Solar Geometry.

2.
0 THE SOLAR RESOURCE
In this chapter, you will learn
• the solar geometry regarding earth’s latitude, azimuth, orientation and tilt angle.
• types of solar radiation.
2.1. Introduction
The term for solar radiation striking a surface at a particular time and place is insolation.
When insolation is described as power, it is expressed as number of watts per square meter and usually
presented as an average daily value for each month. On a clear day, the total insolation striking the
earth is about 1,000 watts per square meter. However, many factors determine how much sunlight will
be available at a given site, including atmospheric conditions, the earth's position in relation to the sun,
and obstructions at the site.
2.2. The Solar Geometry
The earth's distance from the sun and the earth's tilt affect the amount of available solar energy. The
earth's northern latitudes are tilted towards the sun from June to August, which brings summer to the
northern hemisphere. The longer summer days and the more favourable tilt of the earth's axis create
significantly more available energy on a summer day than on a winter day. In the northern hemisphere,
where the sun is predominantly in the southern sky, photovoltaic modules should point towards the
southern sky to collect solar energy. Designers should optimise solar collection by positioning the array
to take full advantage of the maximum amount of sunlight available at a particular location. Fortunately,
the sun's path across the sky is orderly and predictable. The site's latitude (the distance north or south
of the earth's equator) determines whether the sun appears to travel in the northern or southern sky.
For example, Islamabad, Pakistan, is located at approximately 33 degrees north latitude, and the sun
moves across the southern sky. At midday, the sun is exactly true south.
2.2.1. Orientation
The sun's apparent location east and west of true south is called azimuth, which is measured in degrees
east or west of true south. Since there are 360 degrees in a circle and 24 hours in a day, the sun appears
to move 15 degrees in azimuth each hour (360 degrees divided by 24 hours). Daily performance will be
optimised, if fixed modules are faced true south. An array that deviates 15 degrees from true south will
collect 90 percent of the sun's available energy on an average daily basis.
1
Local climate characteristics should be carefully evaluated and taken into consideration. For example,
you can compensate for early morning fog by adjusting the photovoltaic array west of south to gain
additional late afternoon insolation.
2.2.2. Tilt Angle
The sun's height above the horizon is called altitude, which is measured in degrees above the horizon.
When the sun appears to be just rising or just setting, its altitude is 0 degrees. When the sun is true
south in the sky at 0 degrees azimuth, it will be at its highest altitude for that day.
This time is called solar noon. A location's latitude determines how high the sun appears above the
horizon at solar noon throughout the year. As a result of the earth's orbit around the sun with a tilted
axis, the sun is at different altitudes above the horizon at solar noon throughout the year. The highest
average insolation will fall on a collector with a tilt angle equal to the latitude. You must consider
specific seasonal use characteristics to optimise a system's performance. The following list outlines the
optimum tilt angle of a photovoltaic array for different seasonal loads.
• Year-round loads: Tilt angle equals latitude.
• Winter loads: Tilt angle equals latitude plus 15 degrees.
• Summer loads: Tilt angle equals latitude minus 15 degrees.
Adjusting the tilt angle of the PV array seasonally can increase power production significantly for year-
round loads.
Photovoltaic arrays work best when the sun's rays strike perpendicular (90 degrees) to the cells. When
the cells are directly facing the sun in both azimuth and altitude, the angle of incidence is "normal".
Figure 2.2 illustrates the effect of this tilt angle on available monthly insolation.
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Types of Solar Radiation Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface can be divided into two types.
2.3.1. Direct Solar Radiation
The solar radiation that reaches the earth's surface without being diffused is called direct solar radiation.
2.3.2. Diffused Solar Radiation
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by clouds
(moisture and ice particles), particulate matter (dust, smoke, haze, and smog), and various gases. Solar
radiation reaching the earth’s surfache finally, is called diffused solar radiation. It has no special
direction but comes from various directins at the same time. Due to that fact, one can realize that
diffuse radiation is not causing shadow, as direct radiation does if obstacles are in its way. Direct solar
radiation produces more power than the diffused solar radiation when it strikes on PV modules, because
direct solar radiation is much more intense than the diffused solar radiation. In cloudy weather
conditions, diffused solar radiation will also produce power when it strikes on PV modules but amount
of power will be less.
Key Points
1. On a clear day, the total insolation striking the earth is about 1,000 watts per square meter.
2. Designers should optimise solar collection by positioning the array to take full advantage of the
maximum amount of sunlight available at a particular location.
3. Daily performance of fixed modules is optimised, if they are faced true south, which is the best
generic orientation for locations in the Northern hemisphere.
4. Designers should evaluate the local climate characteristics before optimisation.
5. The highest average insolation will fall on a collector with a tilt angle equal to the latitude.
6. Photovoltaic arrays work best when the sun's rays strike perpendicular (90 degrees) to the cells.
7. In cloudy weather conditions, diffused solar radiation will also produce current when it strikes on PV
modules but amount of current will be less.

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2.

0 THE SOLAR RESOURCE

In this chapter, you will learn

• types of solar radiation.

2.2. The Solar Geometry

2.2.2. Tilt Angle

• Year-round loads: Tilt angle equals latitude.

• Winter loads: Tilt angle equals latitude plus 15 degrees.

• Summer loads: Tilt angle equals latitude minus 15 degrees.

2.3.1. Direct Solar Radiation

2.3.2. Diffused Solar Radiation

4. Designers should evaluate the local climate characteristics before optimisation.

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