solar radiation:

solar radiation, electro-magnetic radiation, including X-ray, ultraviolet and infrared

radiation, and radio emissions, as well as visible light , emitting from the sun.
solar constant, the total radiation energy received from the sun per unit of time per
unit of area on a surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays and at earth’s mean
distance from the Sun.
1. 1.366 kilowatts per square metre.
2. 1165 kilocal per square metre per hour
3. 432 Btu per square feet per hour (The British Thermal Unit, or BTU, is an
energy unit.) 1 BTU = 1,055 joules
Irradiance: measure of power density of sunlight directly from sun.
Direct, Indirect and reflected radiation:

(1) Beam radiation: Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and
reaches the ground directly from the sum is called direct radiation or Beam radiation.
(ii) Diffuse radiation: It is the solar radiation received from the sun after its direction
has been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere.
(iii) Global or total radiation: Global radiation is also called as total radiation. It is the
total short-wave radiation from the sky falling onto a horizontal surface on the
ground. It includes both the direct solar radiation and the diffuse radiation resulting
from reflected or scattered sunlight in flat plate type collectors.
1. solar radiation, beam and diffuse radiation.
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general
term for the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be
captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a
variety of technologies. However, the technical feasibility and economical operation
of these technologies at a specific location depends on the available solar resource.

Basic Principles
Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount
of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:

Geographic location
Time of day
Season
Local landscape
Local weather.
Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles,
ranging from 0° (just above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's
rays are vertical, the Earth's surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the
sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more
scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid polar regions never get a
high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all
during part of the year.

The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the sun
during part of the year. When the sun is nearer the Earth, the Earth's surface receives a
little more solar energy. The Earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern
hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere. However, the presence of vast
oceans moderates the hotter summers and colder winters one would expect to see in
the southern hemisphere as a result of this difference.

The 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis of rotation is a more significant factor in
determining the amount of sunlight striking the Earth at a particular location. Tilting
results in longer days in the northern hemisphere from the spring (vernal) equinox to
the fall (autumnal) equinox and longer days in the southern hemisphere during the
other 6 months. Days and nights are both exactly 12 hours long on the equinoxes,
which occur each year on or around March 23 and September 22.

Countries such as the United States, which lie in the middle latitudes, receive
more solar energy in the summer not only because days are longer, but also because
the sun is nearly overhead. The sun's rays are far more slanted during the shorter days
of the winter months. Cities such as Denver, Colorado, (near 40° latitude) receive
nearly three times more solar energy in June than they do in December.

The rotation of the Earth is also responsible for hourly variations in sunlight.
In the early morning and late afternoon, the sun is low in the sky. Its rays travel
further through the atmosphere than at noon, when the sun is at its highest point. On a
clear day, the greatest amount of solar energy reaches a solar collector around solar
noon.

Beam radiation in the context of solar energy refers to the direct sunlight that
reaches the Earth's surface. This type of solar radiation is also known as direct normal
irradiance (DNI) and is a key component in the generation of solar power. Beam
radiation is the sunlight that travels in a straight line from the sun to a specific
location without being scattered or diffused by clouds or other atmospheric particles.

Solar panels and solar energy systems are designed to capture and convert
beam radiation into electricity. When beam radiation hits a solar panel, the
photovoltaic cells within the panel absorb the sunlight and generate an electric
current. This electricity can then be used to power homes, businesses, and other
applications.

The amount of beam radiation that reaches a particular location depends on

factors such as the time of day, time of year, weather conditions, and geographic
location. Regions closer to the equator typically receive more intense beam radiation,
making them ideal locations for solar energy production.

Overall, beam radiation plays a crucial role in the generation of solar power
and is a renewable and sustainable source of energy that can help reduce reliance on
fossil fuels and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Diffuse radiation in the context of solar energy refers to sunlight that has been
scattered or reflected by the atmosphere before reaching the Earth's surface. Unlike
beam radiation, which comes directly from the sun in a straight line, diffuse radiation
is sunlight that has been dispersed in various directions due to interactions with
clouds, dust, water vapor, and other atmospheric particles.

Diffuse radiation is an important component of solar energy generation, as it

contributes to the overall amount of sunlight available for solar panels to convert into
electricity. While beam radiation provides direct and intense sunlight, diffuse
 radiation provides a more even and widespread source of sunlight throughout the day,
even when direct sunlight is not available due to cloud cover or other factors.

Solar panels are designed to capture both beam and diffuse radiation,
maximizing their energy production potential. By capturing and converting both types
of solar radiation, solar energy systems can generate electricity even in less-than-ideal
weather conditions.

Overall, diffuse radiation plays a significant role in the efficiency and

reliability of solar energy systems, helping to ensure a consistent and sustainable
source of renewable energy for a variety of applications.

 Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the
meridian of a point directly in the line with the sun rays. It is equivalent to 15°
per hour.
 Zenith angle is a vertical angle between the sun rays and a line
perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the point.
 The time used for calculating the hour angle o is the local apparent time. It
can be obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying two
corrections.
 Angle of incidence is the angle between the incident beam (I) and normal
(N) to surface (S).

