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SOLAR RADIATION AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Solar radiation entering earth’s atmosphere becomes direct, diffuse or albedo radiation.

1. 1 GLOBAL RADIATION

Diffuse radiation + direct radiation =global radiation

Measurements indicate that the energy flux received from the sun outside the earth’s
atmosphere is essentially constant.

The solar constant Isc is the rate at which energy is received from the sun on a unit area
perpendicular to the rays of the sun, at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The
value of the solar constant has been the subject of many experimental investigations. Based
on measurements a value of 1367W/m2 has been recommended.

1.2 SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT

Difficulty in the measurement of solar energy at a location

Extensive studies have been made on the mechanisms of absorption and scattering and on
the determination of attenuation coefficients for various substances. Nevertheless, it is in
general not possible to predict to a reasonable degree of accuracy, the variation with time
of the beam and diffuse radiation which might be expected at a specified location on the
earth’s surface. Thus the designer of solar process equipment has to resort to one of the
following options:
1. Make measurements over a period of time at the location in question where the
solar equipment is to be installed.
2. Use measurements available for some other location where the climate is known to
be reasonably similar to the location under consideration.
3. Use empirical predictive equations which link the values of solar radiation with
other meteorological parameters whose values are known for the location under
consideration. Examples of such parameters are the number of hours of sunshine
received per day, the precipitation, the cloud cover, etc.

1.2.1 PYRANOMETER
It is an instrument which measures either global or diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal
surface over a hemispherical field of view.

The Pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by
mounting it at the centre of a semicircular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such
a way that its plane is parallel to the plane of the path of the sun’s daily movements across
the sky and it shades the thermopile element and the two glass domes of the Pyranometer
at all times from direct sunshine. Consequently, the Pyranometer measures only the diffuse
radiation received from the sky.

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1.2.2 PYRHELIOMETER
A pyrheliometer measures the direct component of solar irradiance, which is important
when installing concentrating collectors.

1.2.3 SUNSHINE RECORDER

It is an instrument to measure the duration of bright sunshine in a day.

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The sun’s rays are focused by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip held in a groove in a
spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is bright sunshine,
the image formed is intense enough to burn a spot on the card strip. Throughout the day as
the sun moves across the sky, the image moves along the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose
length is proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.

1.3 VARIOUS SOLAR ANGLES

• Zenith angle z
• Solar altitude angle a
• Declination angle 
• Latitude angle 
• Angle of incidence 
• Surface azimuth angle 
• Solar azimuth angle s
• Slope or tilt angle 

Zenith
Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a particular location – as the Zenith angle
z increases, the sun approaches the horizon. Zenith angle z is the angle made by the sun’s
rays with the normal to a horizontal surface

Air Mass
Air Mass represents how much atmosphere the solar radiation has to pass through before
reaching the Earth’s surface. It is the ratio of the mas of the atmosphere through which the
beam radiation passes to the mass it would pass through if the sun is directly overhead (at
its zenith). Air Mass (AM) equals 1.0 when the sun is directly overhead at sea level.
AM = 1/ Cos Өz

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Two major motions of Earth affect the apparent path of the sun across the sky:
1. Its yearly revolution around the sun
2. Its daily rotation about its axis
These motions are the basis for solar timescale and the reason why we have seasons,
days and nights
Ecliptic Plane is the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun
Equatorial Plane is the plane containing Earth’s equator and extending outward into space

Declination

Angle of Incidence

Cos  = sin (sin cos + cos cos cos sin)

+ cos ( cos cos cos - sin cos sin)
+ cos sin sin sin

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1.4 Local Apparent Time

The time used for calculating the hour angle  is the local apparent time. This can be
obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying two corrections. The first
arises because of the difference between the longitude of a location and the meridian on
which the standard time is based. The correction has a magnitude of 4 minutes for every
degree difference in longitude. The second correction called the equation of time correction
is due to the fact that the earth’s orbit and rate of rotation are subject to small variations.
This correction is based on experimental observations and is plotted in figure below.

Local apparent time = Standard time

± 4(Standard time longitude- longitude of location)
+ Equation of correction

The negative sign in the first correction is applicable for the eastern hemisphere, while the
positive sign is applicable for the western hemisphere.

