energy received with season and latitude Annual day length variation at different latitudes
Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09
 Daily Insolation
The daily insolation H is the total Solar Energy per unit
area received in one day

t  24 h
H  Gdt
t 0 h

Units: J m-2 day-1

or
kWh m-2 day-1

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

 Hourly Variation of irradiance
On clear days , the irradiance varies as

 t '

Gh  Gh sin  
max

N
Where t’ is the time after sunrise and N is the
duration of daylight for that particular day.
Integrating above eq. over the daylight period we
get for insolation
 2 N  max
Hh   Gh
  
Where Hh is the total energy received on that particular day.

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

Extraterrestrial radiation and clearness
index
Daily extraterrestrial (outside the atmosphere) radiation on a horizontal
surface is given by
86400Gsc   n 
1  0.033 cos 2  (cos cos  sin s   s sin  sin  )
   365  
where Gsc is the solar constant ( 1,366 W/m2).
This radiation is affected by the earth’s atmosphere and the clouds .

We define Clearness Index KT as the ratio of the solar radiation arriving at

the earth’s surface to extraterrestrial radiation
The monthly average clearness index is the ratio of monthly average daily
solar radiation at the surface to the monthly average daily extraterrestrial
radiation. KT varies from place to place – from about 0.3 for very overcast
climates to 0.8 for very sunny places.

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

•Standard time organizes regions into time zones, where every
location in a time zone shares the same clock time.

Standard time is a timescale based on the apparent motion of the sun

crossing standard meridians.

A standard meridian is a meridian located at a multiple of 15° east or

west of zero longitude.

Zero longitude passes through Greenwich, England and is referred to

as the Prime Meridian.

Since Earth rotates 360° in approximately 24 hours, each 15° of

longitude is equal to one hour of solar time.

All standard time zones are at one hour multiples ahead of or behind
the time at the Prime Meridian, also referred to as Universal Time
Coordinated (abbreviated UTC).
•The Equation of Time adjusts for variations in Earth’s orbit and
rotation that affect solar time.
Another difference between standard and solar time is
caused by small eccentricities in Earth’s rotation and orbit
around the sun.
The Equation of Time is the difference between solar time
and standard time at a standard meridian.
This difference varies over the course of a year and can be
as much as +16 min or –14 min.
The Equation of Time is computed from a formula or
determined by looking up the date in a table or on a graph.
 Azimuth angle
The solar azimuthal angle is given by

sin  cos 
sin  s 
cos  s

Where
Θs is the solar elevation angle
ωs is hour angle at present time
δ is the declination

sin  s  cos  cos  cos  sin  sin

Solar elevation angle Θs is given by

sin  s  cos s cos  cos  sin  sin

Where Ψ is the latitude

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09

 •Solar azimuth and altitude angles are used to describe
the sun’s location in the sky.

Two angles are used to define the sun’s position, relative to an observer on Earth.

The solar altitude angle is the vertical angle between the sun and the horizon.

During daytime, this angle varies between zero and 90° and complements the zenith
angle (the two added together always equal 90°).
The solar azimuth angle is the horizontal angle between a reference direction (typically
due south in the Northern Hemisphere) and the sun.

This angle varies between –180° and +180°.

Sun position to the east of due south is generally represented as a positive azimuth
angle, and to the west as a negative azimuth angle.
•The solar window is the area of sky containing all possible
locations of the sun throughout the year for a particular location.
•Energy production at certain times of the year can be optimized by
adjusting the array tilt angle.
Solar radiation at a tilted surface

The amount of solar

radiation
falling on the tilted
surface is the SModule

β= Tilt angle, α= Sun angle

Shorizontal= Radiation at a horizontal
surface Where α = 90- ψ+ δ

Dr.S.Suresh, NITT. 27-09-09 Angles

Solar Radiation
•Air mass is a representation of the amount of atmosphere radiation
that must pass through to reach Earth’s surface
The amount of solar radiation that is absorbed or
scattered in the atmosphere depends on how
much atmosphere it passes through before
reaching Earth’s surface.