 Angle of latitude is the angle between equatorial plane of earth and line
joining the point on the earth's surface and earth's centre.
 Angle of declination is the angle between the line joining centre of the sun
and earth and the equatorial plane.
 The solar spectrum refers to the distribution of electromagnetic radiation
emitted by the sun across different wavelengths.
It encompasses a wide range of wavelengths, from ultraviolet (UV) radiation
to visible light to infrared (IR) radiation.
The solar spectrum can be divided into different regions based on
wavelength, including ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) regions.
The solar spectrum is important for various scientific disciplines, including
solar energy research, atmospheric science, and astronomy.
 Different components of the solar spectrum interact with the Earth's
atmosphere and surface in unique ways, influencing processes such as
heating, photosynthesis, and climate dynamics.
Understanding the solar spectrum is crucial for studying the impact of solar
radiation on Earth's systems and for developing technologies that harness
solar energy for various applications.

Type of solar radiation measurement:

• Solar radiation measurement is the process of quantifying the amount of solar

energy that reaches a specific location on the Earth's surface.
• This measurement is important for various applications, including solar energy
research, climate studies, agriculture, and meteorology.
• There are several instruments used to measure solar radiation, including
pyranometers, pyrheliometers, and solarimeters.
1. Pyranometers are used to measure global horizontal solar radiation, which
includes both direct and diffuse solar radiation.
2. Pyrheliometers, such as the Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer and the Eppley
Pyrheliometer, are specifically designed to measure direct solar radiation.
3. Solarimeters are used to measure total solar radiation, including direct,
diffuse, and reflected radiation.

Three types of Pyrheliometer:

Angstrom Pyrheliometer
Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer
Eppley Pyrheliometer
Pyrheliometer:

Pyrheliometer meter is an instrument which can be used to measures solar irradiance

and circumference. In solar radiation it is used only to measures the beam radiation. It used
thermopile to measure emf difference.
Its outer structure look like a long tube projecting the image of a telescope and we
have to point the lens to the sun to measure the radiance. They are commonly used for
climatological research to monitor the weather and recently for solar energy research.
It can measure the radiation having wavelength between 280 nm to 3000 nm. The
pyrheliometer looks like a telescope. Pyrheliometer is used for climatological and weather
monitoring research purpose.
Three types of pyrheliometers are used to measure the normal incident beam radiations.
1. Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer:
 A thin blackened shaded manganin strip (size 20*2*0.1 mm) is heated electrically until at
the same temperature as a similar strip which is exposed to solar radiation.
Under steady state condition , the energy used for heating is equal to the absorbed solar
energy. The thermocouples on the back of each strip is connected in opposition through a
sensitive galvanometer to test the equality of temperature.

The energy H of direct radiation is calculated by using the formula

HDW = Direct radiation incident on the area normal to sun rays
HDW = KI2
Where
I= Heating current in Amperes
K = Dimension and instrument constant = R/Wα
R= Resistance per unit length of the absorbing strip
W= The mean width of the absorbing strip
α = The absorbing coefficient of the absorbing strip

2. Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer

The Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer is a type of instrument used to measure direct
solar radiation. It consists of a silver-coated disk that absorbs solar radiation and a thermopile
sensor that measures the temperature rise caused by the absorbed radiation. This allows for
the calculation of solar irradiance, which is important for various applications such as solar
energy research, climate studies, and meteorology. The Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer is a
widely used and reliable tool for measuring solar radiation.
The Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer works by measuring the direct solar radiation
received from the sun. Here is a brief overview of how it operates:

1. Absorption of Solar Radiation: The silver-coated disk of the pyrheliometer absorbs

solar radiation when it is pointed directly at the sun.

2. Temperature Measurement: As the disk absorbs solar radiation, it heats up. The
thermopile sensor within the pyrheliometer measures the temperature rise caused by
the absorbed radiation.

3. Calibration: The temperature rise measured by the thermopile sensor is calibrated

to correspond to the amount of solar radiation received by the disk.

4. Calculation of Solar Irradiance: Using the calibrated temperature rise data, the
pyrheliometer calculates the solar irradiance, which is the amount of solar radiation
per unit area received at the Earth's surface.

3. Eppley Pyrheliometer:

The Eppley Pyrheliometer is another type of instrument used to measure direct

solar radiation. It is a well-known and widely used pyrheliometer that operates on
similar principles to the Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer. The Eppley Pyrheliometer
also consists of a sensor that absorbs solar radiation and measures the temperature rise
caused by the absorbed radiation. This allows for the calculation of solar irradiance,
providing valuable data for various applications such as solar energy research, climate
studies, and meteorology. The Eppley Pyrheliometer is known for its accuracy and
reliability in measuring direct solar radiation.

The Eppley Pyrheliometer consists of several main parts that work together to
measure direct solar radiation accurately. Here are the key components of an Eppley
Pyrheliometer:

1. Sensor: The sensor of the Eppley Pyrheliometer is designed to absorb solar

radiation. It is typically a thermopile sensor that measures the temperature rise caused
by the absorbed radiation.

2. Housing: The sensor is housed within a protective casing to shield it from

external factors such as wind, rain, and temperature fluctuations. The housing is
designed to ensure that the sensor receives only direct solar radiation.

3. Levelling Mechanism: The Eppley Pyrheliometer is equipped with a levelling

mechanism that allows for precise alignment with the sun. This ensures that the sensor
receives direct solar radiation at the correct angle for accurate measurements.