1.5 DAY LENGTH

Day length, or length of day, or length of daytime, refers to the time each day from the
moment the upper limb of the sun's disc appears above the horizon during sunrise to the
moment when the upper limb disappears below the horizon during sunset. Due to the
diffusion and refraction of sunlight by the atmosphere, there is actually daylight even when
the sun is slightly below the horizon. The period when it is still somewhat light even though
the sun is below the horizon is called twilight.

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Horizontal Surface (β = 0)

The Hour Angle s (Obtained by substituting z = 90 in the above equation)

The above equation yields a positive and a negative value for s the positive value
corresponding to sunrise and the negative to sunset. Since 15° of the hour angle is
equivalent to 1 hour, the corresponding day length (in hours)

where s is in degrees.

1.6 SPECIAL CASES

Vertical Surfaces = 90

Cos  = sin cos cos cos - cos sin cos+ cos sin sin

Horizontal Surfaces =0

Cos  = sin sin + cos cos cos

Inclined Surface facing due south  = 0

Cos  = sin (sin cos + cos cos sin)
+ cos ( cos cos cos - sin sin)
= sin sin(-) + cos cos cos(-)
Vertical surface facing due south =90,  = 0
Cos = sin cos cos - cos sin

Inclined surface facing due north  = 180

Cos = sin sin(+) + cos cos cos(+)

The angle of incidence  can also be expressed in terms of Z the zenith angle, β the slope,
 the surface azimuth angle and S the solar azimuth angle.

The solar azimuth angle S is the angle made in the horizontal plane between the horizontal
line due south and the projection of the line of sight of the sun on the horizontal plane.
Thus it gives the direction of the shadow cast in the horizontal plane by a vertical rod. By
convention, the solar azimuth angle is taken to be positive if the projection of the line of
sight is east of south and negative if west of south.

The hour angle  is an angular measure of time and is equivalent to 15° per hour. It also
varies from -180° to +180°. We adopt the convention of measuring it from noon based on
local apparent time (LAT), being positive in the morning and negative in the afternoon.

Inclined Surface Facing Due South

The hour angle at sunrise or sunset as seen by an observer on an inclined surface facing
south ( = 0°) will also be given by

if the day under consideration lies between September 22 and March 21, and the location
is in the northern hemisphere. This is because during this period, the declination is negative
and the apparent plane of motion of the sun intersects the horizontal plane in an E-W line
which lies to the south of the E-W line passing through an observer on the inclined plane.
However, if the day under consideration lies between March 21 and September 22, the hour

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angle at sunrise or sunset (s)would be smaller in magnitude than the value given by above
equation and would be obtained by substituting = 90° in Cos equation. This yields

Thus the magnitude of st for an inclined surface facing south (= 0°) is given by

Inclined Surface Facing Due North

Proceeding in the same manner as for Inclined Surface Facing Due South it can be shown
that

In general for a plane surface not symmetrically oriented, hour angles at sunrise and sunset
would be unequal in magnitude apart from having opposite signs. The general procedure
would be to calculate st by substituting  = 90. Depending upon the day of the year and
the orientation of the surface, proper judgment would need to be exercised in selecting the
correct values from the solutions thus obtained.

1.7 Average Global Radiation equations

1.7.1 Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation

The first attempt at estimating solar radiation was due to Angstrom who suggested that it
could be related to the amount of sunshine by a simple linear relation the form

Because of difficulties in deciding what constitutes a clear day, Page suggested 𝐻 ̅ c in above
equation be replaced by 𝐻 ̅ o the monthly average of the daily extraterrestrial radiation which
would fall on a horizontal surface at the location under consideration.

Values of a and b have been obtained by regression analysis of measured values of global
solar radiation and sunshine duration of many cities in the world.

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1.7.2 Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation

1.7.3 Monthly Average Hourly Global Radiation

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1.7.4 Monthly Average Hourly Diffuse Radiation

1.7 Numerical:

1. Determine the local solar time at a location latitude 23 15’ N, longitude 77 30’ E at
12:30 IST on June 19. Equation of time correction is given from standard table or chart =
-( 1’ 01’’)

2. Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat collector on
December 1 at 9:00am solar time for a location at 28 35’ N. The collector is tilted at an
angle of latitude plus 10 with the horizontal and is pointing due south.

