Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Scribd
Upload
13 views

Module-2a

Uploaded by

mushaid1319
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
13 views

Module-2a

Uploaded by

mushaid1319
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 25

Solar Energy

MEASUREMENTS OF SOLAR RADIATION

(i) Pyranometer:A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually


on a horizontal surface, but can also be used on an inclined surface.
(ii) Pyrheliometer: An instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long
narrow tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence
(iii) Sunshine Recorder: It measures the sunshine hours in a day.

 Pyranometer
 A precision pyranometer is designed to respond to radiation of all wavelengths and
hencemeasures accurately the total power in the incident spectrum.
 It contains a thermopile whose sensitive surface consists of circular, blackened,hot
junctions, exposed to the sun, the cold junctions being completely shaded.
 The temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions is the function of
radiation falling on the sensitive surface.
 The sensing element is covered by two concentric hemispherical glass domes to
shield it from wind and rain.
 This also reduces the convection currents
 A radiation shield surrounding the outer dome and coplanar with the sensing
element, preventsdirect solar radiation from heating the base of the instrument.
 The instrument has a voltage output of approximately 9μV/W/m² and has an output
impedance of 650 Ω.

 Pyrheliometer
 The normal incidence pyranometer uses a long collimator tube to collect beam
radiation whose field of view is limited to a solid angle of 5.5˚ by appropriate
diaphragms inside the tube.
 The inside of the tube is blackened to absorb any radiation incident at angles
outside the collection solid angle.
 At the base of the tube a wire wound thermopile having a sensitivity of
approximately 8 μV/W/m² and an output impedance of approximately 200 Ω is
provided.
 The tube is sealed with dry air to eliminate absorption of beam radiation with in the
tube by water vapour.

 Sunshine Recorder
 This instrument measures the duration in hours of bright sunshine duringthe course
of a day.
 It essentially consists of a glass sphere (about 10 cm in diameter) mounted on its
axis parallel to that of the earth, within a spherical section (bowl).
 The bowl and glass sphere are arranged in such a way that the sun’s rays are
focused sharply at a spot on a card held in a groove in the bowl.
 The card is prepared from a special paper bearing a time scale.
 As the sun moves, the focused bright sunshine burns a path along this

 The length of thetrace thus obtained on the paper is the measure of the duration of
the bright sunshine.
 Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the spherical segment to take
care of the different seasons of the year.

 Solar Radiation Data


 The radiation data are mostly measured on a horizontal surface.
 Typical records of global and diffused radiation versus solar time on a horizontal
surface for a clear day and partially cloudy day are shown in Fig.
 Daily radiant energy is obtained from the area under the corresponding curve.
 The monthly average of the daily radiation is obtained by averaging over a span of
the corresponding month and expressed in kJ/m2-day.

Thus, solar radiation data are presented in three ways:


(i) Flow of energy per unit area per second, (kJ/m2-s)
(ii) Flow of energy per unit area per hour, (kJ/m2-h)
(iii) Flow of energy per unit area per day, (kJ/m2-day)
 The incident solar radiation is also a function of the orientation of a solar collector
from the horizontal.
 A typical pattern of relative irradiation throughout a year for three tilt angles, equal
to:
 (i) Latitude, (ii) latitude –15° and (iii) latitude +15° is shown in Fig.
 The seasonal adjustment of the tilt angle may result in enhanced radiation
collection.
 However, the overall strategy changes from place throughout a year to place and
also on the type of application.
 SOLARTIME
 Solar time is measured with reference to solar noon, which is the time when the sun is crossin
the observer’s meridian.
 At solar noon, the sun is at the highest position in the sky.
 The sun traverses each degree of longitude in 4 minutes (as the earth takes 24 hours to comple
one revolution).
 The standard time is converted to solar time by incorporating two corrections, as follows:
 Solar time = Standard time ± 4 (Lst–Lloc) + E
 Where Lst and Ll.oc are the standard longitude used for measuring standard time of the
Country and the longitude of the observer’s location respectively.
 The (+ve) sign is used if the standard meridian of the country lies in the western hemisphere
 and –ve lies in eastern hemisphere
 E is the correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar day due to variations in t
earth’s rotation and orbital revolution and is called the equation of time.
E = 9.87sin 2B–7. 53 cos B–1.5 sin B min.
where B = (360/364)(n–81)

 Solar Radiation Geometry


Latitude (Angle of Latitude)
 The latitude of a location on the earth’s surface is the angle made by a radial line joining the giv
location to the centre of the earth with its projection on the equator plane, as shown in Fig.
 The latitude is positive for northern hemisphere and negative for southern hemisphere.
Declination,(δ)
 It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun from the plane of the earth’s
equator,as shown in Fig.
 It is positive when measured above the equatorial plane in the northern hemisphere.
 The declination δ can be approximately determined from the equation

Hour Angle,(ω)

 The hour angle at any moment is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring
themeridian of the observer directly in line with the sun’s rays.

ω = [Solar Time–12:00] (in hours) × 15 degrees


 In other words, at any moment, it is the angular displacement of the sun towards east
or west oflocal meridian (due to rotation of the earth on its axis).
 The earth completes one rotation in 24 hours.
 Therefore, one hour corresponds to 15˚ of rotation.
 At solar noon, as the sun’s rays are in line with the local meridian, the hour angle is zero.
 It is –ve in the forenoon and +ve in the afternoon. Thus, at 06:00 h it is –90˚and at 18:00
h it is+90˚

Inclination Angle(altitude), (α):The angle between the sun’s ray and its projection on a
horizontal surface is known as the inclination angle
 Zenith Angle, (z): It is the angle between the sun’s ray and the perpendicular (normal) to
the horizontal plane.
 Solar Azimuth Angle (γs):It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due
south and the projection of the sun’s ray on the horizontal plane. It is taken as +ve when
measured from south towards west

Angle of Incidence, (θ)


 It is the angle between the sun’s ray incident on the plane surface (collector) and the
normal tothat surface.
Solar Day Length

At sunrise, the sun’s rays are parallel to the horizontal surface. Hence the angle of
incidence,

θi = θz = 90˚, the corresponding hour angle, ωs, …….. (1)

The angle between sunrise and sunset is given by

Since 15˚ of hour angle is equivalenttoone-hour duration, the duration of sunshine


hours, td ordaylight hours is given by

The variation of t d with latitude (φ) for different days (n) of the year is shown

The hour angle, ωs at sunrise (or sunset) for horizontal (collector) surface is given
by Eq1which yields positive and negative values for ωs .

 The negative value corresponds to sunrise while the positive to sunset.


 The hour angle at sunrise as seen by the observer on an inclined surface
facing south (i.e., γ=0) will also be given by Eq. 1

 If the day under consideration lies between September 22 and March 21, and
the location is in the northern hemisphere. However, if the day under
consideration lies between March 21 and September 22, the hour angle at
sunrise or sunset would be smaller in magnitude than the value given by Eq. 1
and would be obtained by substituting θi = 90˚

You might also like