4. Electrical Connections: The Eppley Pyrheliometer is connected to a data

acquisition system or data logger through electrical connections. These
connections allow the sensor to transmit temperature data for further analysis and
calculation of solar irradiance.
 A pyranometer is a device used to measure the total solar radiation received
from the sun on a horizontal surface. It is different from a pyrheliometer, which
measures only direct solar radiation. Here is a detailed explanation of how a
pyranometer measures solar radiation:

1. Working Principle: A pyranometer consists of a radiation sensor that measures the

total solar radiation received on a horizontal surface. The sensor is designed to detect
both direct and diffuse solar radiation.

2. Calibration: Before use, a pyranometer is calibrated to ensure accurate

measurements. Calibration involves comparing the sensor's output to known standards
under controlled conditions.

3. Installation: The pyranometer is mounted horizontally on a stable platform, away

from any obstructions that could block sunlight. It should be positioned to receive
direct and diffuse solar radiation throughout the day.

4. Measurement: The sensor in the pyranometer detects the incoming solar radiation
and converts it into an electrical signal. This signal is then processed to calculate the
total solar irradiance, which is the sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation.

5.Data Collection: The measured solar irradiance data is typically recorded at regular
intervals, such as every minute or every hour. This data can be used for various
applications, including solar energy studies, climate research, and weather forecasting.
Eppley Pyranometer:

The Eppley Pyranometer is a type of instrument used to measure global solar

radiation, which includes both direct and diffuse solar radiation. It is designed to
measure the total amount of solar radiation received from the entire hemisphere above
the instrument. The Eppley Pyranometer typically consists of a thermopile sensor that
absorbs solar radiation and measures the temperature rise caused by the absorbed
radiation. This allows for the calculation of global solar irradiance, which is the total
amount of solar radiation per unit area received at the Earth's surface. The Eppley
Pyranometer is commonly used in meteorology, climatology, solar energy research,
and environmental monitoring to provide valuable data on solar radiation levels.
The Eppley Pyranometer is a device used to measure global solar radiation, which
includes both direct and diffuse solar radiation. Here are the main parts and the
working principle of an Eppley Pyranometer:

Main Parts:
1. Thermopile Sensor: The heart of the pyranometer is a thermopile sensor, which
consists of multiple thermocouples connected in series. These thermocouples generate
a voltage signal proportional to the temperature difference between the absorber plate
and the body of the sensor.

2. Absorber Plate: The absorber plate is a blackened surface that absorbs solar
radiation. It is designed to minimize reflection and maximize absorption of incoming
solar radiation.

3. Glass Dome: The pyranometer is equipped with a glass dome that allows solar
radiation to pass through while protecting the sensor from environmental factors such
as wind, rain, and dust.

Working Principle:
1. Absorption of Solar Radiation: The blackened absorber plate of the pyranometer
absorbs both direct and diffuse solar radiation.

2. Temperature Measurement: As the absorber plate absorbs solar radiation, it heats

up. The thermopile sensor measures the temperature rise caused by the absorbed
radiation.

3. Calculation of Solar Irradiance: The voltage signal generated by the thermopile

sensor is calibrated to correspond to the amount of solar radiation received by the
pyranometer. This calibrated signal is used to calculate the global solar irradiance,
which is the total amount of solar radiation (direct and diffuse) received at the Earth's
surface.

Solar energy collectors can be classified into several categories based on their
design, technology, and application. Here are some common classifications of solar
energy collectors:

1. Flat-plate collectors: Flat-plate collectors are the most common type of solar
energy collector. They consist of a flat, rectangular box with a transparent cover
(usually glass) and a dark-coloured absorber plate inside.
The absorber plate absorbs sunlight and converts it into heat, which is then
transferred to a fluid (such as water or air) flowing through the collector. Flat-plate
collectors are used for heating water in residential and commercial buildings.

Principle of Flat Plate Collector

 The principal behind a flat collector is simple. If a metal sheet is exposed to
solar radiation, the temperature will rise until the rate at which energy is received is
equal to the rate at which heat is lost from the plate; this temperature is termed as the
‘equilibrium’ temperature. If the back of the plate is protected by a heat insulting
material, and the exposed surface of the plate is painted black and is coved by one or
two glass sheets, then the equilibrium temperature will be much higher than that for
the simple exposed sheet.
This plate may be covered into a heat collector by adding a water circulating
system, either by making it hollow or by soldering metal pipes to the surface, and
transferring the heated liquid to a tank for storage. For heat with withdrawal from the
system the equilibrium temperature must decrease, since no useful heat can be
extracted at the maximum equilibrium temperature at which the collection efficiency
is zero.
The other extreme condition is when the flow of liquid is so flat that the
temperature rise is very small; in such a case although the losses are small and the
efficiency of the heat collection approaches 100 percent, yet no useful heat can be
extracted. The optimum is approximately midway between the equilibrium
temperature, whereby an output of hot liquid at a useful temperature is obtained.

i) Glazing, which may be one or more sheets of glass or other diathermanous (radiation
transmitting) material.

(ii) Tubes, fins or passages for conducting or directing the heat transfer fluid from the inlet to
the outlet.

(iii) Abserver plate which may be flat, corrugated or grooved with tubes, fins or passages
attached to it.

(iv) Header or manifolds, to admit and discharge the fluid.

(v) Insulation which minimizes heat loss from the back and sides of the collector.
(vi) Container or casing which surrounds the various components and protects them from
dust, moisture etc.