3. Calculate the hour angle at sunrise and sunset on June 21 and December 21 for a surface
inclined at an angle of 10 and facing due South ( =0). The surface is located in Mumbai
(1907’N, 7251’E).

EMPERICAL EQUATIONS FOR PREDICTING THE

AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR RADIATION

𝐼𝑠𝑐 is Solar constant equal to 1367 W/m2.

n is the day number
∅ is the latitude
Theta

cos 𝜃 = sin ∅ (sin 𝛿 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝛾 cos 𝜔 sin 𝛽)

+ cos ∅ (cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛿 cos 𝛾 sin 𝛽) + cos 𝛿 sin 𝛾 sin 𝜔 sin 𝛽

 Declination angle
360
𝛿 = 23.45 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( (284 + 𝑛))
365
ωs = Sun rise/sunset angle
𝜔𝑠 = cos−1 (− 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝋 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜹)

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Day length
𝜔 cos−1 (− 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝋 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜹)
Maximum day length 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 15𝑠 = 2 ∗ 15
LAT
LAT = Standard time ± 4(Standard time longitude − longitude of location)
+ (Equation of time correction)

The distance between the sun and earth varies a little through the year. Because of this
extra-terrestrial flux also varies. The value on any day can be calculated from the
equation
360𝑛
𝐼′𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
365
If θ is the angle between the incident flux Ibn and normal to the plane surface then
equivalent flux falling normal to the surface is given by Ibn cos θ.

Equation of θ for the horizontal surface

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎

The hour angle correspond to the sunrise and sunset is denoted by ωs

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒔 = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝋 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜹

Monthly average of hourly extra-terrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface

360𝑛
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ (sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔)
365

Monthly average of daily extra-terrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface

Ho is obtained by integrating over the day length

360𝑛
𝐻0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ ∫(sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔)𝑑𝑡
365
𝜔 180 180
𝑡 = 15 ∗ 𝜋 therefore 𝑑𝑡 = 15𝜋 𝑑𝜔
+𝜔𝑠
12 360𝑛
𝐻0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ ∫ (sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔)𝑑𝜔
𝜋 365 −𝜔𝑠
24 360𝑛
𝐻0 = 𝐼 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ (𝜔𝑠 sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑠 )
𝜋 𝑠𝑐 365

Monthly average daily global radiation

̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 𝑆̅
=𝑎+𝑏 ( )
̅̅̅𝑐
𝐻 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
̅̅̅
𝐻𝑐 is replaced by 𝐻𝑜
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 𝑆̅
=𝑎+𝑏 ( )
̅̅
𝐻̅̅0 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥

a, b obtained by fitting data at a particular location ( Given )

𝑆̅ Monthly average sunshine hour per day at that location (Given).

Monthly average daily diffuse radiation

̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔
= 1.416 − 1.696 ( )
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅𝐻̅̅0̅

Monthly Average Hourly Global Radiation

𝐼̅𝑔 𝐼̅0
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝜔)
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅̅
𝐻̅0̅

Monthly Average Hourly Diffuse Radiation

𝐼̅𝑑 𝐼̅0
=
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 ̅𝐻̅̅0̅

Note : 𝐼𝑠𝑐 is in W/m2 to convert to kJ/m2 multiply equation with 3600s

Numerical_1
With predicted equation calculate the monthly average hourly global and diffuse
radiation

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Given : Month April -15

New Delhi ( 28035’,77º.12’) ; a = 0.25 and b= 0.57
Time 9:00 to 10:00 Hour
The average number of sunshine hour per day is 8.6 Hour.

