GR 10 Matter and Materials Booklet Part 1

Grade 10 Matter and Materials
Grade 10 - Matter and Materials
1. Introduction
All materials around us consist of matter. All matter occupies space and has mass. A substance is a
form of matter that has distinct properties that include. All substances can be classified into three
broad groups, mixture, elements, and compounds.
The following flow diagram indicates the classification of matter and materials and gives examples of
the different components.
Matter and
materials
Pure substances Mixtures

(salt, copper, sugar, (saline water, sand
sulphur) and water)
Compounds Elements Homogeneous Heterogeneous

mixtures mixtures
(salt, sugar) (copper, sulphur) (saline water) (sand and water)
Metals
(copper)
Non-metals
(sulphur)
2. Properties of Materials
Every material has its own properties. The physical properties of a material are macroscopic
properties. The macroscopic properties of objects give us information about the microscopic
properties of objects.
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The properties of materials could include the following:
• strength: how much force a material can withstand before it changes shape'
• thermal conductivity: how well a material conducts heat
• electrical conductivity: how well a material conducts electricity
• brittleness, malleability, and ductility: how easily a material can be shaped without breaking
apart
• magnetic properties: how well a material attracts magnetic metals
• density: how closely packed the particles are in a material
• melting point: the temperature at which a material changes phase from a solid to liquid
• boiling point: the temperature at which a material changes phase from a liquid to gas.
ACTIVITY: UNITS
All the properties of materials listed above are measurable quantities.

Find out the name and symbols of the units for:
1. Material Strength
2. Thermal conductivity
3. Electrical Conductivity
4. Magnetic Strength
5. Density
6. Melting point
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3. Mixtures
A mixture is a type of substance where the components can be separated from each other by a
physical separation method. The components of a mixture are not chemically bonded and retain their
physical properties in the mixture. The table below provides a summary of the separation methods
that can be used to separate mixtures.
3.1. Separation methods for the separation of mixtures
Separation Properties of substances

method
Filtration One substance is a liquid, and the other substance is a dissolved
solid.
Distillation Mixable liquids with different boiling points.
Evaporation One substance is a liquid, and the other substance is a soluble
solid.
Chromatography Two substances that are absorbed at different rates by a
medium, e.g., filtration paper.
Magnetism One material is magnetic and the other one is not.
Sieving The particles of the one substance are smaller than the particles
of the other substance.
Separating funnel Two non-mixable liquids, e.g. oil and water.
Sorting Two solids of which the particles are big enough, e.g. peas and
beans.
Centrifugation Substances with different densities.
A mixture has the following properties:

• The substances in a mixture retain their distinct properties.
• The substances can be mixed in any ratio.
• Substances in a mixture can be separated by means of fairly simple separation methods.
3.2. Homogeneous mixtures
The substances in homogeneous mixtures are all in the same phase. Thus, solids, liquids and gasses
can be homogeneous mixtures. Air is a homogeneous mixture of different gasses, as we cannot
distinguish the gasses in the mixture. Each of the gasses retains its own properties and the gasses
can be separated from each other by means of fractional distillation. Saline water is also a
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homogeneous mixture as we cannot see the salt in the water. Bronze, a mixture of copper and tin, is
a homogeneous mixture of two solids.
3.3. Heterogeneous mixtures
Heterogeneous mixtures consist of more than one phase. A mixture of sand and water is
heterogeneous because we can see the water and the sand in the mixture. A heterogeneous mixture
is any substance in which two components can be distinguished.
3.4. Pure substances
The components of a pure substance cannot be separated by means of simple physical separation
methods. More energy is needed for this. Examples of pure substances are cotton, sugar and iron.
Pure substances are divided into elements and compounds. In turn, elements can be divided into
metals and non-metals.
ACTIVITY
Classify the following as pure substances, heterogenous mixtures or homogeneous mixtures
Substance Pure substances, heterogenous mixtures or homogeneous mixtures