Types of flat-Plate collectors

In flat plate collectors, the heat loss by convection is more important in the
determination of their performance. The convective heat loss may be decreased by using
double glazing, but the radiation reaching the absorber is reduced due to double reflection.
Hence, at low temperature where this loss is small, use of single glazing gives a better
efficiency than the double one while at higher temperature difference the use of glazing is
advisable for better performance.

Type I: Pipe and in type, in which flows only in the pipe and hence has comparatively low
wetted area and liquid capacity.
Type II: Rectangular or cylindrical full sandwich type in which both the wetted area and the
water capacity are high.
Type III: Roll bond type or semi-sandwich type, intermediate between types I and II.

Advantages:
 i) Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components of solar radiation
(ii) Are fixed in tilt and orientation and thus, there is no needed of tracking the Sun
(iii) Are easy to make and are low in cost
(iv) Have comparatively low maintenance cost and long life
(v) Operate at comparatively high efficiency.

Disadvantages -
(i) Low thermal efficiency.
(ii) Requires larger collecting area.
(iii) Energy storage cost is more.
(iv) An anti-freeze solution has to be used to prevent the freezing of heat transferring fluid.

A focusing collector is designed to capture solar energy with high intensity by using
optical systems like reflectors or refractors. It is a modified version of a flat plate collector,
where a reflecting or refracting surface (known as a concentrator) is introduced between the
solar radiation and the absorber. These collectors can significantly increase the radiation
intensity from a low value to a much higher value, sometimes up to 10,000 times. They
focus the solar radiation from a large area onto a smaller receiver or absorber. This
concentration of energy allows fluids to be heated to temperatures of 500 °C or even higher.

Concentrating collectors use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a smaller

area, increasing the intensity of the sunlight and the amount of heat generated. These
collectors are often used in solar power plants to generate electricity by heating a fluid to
produce steam, which drives a turbine to generate electricity.

Types of Concentrating Collectors

Two general categories of concentrating collectors are:

(A) Line-focusing types

(B) Point focusing types The line is a collector pipe and the point is a small volume
through which the heat transport fluid flows.

As per the number of concentrating collector geometries, the main types of

concentrating collectors are

(a) Parabolic trough collectors.

(b) Mirror strip reflector.

(c) Fresnel lens collector.

(d) Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors.

(e) Compound parabolic concentrator (C.P.C.)

Line-focusing collectors
Parabolic Trough Reflector: In concentration, collectors like the parabolic trough collector,
solar radiation is collected and concentrated at the focus of a parabolic reflector. The reflector
is shaped like a trough with a parabolic cross-section, causing the solar radiation to be
focused along a line. The absorber, usually a collector pipe with a selective absorber coating,
is placed at the focus to capture the concentrated solar energy.

Mirror Strip Reflector: A solar trough concentrator consists of a plane or slightly curved
mirrors mounted on a flat base, reflecting solar radiation onto a fixed focal line. The mirrors
are adjusted to account for changes in the sun’s elevation, while the collector pipe remains in
the focal line.
Fresnel Lens Collector: Fresnel lens-based collectors use the focusing effect of a rectangular
lens, typically 4-7 meters long and 0.95 meters wide. The lens is made in sections from
acrylic plastic and is cost-effective. The trough container does not contribute to concentrating
solar energy.

Point focusing collector (Paraboloidal Type):

A paraboloidal dish collector concentrates solar radiation by bringing it to a focus at a
small central volume. The dish, about 6-6 meters in diameter, is made of curved mirror
segments forming a paraboloidal surface. The absorber cavity, located at the focus, is made of
a zirconium copper alloy with a selective coating. The collector tracks the sun to maintain
alignment with the focus, allowing for continuous solar tracking.

Concentrating Collectors, Non-Focusing type: A reflective flat plate collector consists of a

south-facing flat plate with mirrors attached to its north and south edges. When the mirrors
are set at the correct angle, they reflect solar radiation onto the absorber plate. This allows the
absorber plate to receive both direct solar radiation and reflected radiation from the mirrors.
By reflecting and redirecting scattered radiation onto the absorber, the mirrors enhance the
concentration effect. The main advantage comes from the increased direct radiation reaching
the absorber plate, resulting in improved efficiency.

Due to sun shading caused by mirror extensions, multiple collectors in rows need to be set
further apart in the north-south direction. Continuous angle adjustments and limited increases
in solar radiation make flat plate collectors with mirrors less common.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator (C.P.C.): The C.P.C. (Compound Parabolic
Concentrator) is a trough-like arrangement of two parabolic mirrors. Unlike single parabolic
troughs, the C.P.C. collects solar radiation from various directions, including diffuse
radiation, concentrating it on a small area. It offers a moderate concentration in the east-west
direction without constant sun tracking.
The parabolic trough reflector is a solar thermal energy collector designed to
capture the sun’s direct solar radiation over a large surface area and focus, or
more generally “concentrate it” onto a small focal point area increasing the solar
energy received by more than a factor of two which means more overall heat per
square meter of trough.

The shape of concentrating solar collectors must be specifically designed so

that all the incoming sunlight reflects off the surface of the collector and
arrives at the same focal point no matter what part of the collector the sunlight
hits first.
Concentrating solar collectors for residential applications are usually a “U-
shaped” parabolic trough (hence their name) that concentrates the sun’s
energy on an absorber heat tube called a receiver that is positioned along the
focal point axis of the reflective trough.
Parabolic Trough Reflectors or PTR, are made by simply bending a sheet of
reflective or highly polished material into a parabolic shape called a parabola.
Since solar light waves essentially travel parallel to each other, this type of solar
collector can be pointed directly into the sun and still achieve a total focal output
from all parts of the trough shaped reflector as shown.