Daily Radiation:
n = 105
360
𝛿 = 23.45 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (365 (284 + 105)) = 9.42º

𝜔𝑠 = cos−1 (− 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟖 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟗. 𝟒𝟐) = 95.18º = 1.66 Radian

𝜔
Maximum day length : 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 15𝑠 = 2𝑋95.18/15 = 12.69 hour.
24 360𝑛
𝐻0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ (𝜔𝑠 sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑠 )
𝜋 365

24 360 ∗ 105
𝐻0 = ∗ 1.367 ∗ (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
𝜋 365
∗ (1.661 ∗ sin 28.58 sin 9.42 + cos 28.58 cos 9.42 sin 95.18)

24
𝐻0 =
∗ 1.367 ∗ (0.9925) ∗ (0.941)
𝜋
24
𝐻0 = ∗ 1.367 ∗ (0.933)
𝜋
24 30.47
𝐻0 = 𝜋 ∗ 1.269 = 𝜋 = 9.75 kW/m2 day *3600
𝒌𝑱
𝑯𝟎 = 𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝒎𝟐
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 𝑆̅
=𝑎+𝑏 ( )
̅̅
𝐻̅̅0 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅̅̅̅
8.6
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
= 0.25 + 0.57 (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) = 0.25 + 0.57 (0.67)= 0.6362
35111 12.69
𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑔 = 22340 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐻 𝑔
= 1.416 − 1.696 ( )
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅̅
𝐻0̅̅
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 22340
̅̅̅̅
= 1.416 − 1.696 (35111) = 1.416-1.696*0.63 = 0.3368
𝐻𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑑 = 0.3368 ∗ 22340 = 7525 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2
𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑑 = 7525 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2

Hourly radiation
360𝑛
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ (sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔) ∗ 3600
365
𝜔 = 9.5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 37.5º
360 ∗ 105
𝐼0 = 1.367 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
365
∗ (sin 28.58 sin 9.42 + cos 28.58 cos 9.42 cos 37.5 ) ∗ 3600
𝐼0 = 1.367 (0.9925) ∗ 0.765 ∗ 3600
3735𝑘𝐽
𝐼0 = 1.356 ∗ 0.765 ∗ 3600 = 1.03 ∗ 3600 = − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2
3735 𝑘𝐽
𝐼0 = − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2
𝐼̅𝑑 𝐼̅0
=
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 ̅𝐻̅̅0̅
𝐼̅𝑑 3735
= = 0.106
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 35111
𝑘𝐽
𝐼𝑑 = 0.106 ∗ 7525 = 800.16 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2
𝑘𝐽
𝐼𝑑 = 800.16 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2

Surface radiation on tilted surfaces

Measuring instruments give the value of solar radiation on the horizontal surfaces. But
most of the solar equipment’s are tilted to the horizontal surface.
Beam radiation :
𝑇𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑟𝑏)
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑐𝑒
=
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

• Equation of θ for the horizontal surface

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎
𝜽 = 𝜽𝒛
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒛 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎

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• Equation of θ for the Tilted surface

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎

𝒓𝒃 = =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎

𝑇𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑟𝑑)

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑐𝑒
=
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷
𝒓𝒅 =
𝟐
The value of the tilt factor depends on

Distribution of the diffuse radiation over the sky

On the portion of the sky dome seen by the tilted surface.

𝑇𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑟𝑟)

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑐𝑒
=
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷
𝒓𝒓 = 𝝆 ( )
𝟐
𝝆 is the diffuse reflectivity.
Most difficulty is this value is not known for most of the situations.
For the concrete or grass surface this is taken as 0.2
Reflected radiation not much contributed to the total and hence most of the cases
neglected.

Flux on tilted surfaces.

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝑩 𝒓𝒃 + 𝑰𝒅 𝒓𝒅 + (𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰𝒅 )𝒓𝒓

𝑰𝑻 (𝑰𝒈 − 𝑰𝒅 ) 𝑰𝒅 𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰 𝒅
= 𝒓𝒃 + 𝒓𝒅 + ( ) 𝒓𝒓
𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈

𝑰𝑻 (𝑰𝒅 ) 𝑰𝒅
= (𝟏 − ) 𝒓𝒃 + 𝒓𝒅 + 𝒓 𝒓
𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈

The daily radiation falling on a tilted surface

𝑯𝑻 𝑯𝒅 𝑯𝒅
= (𝟏 − ) 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹 + 𝑹𝒓
𝑯𝒈 𝑯𝒈 𝑯𝒈 𝒅

𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷
𝑹𝒅 = 𝒓𝒅 =
𝟐

𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷
𝑹𝒓 = 𝒓 𝒓 = 𝝆 ( )
𝟐

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝝎𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒔

𝑹𝒃 = =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒛 𝝎𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒔

Note : On representative day

̅̅̅̅
𝑹𝒃 = 𝑹𝒃

Numerical 2 : Calculate the monthly average hourly radiation falling on a flat

plate collector facing due south with slope 15º given following data.

