Module-5

Dr B Lakshmi
SENSE
 Filters
• A filter is a reactive network that freely passes the desired bands of frequencies
while almost totally suppressing all other bands.
• A filter is constructed from purely reactive elements, for otherwise the
attenuation would never becomes zero in the pass band of the filter network.
• Filters differ from simple resonant circuits in providing a substantially constant
transmission over the band which they accept, this band may lie between any
limits depending on the design.
• Ideally, filters should produce no attenuation in the desired band, called the
transmission band or pass band, and should provide total or infinite attenuation
at all other frequencies, called attenuation band or stop band.
• The frequency which separates the transmission band and the attenuation band
is defined as the cut-off frequency of the wave filters, and is designated by fc
• Filter networks are widely used in communication systems to separate
various voice channels in carrier frequency telephone circuits.
• Filters also find applications in instrumentation, telemetering equipment,
etc. where it is necessary to transmit or attenuate a limited range of
frequencies.
• The study of the behavior of any filter requires the calculation of its
propagation constant γ, attenuation α, phase shift β and its characteristic
impedance Z0.
• A filter may, in principle, have any number of pass bands separated by
attenuation bands.
 Classification of Filters
• They are classified into four common types
❖low pass
❖ high pass
❖band pass
❖band stop
 Low Pass Filter
• A low pass (LP) filter is one which passes without attenuation all frequencies up
to the cut-off frequency fc, and attenuates all other frequencies greater than fc.
• This transmits currents of all frequencies from zero up to the cut-off frequency.
• The band is called pass band or transmission band.
• Thus, the pass band for the LP filter is the frequency range 0 to fc.
• The frequency range over which transmission does not take place is called the
stop band or attenuation band.
• The stop band for a LP filter is the frequency range above fc.
 High Pass Filter
• A high pass (HP) filter attenuates all frequencies below a designated cut-off
frequency, fc, and passes all frequencies above fc.
• Thus the pass band of this filter is the frequency range above fc, and the stop
band is the frequency range below fc
 Band Pass Filter
• A band pass (BP) filter passes frequencies between two designated cut-off
frequencies and attenuates all other frequencies.
• A BP filter has two cut-off frequencies and will have the pass band f2 – f1
• f1 is called the lower cut-off frequency, while f2 is called the upper cut-off
frequency.
 Band Stop Filter
• A band stop filter passes all frequencies lying outside a certain range, while it
attenuates all frequencies between the two designated frequencies.
• It is also referred as band elimination filter.
• All frequencies between f1 and f2 will be attenuated while frequencies below f1
and above f2 will be passed.
 Attenuators
• An attenuator is a two-port resistive network and is used to reduce the signal level by a given amount.
• In many applications, it is necessary to introduce a specified loss between source and a matched load
without altering the impedance relationship.
• Attenuators may be symmetrical or asymmetrical, can be either fixed or variable.
• A fixed attenuator with constant attenuation is called a pad.
• Variable attenuators are used as volume controls in radio broadcasting sections.
• Attenuators are also used in laboratory to obtain small value of voltage or current for testing circuits.
• The increase or decrease in power due to insertion or substitution of a new element in a network can
be conveniently expressed in decibels (dB), or in nepers.
• In other words, attenuation is expressed either in decibels (dB) or in nepers
Types of Attenuator
--------T-type

--------Π- type

---------Lattice

--------Bridged-T
 Equalizers
• Equalizers are networks designed to provide compensation against distortions
that occur in a signal while passing through an electrical network.
• In general, any electrical network has attenuation distortion and phase
distortion.
• Attenuation distortion occurs due to non-uniform attenuation against
frequency characteristics.
• Phase distortion occurs due to phase delay against frequency characteristics.
• An attenuation equalizer is used to compensate attenuation distortion in any
network.
• These equalizers are used in medium to high frequency carrier telephone
systems, amplifiers, transmission lines and speech reproduction, etc.
• A phase equalizer is used to compensate phase distortion in any network.
• These equalizers are used in TV signal transmission lines and in facsimile
Series and Shunt Equalizer
 Constant Resistance Equalizer
• The disadvantage of a reactance equalizer either in a shunt equalizer or a
series equalizer is that, the variation of impedance with frequency causes
impedance mismatch which results in reflection losses.
• A four terminal equalizer which offers a constant resistance at all frequencies
avoids reflection loss when terminated in its design impedance.
• Constant resistance equalizer is a four terminal network which can be T, π,
lattice and bridged-T network type.
• All these types have characteristic impedance satisfying the relation Z1Z2 = R02