The parabolic trough reflector when used as a solar thermal energy collector is
constructed as a long parabolic reflecting mirror which is usually painted a
reflective silver, or made from polished aluminium, or uses mirrors which extends
linearly into the trough shape. A metal black heat tube inside a sealed glass tube
which can also be evacuated is used to reduce heat losses. The heat tube
contains a heat-transfer fluid which is pumped around a loop within the tube
absorbing the heat as it pass through.

The parabolic trough reflector can generate much high temperatures more
efficiently than a single flat plate collector, since the absorber surface area is
much smaller. The heat transfer fluid which is usually a mixture of water and
other additive’s or thermal oil, is pumped through the tube and absorbs the
solar heat reaching temperatures of over 200 C.o

The hot water is sent to a standard heat exchanger design where it directly
heats a hot water storage tank for use in the home making this type of solar
hot water application a closed-loop active system. However, parabolic trough
reflectors use only direct solar radiation to heat the receiver tube as diffused
solar radiation cannot be focused onto the absorber making them less
effective when the skies are cloudy or the sun is out of alignment.

To overcome this problem, most concentrating collectors require some form of

mechanical equipment that constantly orients the collectors towards the sun
keeping the heat pipe absorber at the correct focal point. This can be
achieved by using a Tracking Solar Concentrator that aligns the trough with
the sun throughout the day, maximising the solar heat gain.
The collector generally has a single rotation axis along the length of the
trough which can be orientated in an east-to-west direction, tracking the sun
from north to south, or orientated in a north-to-south direction and tracking the
sun from east to west.
Parabolic troughs are generally aligned on a north-to-south axis, and are
rotated to track the sun as it moves across the sky each day from morning to
night.
The advantages of this type of tracking mode is that very little collector
adjustment is required during the day resulting in the solar trough always
facing the sun at noon time, but the collector performance early in the morning
or late in the afternoon is greatly reduced due to the large incidence angles of
the trough.

Even though solar trough collectors use tracking systems to keep them facing
the sun, they are most effective in sunnier climates where there are good
solar resources. Like many other solar collectors, parabolic trough reflectors
are modular, meaning that the individual troughs can be connected together.
The advantage here is that connecting them together creates a larger surface
area of absorber producing large amounts of solar hot water than can be
created by an individual trough. Many single troughs connected together form
a collector field were they are connected together in series and parallel rows.
As line-focused concentrating collectors, parabolic trough reflectors are more
efficient for industrial and commercial applications that require large amounts
of hot water around the clock. In these types of installations, the solar energy
trapped by the solar troughs heats a special type of thermal oil to very high
temperatures.
The oil circulating around a closed loop active system is used to heat high
volumes of water or to generate steam at very high temperatures of up to
400oC which can then be used to generate electricity. Also connecting
together parabolic troughs to form collector fields requires large areas of land
for the installation, yet they offset the need for conventional energy and
provide energy savings and environmental benefits.
Solar concentrators such as parabolic troughs, have a small absorber area
and therefore smaller heat losses and provide high efficiencies of around 12%
at much higher working temperatures compared to standard flat panel
collectors. However, they have the disadvantage of having a smaller angle of
view, and therefore, require some form of tracking system or manual
adjustment to keep them at the correct focal point.
Also parabolic trough reflectors can not collect most of the diffused solar
radiation. Parabolic collectors are not recommended for domestic household
use due to their size and high water temperatures, but are desirable for
 certain industrial and commercial needs to provide large amounts of hot water
and/or for producing electricity by running steam turbines.
In the next tutorial about Solar Heating we will look at another type of solar
collector which is designed to concentrate the received solar radiation even
more into a single focal point while at the same time accept most of the
diffuse radiation improving their efficiency.
Furthermore, these concentrators can be stationary or only need small
seasonal tilt adjustments to keep their heat pipe within the correct focal point.
These types of solar thermal collectors are called Solar Dish Collectors which
can be used to focus the sun’s energy onto a single point.

Solar thermal energy storage methods typically involve storing the heat collected from the
sun during the day for later use, such as during nighttime or on cloudy days. One common
method is using a thermal energy storage system, which consists of a heat transfer fluid that
absorbs and stores the heat generated by solar collectors. This fluid is then circulated through
a heat exchanger to transfer the stored heat to a medium, such as water or air, which can be
used for heating purposes.
 Solar energy storage enhances energy independence and reduces reliance on the
grid.

There are different types of thermal energy storage systems, including

sensible heat storage,
latent heat storage, and
thermochemical storage.
Sensible heat storage involves storing heat in a material that undergoes a temperature change,
such as rocks or molten salts. Latent heat storage involves storing heat by changing the phase
of a material, such as melting or freezing a substance like paraffin wax. Thermochemical
storage involves storing heat through chemical reactions that release or absorb energy.

The integration of storage solutions with solar power systems provides several benefits for
homeowners and businesses alike. By capturing excess energy generated during peak sunlight
hours, these systems ensure a consistent power supply that can be tapped into when solar
production declines, such as during the night or on cloudy days.