When the sun is at zenith, the amount of

atmosphere that the sun’s rays have to pass
through to reach Earth’s surface is at a minimum.

Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a

particular location.
The zenith angle is the angle between the sun
and the zenith.
As the zenith angle increases (the sun
approaches the horizon), the sun’s rays must
pass through a greater amount of atmosphere to
reach Earth’s surface.

This reduces the quantity of solar radiation, and

also changes its wavelength composition.
 Solar Radiation
• Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a particular location –as the
Zenith angle Өz increases, the sun approaches the horizon. AM = 1/
Cos Өz
•
•Solar irradiance is solar power
per unit area.

Solar irradiance varies slightly as the sun goes

through normal cycles of maximum and minimum
activity. However, distance from the sun has a
much greater effect.

The inverse square law is a physical law that states

that the amount of radiation is proportional to the
inverse of the square of the distance from the
source.
This means that at twice the distance of Earth to
the sun, solar radiation is only one-fourth the
amount on Earth.
Likewise, moving three times the distance away
from a light source decreases the intensity by a
factor of nine.
•Even over the vast distance, an enormous amount of energy reaches
Earth from the sun.
•An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth
and the sun (93 million mi) and is used as a measuring unit for other
distances in the solar system.
•Traveling at the speed of light (186,000 mi/s), radiation from the sun
takes more than 8 min to reach Earth’s surface.
• Earth receives approximately 170 million GW of power from the
sun, which is a relatively tiny fraction of the sun’s total output, but is
millions of times greater than the maximum power demand of
Earth’s entire population.
 •Solar irradiation equals the total solar irradiance over
time.

At the surface of Earth, the

magnitude of solar irradiance
changes throughout the day.
It begins at zero during nighttime,
increases as the sun rises, peaks
around noon, and decreases as the
sun sets.
In a plot of solar irradiance versus
time, solar irradiation equals the
area under the irradiance curve.
• The two major types of radiation reaching the
ground are direct radiation and diffuse
radiation.
• Total global radiation is all of the solar radiation
reaching Earth’s surface and is the sum of
direct and diffuse radiation.
 •Peak sun hours is an equivalent measure of total solar irradiation in a
day.

Peak sun hours is the number of hours required

for a day’s total solar irradiation to accumulate at
peak sun condition.
An average day may have only one or two actual
hours at peak sun condition, but the total
irradiation for a day may be expressed in units of
peak sun hours by dividing by 1000 W/m2 (peak
sun irradiance).
For example, a day with an average irradiance of
600 W/m2 over 8 hr may only reach peak sun
condition for an hour or less around noon.

However, the total irradiation of 4800 Wh/m2 (600

W/m2 × 8 hr = 4800 Wh/m2) is equivalent to 4.8
peak sun hours

(4800 Wh/m2 ÷ 1000 W/m2 = 4.8 peak sun hr).

•Peak sun hours is an equivalent measure of total solar irradiation in a
day.

Peak sun hours is the number of hours required

for a day’s total solar irradiation to accumulate at
peak sun condition.

An average day may have only one or two actual

hours at peak sun condition, but the total
irradiation for a day may be expressed in units of
peak sun hours by dividing by 1000 W/m2 (peak
sun irradiance).

For example, a day with an average irradiance of

600 W/m2 over 8 hr may only reach peak sun
condition for an hour or less around noon.

However, the total irradiation of 4800 Wh/m2

(600 W/m2 × 8 hr = 4800 Wh/m2) is equivalent to
4.8 peak sun hours (4800 Wh/m2 ÷ 1000 W/m2 =
4.8 peak sun hr).
 •The atmosphere absorbs extraterrestrial radiation at certain
wavelengths, resulting in an altered spectral distribution for
terrestrial radiation.
Besides its total power, terrestrial solar radiation
also differs from extraterrestrial solar radiation in
its spectral distribution, mainly due to the
absorption of radiation at certain wavelengths by
specific gases in the atmosphere.

One of the key atmospheric gases, ozone, plays

an important role in blocking harmful ultraviolet
radiation from reaching Earth’s surface.