Chennai (13.0827° N, 80.2707° E)

Month October and Klein’s recommendation 15
Time 11 00 to 12 00 Hour
Ig 2408 kJ/m2-hour
Id 1073 kJ/m2-hour
Reflectivity 0.2

N = 288

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 12

 Non - Conventional Energy Sources

360
𝛿 = 23.45 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (365 (284 + 𝑛)) = -9.599º
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(∅ − 𝜷) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎
𝒓𝒃 = =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎

𝒓𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝟏+ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷
𝒓𝒅 = = 0.9830
𝟐

𝟏− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷
𝒓𝒓 = 𝝆 ( ) = 0.0034
𝟐

𝑰𝑻 (𝑰𝒅 ) 𝑰𝒅
= (𝟏 − ) 𝒓𝒃 + 𝒓𝒅 + 𝒓 𝒓
𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒈

𝑰𝑻
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟒
𝑰𝒈

𝑘𝑗
𝐼𝑇 = 2558 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2

Klein's recommendation

Numerical_3
LAT = 1:00 hour – 4(82.5-77.6) +2 = 12 Hour 38 Minute >𝜔 = 8º
Day number (n) = 344
 is the Declination angle
360
 = 23.45 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (365 (284 + 𝑛)) = -23.05

𝜔𝑠 = cos−1 (− 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟐𝟑. 𝟎𝟓) = 84.40º = 1.48 Radian

𝜔
Maximum day length : 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 15𝑠 = 2𝑋84.4/15 = 11.25 hour.

Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, MIT, Manipal 13

 Non - Conventional Energy Sources

24 360𝑛
𝐻0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ (𝜔𝑠 sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑠 )
𝜋 365

24 360 ∗ 344
𝐻0 = ∗ 1.367 ∗ (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
𝜋 365
∗ (1.48 ∗ sin 12.9 sin −23.05 + cos 12.9 cos −23.05 sin 84.4)

24
𝐻0 =
∗ 1.367 ∗ (1.030) ∗ (0.763)
𝜋
24
𝐻0 = ∗ 1.367 ∗ (0.933)
𝜋
24 25.78
𝐻0 = 𝜋 ∗ 1.07 = 𝜋 = 8.20 kW/m2 day *3600
𝒌𝑱
𝑯𝟎 = 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟖𝟑. 𝟔𝟓 − 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝒎𝟐
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 𝑆̅
=𝑎+𝑏 ( )
̅̅
𝐻̅̅0 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅̅̅̅
8.0
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 0.27 + 0.43 (11.25
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
) = 0.27 + 0.43 (0.71)= 0.575
𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟖𝟑.𝟔𝟓
𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑔 = 17010 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 ̅̅̅̅
𝐻 𝑔
= 1.416 − 1.696 ( )
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅̅
𝐻0̅̅
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 17010
̅̅̅̅
= 1.416 − 1.696 (29583) = 1.416-1.696*0.574 = 0.44028
𝐻 𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑑 = 0.444028 ∗ 17010 = 7498.22 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2
𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑑 = 7498.22 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚2

Hourly radiation
360𝑛
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) ∗ (sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔) ∗ 3600
365
𝜔 = 1𝑝𝑚 = 15º
360 ∗ 344
𝐼0 = 1.367 (1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
365
∗ (sin 12.9 sin −23.05 + cos 12.9 cos −23.05 cos 15 ) ∗ 3600
𝐼0 = 1.367 (1.0308) ∗ 0.778 ∗ 3600
3946.87𝑘𝐽
𝐼0 = 1.09 ∗ 3600 = − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2
3946.87 𝑘𝐽
𝐼0 = − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2
𝐼̅𝑑 𝐼̅0
=
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 ̅𝐻̅̅0̅
̅
𝐼𝑑 3946.87
= = 0.1334
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑑 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟖𝟑. 𝟔𝟓
𝑘𝐽
𝐼𝑑 = 0.1334 ∗ 7498.2 = 1000.36 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2
𝑘𝐽
𝐼𝑑 = 1000.364 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑚2

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