This not only enhances energy independence but also significantly decreases reliance
on the grid, potentially leading to reduced energy bills.

Additionally, solar energy storage offers a buffer against power outages, maintaining a
supply of electricity during unforeseen circumstances. With the advancement of smart grid
technology, stored solar energy can also be sold back to the grid during high-demand periods,
creating an opportunity for additional income or credits.

By smoothing out the variability in solar power generation, storage systems also
facilitate the integration of renewable energy resources into the existing electricity
infrastructure, bolstering the overall resilience and sustainability of the energy network.

Types of Energy Storage

Solar energy storage is primarily achieved through three methods: battery storage,
thermal storage, and mechanical storage.
 Battery storage systems, such as lithium-ion or lead-acid batteries, capture energy
produced by solar panels for later use. This technology is the most commonly utilized form
in residential solar installations.

Lithium-Ion Batteries
Lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used battery storage system for solar
energy. They offer high energy density, a longer cycle life, and fast-charging capabilities
compared to other battery technologies. These batteries are lightweight and have a low self-
discharge rate, making them well-suited for various applications, including residential and
commercial solar installations. However, lithium-ion batteries are also more expensive and
sensitive to high temperatures than other battery technologies.

Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries are an older, more established battery technology that has been
used in solar energy storage for years. They are often less expensive than lithium-ion
batteries and are more robust in terms of withstanding temperature fluctuations. However,
lead-acid batteries have a lower energy density and a shorter cycle life compared to lithium-
ion batteries. Due to their bulk and higher maintenance requirements, lead-acid batteries are
better suited for large-scale solar installations like microgrids or backup power systems.

Flow Batteries
Flow batteries store energy by using a liquid electrolyte solution that exchanges ions
between two tanks. These batteries are a promising energy storage option due to their
potential for long cycle life, scalability, and ability to store large amounts of energy.
However, flow batteries are less energy-dense than other battery technologies, and their
complexity can lead to higher initial costs and maintenance requirements.

Thermal storage involves capturing heat from solar energy. Materials such as water
or molten salt retain heat, which can be converted into electricity when needed, or used
directly for heating purposes.

Molten Salt Storage

Molten salt storage systems are commonly used in concentrated solar power (CSP)
plants. These systems use a mixture of inorganic salts that are heated by the sun’s
concentrated energy. The molten salts then store the heat, which can be converted back into
electricity when needed using turbines and generators. Molten salt storage systems offer
high-temperature storage capabilities, long storage durations, and relatively low energy
losses. However, the high initial investment and the need for large infrastructure make these
systems less suited to small-scale applications.

Phase Change Materials

Phase Change Materials (PCMs) are substances that store and release large amounts
of energy during phase transitions, such as melting or solidifying. PCMs are used in thermal
energy storage systems to capture excess solar energy and release it when needed. These
materials provide high-energy storage density and can maintain constant temperatures during
the heat release process. However, the development of PCMs for solar energy storage is still
in the experimental stage, and their reliability and cost-effectiveness need to be demonstrated
in commercial applications.
 Mechanical storage includes pumped hydroelectric storage and flywheels. Pumped
hydroelectric storage moves water to an elevated reservoir during periods of excess
electricity; releasing the water through turbines generates electricity later. Flywheels store
energy in the form of rotational kinetic energy and are typically used for short-term energy
storage and grid stabilization.

Pumped Hydro Storage

Pumped hydro storage is a large-scale energy storage system that uses excess solar
energy to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. When energy is needed,
the water is released back into the lower reservoir through turbines, generating electricity.
Pumped hydro storage has been used for decades and offers a reliable and efficient way to
store large amounts of solar energy. However, this type of storage system requires significant
infrastructure, land, and water, making it dependent on geographical and environmental
factors.

Compressed Air Energy Storage

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems store energy by compressing air and
storing it in underground caverns or above-ground tanks using excess solar power. When
energy is needed, the compressed air is released and used to drive turbines that generate
electricity. CAES is an efficient, large-scale energy storage option with low environmental
impact. However, like pumped hydro storage, it requires specific geological conditions and
significant infrastructure investments.

Each storage method has its own advantages and is suitable for different applications
and scales of solar installations.
Overall, solar thermal energy storage systems play a crucial role in maximizing the
efficiency and effectiveness of solar energy systems by allowing for the utilization of solar
heat even when the sun is not shining.

Solar Thermal Applications

 Electricity generation

 Swimming pool heating

 Solar underfloor heating

 Production of domestic hot water (DHW)

 Solar energy for cooling, refrigeration, and air conditioning

 Solar energy in powering agriculture

 Solar heat for industrial processes

 Efficient thermal desalination with solar energy

Solar pond
A solar pond is also another type of solar collector which is used for applications
where large temperatures are not necessary. It may be used for generating heat or
electricity or for desalination of water or for low temperature applications in industry
and agriculture.
It works on a simple phenomenon. When water heats up a pond or lake, water rises
up after getting warmed. In a solar pond, heat is trapped because salt is added, the
concentration increasing with depth. Because of being heavy, it cannot rise and the
heat generated by sunshine remains trapped. The temperature at the bottom of the
pond will rise to over 90 °C while the temperature at the top of the pond is usually
around 30 °C.
There are 3 distinct layers of water in the pond:

 The top zone or the surface zone is called the UCZ (Upper Convective Zone)
and is atmospheric temperature. It has little salt content.