Other constituents, such as water vapor and

carbon dioxide, also absorb solar radiation,
principally in the infrared portions of the
spectrum.
 •A pyranometer measures total global solar irradiance from
the whole sky.
Solar irradiance is typically measured with a
pyranometer.
A pyranometer is a sensor that measures the
total global solar irradiance in a hemispherical
field of view.
Since pyranometers measure both direct and
diffuse radiation in a whole-sky view, they are
often used to monitor the solar radiation incident
on flat-plate type arrays.

These sensors are mounted adjacent to arrays,

in the same plane (facing the same direction) as
the arrays.

Solar irradiance values sampled at regular

intervals and stored by data acquisition
equipment can be used to determine the total
solar irradiation for the specific surface
orientation and site conditions.
 •Diffuse solar irradiance can be measured by adding a shadowing device
to a pyranometer, which blocks the direct component of total irradiance.
Diffuse global radiation can be measured by
shading a pyranometer, which measures both
direct and diffuse radiation, from the direct
radiation component.
A shadow band pyranometer uses a metal strip
in the shape of an arc to shield the pyranometer
from direct radiation.
To account for changing sun paths, this device
must be adjusted daily, either manually or
automatically.
Other shadowing devices may use a disk that
follows the sun to shadow the pyranometer at all
times of the day.
The direct radiation measurement is calculated
by subtracting the diffuse measurement from
the global measurement.
•Handheld pyranometers use less precise sensors than precision
pyranometers but are more suitable for field measurements.

Precision pyranometers use thermopile

sensors (thermocouple arrays that output a
voltage proportional to irradiance) and offer the
most accurate and consistent response across a
range of wavelengths.

Pyranometers that use silicon solar cell or

photodiode detectors are less precise, but are
also less expensive and offer the durability
required for most field measurements.

Some are even small handheld meters with an

easy-to-use digital readout of total solar
irradiance.
•A pyrheliometer measures the direct component of solar irradiance,
which is important when installing concentrating collectors.

Direct solar radiation is measured with a pyrheliometer.

A pyrheliometer is a sensor that measures only direct

solar radiation in the field of view of the solar disk (5.7°).

It does not measure the diffuse radiation component.

Because pyrheliometers only measure the direct

radiation component, they must be pointed directly at the
sun and installed on sun-tracking devices to take
measurements of direct radiation over the course of the
day.

Most precision pyrheliometers use thermopile sensors.

 •Reference cells output a certain electrical current for each
unit of solar irradiance received.
A reference cell is an encapsulated PV cell that outputs a
known amount of electrical current per unit of solar
irradiance.
Since current output from a PV device varies linearly with
the incident solar irradiance, the output current can be
used to indirectly measure irradiance.
The calibration number is the conversion factor that
changes a reference cell’s current into solar irradiance
with respect to a certain air mass value.

Calibration numbers are usually expressed as

milliamperes per kilowatt per unit area (mA/kW/m2) or
amperes per kilowatt per unit area (A/kW/m2), both at
AM1.5.

The cell is usually encapsulated in an aluminum block

with an optical glass cover, and often includes a
thermocouple (temperature sensor) attached to the back
of the cell to measure and correct the output for
temperature variations.
 Solar Radiation
• Example problem of Peak sun hours per day:
If during the day we have 4 hours at 500 Wh/m^2 and 6 hours at 250 Wh/m^2 we should
compute the peak sun hours per day as follow:
First, multiply 4hs x 500 W/m^2 and add to it 6hs x 250 W/m^2 – This will equal 3500 Wh/m^2
Second, we know that by definition Peak Sun is 1000 W/m^2, so if we divide the total irradiation
for the day by Peak Sun we will obtain Peak Sun hours. – That is,
Peak Sun Hours = Total Irradiation [Wh/m^2] / Peak Sun [W/m^2] = Peak Sun hours
In our specific problem:
Peak Sun Hours = 3500 Wh/m^2 / 1000 W/m^2 = 3.5 Peak Sun hours

• Note: most solar irradiation data is presented in Peak Sun Hours units
•The equatorial plane is tipped 23.5° from the ecliptic plane. As Earth
revolves around the sun, this orientation produces a varying solar
declination.
Solar declination is the angle between the equatorial plane
and the rays of the sun.