 The bottom zone is the hot zone also called the LCZ (Lower Convective
Zone). Temperatures in the range of 70°– 85° C. It has a high concentration of
salt. It energy in the form of heat.

 The zone of separation is called NCZ (Non-Convective Zone). The salt

content increases in this zone as the depth increases. Water in a particular
layer cannot rise as the water above it is lighter due to lower salt content and
vice versa. The salt gradient also acts as an insulator trapping the sunlight.

The energy obtained is rather low grade and can generate temperatures in the range
of 70-80 °C. However, larger systems can be built using no more than a membrane
to cover the pond which results in much lower costs. Usually, coastal locations are
good locations for such solar ponds although theoretically they can be constructed
anywhere.
Advantages:
1. Highly useful for rural areas because of the low cost involved.
2. A separate collector system is not needed in a solar pond setup.
3. The heat stored is on a very large scale and hence it can be
used day and night, no storage is necessary in the form of
batteries.
Disadvantages:
1. Larger land area requirement is often a deterrent.
2. The surface water keeps evaporating and needs to be replaced
periodically.
3. Large supply of salt water is needed.
4. Some degree of maintenance is necessary- removing and
preventing algae growth; maintain transparency in the pond and
the salt gradient.

Photovoltaic Cell (Solar cell):

 Photovoltaic cells consist of two or more layers of semiconductors with one layer
containing positive charge and the other negative charge lined adjacent to each other.
Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed as photons, strikes the cell, where it is
either reflected, transmitted or absorbed.
When the photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell, the
energy of the photon gets transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell. With the increase
in energy, the electron escapes the outer shell of the atom. The freed electron naturally
migrates to the positive layer creating a potential difference between the positive and the
negative layer. When the two layers are connected to an external circuit, the electron flows
through the circuit, creating a current.
Solar cells are currently the most promising candidate for providing the next generation
of secure, sustainable and affordable energy source. Besides the obvious advantages solar cells
bring on the table, such as energy independence and pollutant reduction, they also come with
very interesting physics as a package deal. In the basic physics of solar cells one can find basic
quantum mechanical concepts such as black body theory and basic semi-conductor physics
along with material design such as thin film solar cells.
 Photovoltaic Cell : A photovoltaic cell, also known as a solar cell, is defined as a device that
converts light into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.
Working Principle: The solar cell working principle involves converting light energy into
electrical energy by separating light-induced charge carriers within a semiconductor.
Role of Semiconductors: Semiconductors like silicon are crucial because their properties can
be modified to create free electrons or holes that carry electric current.
Junction Importance: The junction between n-type and p-type semiconductors forms a
depletion layer that is essential for the cell’s ability to generate voltage.
Electricity Production: Solar cells produce electricity by generating a voltage from the
separation of electrons and holes created by light exposure.

Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called

photovoltaic effect. When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, the some of the
photons of light ray are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes a significant
number of free electrons in the crystal. This is the basic reason for producing electricity due
to photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic
effect is utilised to produce electricity from light energy. Silicon is the most widely used
semiconductor material for constructing the photovoltaic cell.
The silicon atom has four valence electrons. In a solid crystal, each silicon atom
shares each of its four valence electrons with another nearest silicon atom hence creating
covalent bonds between them. In this way, silicon crystal gets a tetrahedral lattice structure.
While light ray strikes on any materials some portion of the light is reflected, some portion is
transmitted through the materials and rest is absorbed by the materials.

The same thing happens when light falls on a silicon crystal. If the intensity of
incident light is high enough, sufficient numbers of photons are absorbed by the crystal and
these photons, in turn, excite some of the electrons of covalent bonds. These excited electrons
then get sufficient energy to migrate from valence band to conduction band. As the energy
level of these electrons is in the conduction band, they leave from the covalent bond leaving a
hole in the bond behind each removed electron.
These are called free electrons move randomly inside the crystal structure of the
silicon. These free electrons and holes have a vital role in creating electricity in photovoltaic
cell. These electrons and holes are hence called light-generated electrons and holes
respectively. This light generated electrons and holes cannot produce electricity in the silicon
crystal alone. There should be some additional mechanism to do that.

Adding a pentavalent impurity like phosphorus to silicon leads to covalent bonding of

four out of the five valence electrons of each phosphorus atom with neighbouring silicon
atoms. The fifth electron remains unbound and free to conduct electricity.

This fifth electron is only loosely bound to its parent phosphorus atom, and even at
room temperature, the available thermal energy can free it. Once disassociated, this electron
becomes mobile within the crystal, aiding in conductivity without being tied to any specific
bond or hole. These free electrons come from pentavalent impurity are always ready to
conduct current in the semiconductor.

Adding trivalent impurities like boron, instead of pentavalent ones, results in a

different type of semiconductor. Boron replaces some silicon atoms, pairing its three valence
electrons with those of neighbouring silicon atoms, leaving one electron unpaired. This
creates a ‘hole’ or a vacancy that seeks an electron to complete the bond, essential for p-type
semiconductor behaviour.

An off-grid or Stand Alone PV System is made up of a number of

individual photovoltaic modules (or panels) usually of 12 volts with power
outputs of between 50 and 100+ watts each. These PV modules are then
combined into a single array to give the desired power output.
A simple stand alone PV system is an automatic solar system that produces
electrical power to charge banks of batteries during the day for use at night
when the suns energy is unavailable. A stand alone small scale PV system
employs rechargeable batteries to store the electrical energy supplied by a PV
panels or array.
Stand alone PV systems are ideal for remote rural areas and applications
where other power sources are either impractical or are unavailable to provide
power for lighting, appliances and other uses. In these cases, it is more cost
effective to install a single stand alone PV system than pay the costs of
having the local electricity company extend their power lines and cables
directly to the home as part of a grid connected PV system.
A stand alone photovoltaic (PV) system is an electrical system consisting of
and array of one or more PV modules, conductors, electrical components, and
one or more loads. But a small-scale off grid solar system does not have to be
attached to a roof top or building structures for domestic applications. Many
off grid solar systems are used to power camper vans, RV’s, boats, tents,
camping and any other remote location. Many companies such as Amazon
now offer portable solar kits that allow you to provide your own reliable and
free solar electricity anywhere you go even in hard to reach locations.
Simplified Stand Alone PV System
 While a major component and cost of a stand alone PV system is the solar
array, several other components are typically needed. These include:
 Batteries – Batteries are an important element in any stand alone PV system
but can be optional depending upon the design. Batteries are used to store
the solar-produced electricity for night time or emergency use during the day.
Depending upon the solar array configuration, battery banks can be of 12V,
24V or 48V and many hundreds of amperes in total.
 Charge Controller – A charge controller regulates and controls the output
from the solar array to prevent the batteries from being over charged (or over
discharged) by dissipating the excess power into a load resistance. Charge
controllers within a stand alone PV system are optional but it is a good idea to
have one for safety reasons.
 Fuses and Isolation Switches – These allow PV installations to be protected
from accidental shorting of wires allowing power from the PV modules and
system to be turned “OFF” when not required saving energy and improving
battery life.
 Inverter – The inverter can be another optional unit in a stand alone system.
Inverters are used to convert the 12V, 24V or 48 Volts direct current (DC)
power from the solar array and batteries into an alternating current (AC)
 electricity and power of either 120 VAC or 240 VAC for use in the home to
power AC mains appliances such as TV’s, washing machines, freezers, etc.
 Wiring – The final component required in and PV solar system is the electrical
wiring. The cables need to be correctly rated for the voltage and power
requirements. Thin telephone or bell wire will not work!
Batteries are an important element and the heart of any stand alone solar
power system, whether that is one using a large array of panels to power a
home or a small pico solar system used to power the garden, shed or fish
pond.
Batteries are needed because of the fluctuating nature of the output being
delivered by the PV panels or array. They also convert the electrical energy
into stored chemical energy for use when the solar array is not producing
power. During the hours of sunshine, the PV system is directly fed to the load,
with excess electrical energy being stored in the batteries for later use. During
the night, or during a period of low solar irradiance, such as a cloudy, rainy
days, energy is supplied to the load from the battery.
So battery storage allows a stand alone PV system to be run when the solar
panels are not producing enough energy on their own with the battery storage
size tied to the electrical usage. There are basically two types of batteries
used for solar energy storage: deep cycle batteries and shallow cycle
batteries.
I-V Characteristics of solar PV cell
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a technique used in solar power systems to
maximize the efficiency of solar panels by continuously adjusting the operating point of the
panels to ensure they are operating at their maximum power output.
1. Solar Panel Characteristics: Solar panels have a characteristic voltage-current curve that
shows the relationship between the voltage and current output of the panel at different levels
of solar irradiance. The curve typically has a peak point, known as the Maximum Power
Point (MPP), where the panel operates at its maximum power output.

2. MPPT Algorithm: The MPPT algorithm continuously monitors the output of the solar
panels and calculates the optimal operating voltage and current to ensure the panels are
operating at or near the MPP. This is done by adjusting the voltage and current levels to
match the impedance of the load connected to the panels.

3. Tracking the MPP: The MPPT controller adjusts the operating point of the solar panels by
varying the duty cycle of a DC-DC converter or using other control techniques to track the
MPP as the environmental conditions change, such as variations in solar irradiance and
temperature.

4. Benefits of MPPT: By ensuring that the solar panels operate at their maximum power
output, MPPT increases the overall efficiency of the solar power system, resulting in higher
energy production and improved performance. This can lead to increased energy yield,
reduced system costs, and improved return on investment for solar power installations.

Overall, MPPT is a crucial technology in maximizing the efficiency and performance of solar
power systems by optimizing the power output of solar panels under varying environmental
conditions.

1. Perturb and Observation method:

2. Incremental Conductance method:

The incremental conductance algorithm detects the slope of the P–V curve,
and the MPP is tracked by searching the peak of the P–V curve. This algorithm uses
the instantaneous conductance I/V and the incremental conductance dI/dV for MPPT.
 Solar PV Applications

• Residential: Solar PV systems can be installed on rooftops of homes to

generate electricity for household use. This can help reduce electricity bills
and reliance on the grid.
• Commercial: Businesses can also benefit from solar PV systems by reducing
operating costs and demonstrating a commitment to sustainability.
• Utility-scale: Large solar PV power plants can be built to generate electricity
for the grid, providing clean and renewable energy to communities.
• Off-grid: Solar PV systems can be used in remote areas or for emergency
backup power where access to the grid is limited or unreliable.
• Agricultural: Solar PV systems can power irrigation systems, lighting, and
other equipment on farms, helping to reduce operating costs and increase
efficiency.