The angle of solar declination changes continuously as Earth

orbits the sun, ranging from –23.5° to +23.5° (positive when
the

Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun).

The angle between the ecliptic and equatorial planes does

not change, but as viewed from the sun at different times of
the year, the equatorial plane appears to change in
orientation.
It appears to dip below the ecliptic plane (summer in the
Northern Hemisphere), become edge-on (fall), tip above the
ecliptic (winter), and return to edge-on (spring).
 •An analemma shows how sun position, at the same time of
day, changes throughout the year.

At any given location on Earth, the sun’s

apparent position in the sky depends on
the latitude, the time of day, and the time
of year.

The position of the sun, as observed

from the same location and at the same
time of day for a year forms a figure
eight.

An analemma is a diagram of solar

declination against the Equation of Time.
•The National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL)
provides solar radiation data
for various locations, times of
the year, and south-facing
array orientations.
•NREL’s HOMER software is
used to optimize the cost
effectiveness of systems with
multiple distributed-
generation sources
 Low Temp Solar Thermal
• Residential Water Heating: used for
consumption, cooking, bathing, recreation
(hot tub, swimming pool), space heating and
cooling (radiant floor systems, ducted
systems), etc.
• These systems collect or absorb the sun’s
light, which is then turned into heat, and that
heat directly or indirectly heats water.
Low Temp Solar Thermal System
 Flat Plate Collector
• The flat plate collector is the most common
type of solar thermal collector.
• They use the basic concept Horace de
Saussurre developed in 1767.
• Flat plate collectors do well in almost any
environment and climate.
• Can heat water to 160 or 180 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Evacuated Tube Collectors
Evacuated Tube Collectors
Evacuated Tube System
 Evacuated Tube System
• The vacuum in evacuated tubes helps reduce
heat loss.
• Evacuated tubes have an ability to heat water
to higher temperatures than other types of
collectors, though over time a flat plate
collector will typically produce more hot
water between 140 and 180 degrees F.
• Evacuated tubes are only needed when water
must be heated above 180 degrees F.
Batch Heater
 Batch Heater
• Batch heaters work on the thermo-siphon
principle. As water is heated in the collector it
rises to the top and is channeled into the
holding tank. Cooler water moves into the
bottom of the collector to take its place, which
continues the cycle.
• Batch heaters can be susceptible to heat loss
at night, reducing financial and energy gains.
 Unglazed Collectors
• Unglazed collectors are commonly used for solar
pool heating, but have recently been applied to
domestic hot water systems.
• They are made of a polymer (a type of plastic)
and are fairly inexpensive.
• They work best in Mediterranean climates and
contribute heated water in the warm/hot
summer months.
• They don’t do well in cold or windy
environments.
Unglazed Collector
Unglazed Collector
 Solar Pool Heating
• Solar pool heating can be done with flat plate
collectors, evacuated tubes, and unglazed
collectors.
• Evacuated tube and flat plate collectors can’t
have chlorine in them, so a heat exchanger must
be used.
• Chlorinated water can run directly through
unglazed collectors, making them more efficient
at heating water in specific temperature ranges.
 Characteristics of the moon

• Spherical; made of rock

• Has no atmosphere, no water, and no living things
• Drastic temperature changes
• Earth’s natural satellite
 Moon and its effects

• One- fourth of the Earth’s diameter

• revolves around the earth every 29 1/2 days
• the gravity of the moon controls the tides (trans.)
 Questions
• What are three
characteristics of the moon?
 Types of tides

• Spring tides- gravity of the sun and moon work together

(tide is high)
• Neap tides- gravity of the sun and moon PULL against
each other (tide is low)
 Questions
• What is the difference
between a spring tide and a
neap tide?
 Eclipses

• Solar eclipse- sunlight is blocked by the moon

• lunar eclipse- Earth is between the sun and moon
• moon is visible because of reflected sunlight
 Questions

• Why do we see the moon at

certain times of the
month?
• How are solar eclipses
different from lunar
eclipses?