1. Blood
2. Food colouring
3. Self-raising flour
4. Muesli
5. Distilled water
6. Copper Wire
7. Table salt
8. Milk
9. Bronze
10. Tea
11. Helium
12. Air
A materials’ physical properties are present because of its chemical composition
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4. The Atomic Model (Grade 9 Revision)
It took 2 000 years to develop the atom model to where it is today. This period
was initiated by speculation, philosophising and thoughts of the ancient
Greeks. Later experimentation was used to explain the atom’s structure.
Scientists could only indicate the existence of subatomic particles, namely
protons, neutrons and electrons, in the 19th century. The discovery of
subatomic particles erased the thought that the atom is a solid sphere.
A model is a representation of the unknown by means of the known. Though we cannot see an atom
we can form an idea of what it looks like. However, this idea is not reality, but can be used to try to
explain reality. According to the atomic model all matter consists of atoms. It is surely the most
important model in the history of science. Modern chemistry and biochemistry is based on this model.
In turn chemistry resulted in the development of pharmaceutical, petrochemical and many other
important chemical industries.
Though James Dalton, a British chemist, is regarded as the father of the modern atomic model,
scientists from different cultures contributed to the development of the atomic model as we know it
today. It is appropriate to first look and acknowledges the contributions of the different cultures before
we have a look at the current atomic model.
5. The structure of the atom

An Atom
The atom consists of three subatomic particles, electron

namely protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons
and neutrons are situated in the nucleus of the atom and
are collectively known as the nucleons. The electrons move
around in the space around the nucleus.
neutron
An atom is electrically neutral and thus contains the same nucleus

number of protons and electrons. All the protons have the proton
same charge which is opposite to the charge of the electrons.
Neutrons are neutral particles and keep the protons in the
nucleus together. The neutrons are the “glue” with which the
nucleus is held together.
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Rutherford concluded that the mass of the atom is determined by the protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. The nucleus occupies a very small volume, while the electrons, which have negligible mass,
move in a large volume around the nucleus. The mass of a proton and a neutron is very small:
0,000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 67 kg!
This incredibly small mass is called an atomic mass unit. Consequently we can say that the mass of
a proton is 1 atomic mass unit or 1 u. The mass of the neutron is also 1 u. Table 1 indicates the mass
and charges of the three subatomic particles.
5.1. Mass and charges of the subatomic particles
Particle Mass Atomic mass (u) Charge Relative charge
proton 1,67  10-27 kg 1 1,6  10-19 C +1
neutron 1,67  10-27 kg 1 0 0
1
electron 9,1  10-31 kg -1,6  10-19 C -1
2000
The number of protons in the nucleus determines the identity of an atom and is called the atomic
number (Z). The atomic number will also indicate the number of electrons in a neutral atom. The
elements on the Periodic Table are arranged according to their atomic numbers. Thus, we can
determine the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom with the help of the Periodic Table. The
mass of a nucleus is practically equal to the sum of the protons and neutrons. The total number of
nucleons in the nucleus is called the mass number (A) of the atom. The letter N indicates the number
of neutrons in the nucleus.
Example:
The figure below illustrates the notation used to represent the mass number and atomic number of
atoms.
Representation of a K-39 atom
A- Mass number
Z - Atomic number
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Example:
A K-39 atom is used as an example

Z = 19 = number of protons and Z = number of electrons for a neutral atom = 19
A = 39 = protons + neutrons  number of neutrons (N) = 39 – 19 = 20
Example:
Determine the mass number, atomic number, number of protons, number of electrons and number of
neutrons for the following ion:
35 -
17Cl
A = 35; Z = 17; number of protons = 17; number of electrons = 18; N = 35 – 17 = 18
5.2. What is an ion?
When an atom receives electrons, it contains more electrons than protons and thus obtains a negative
charge. Should an atom lose electrons, it contains more protons than electrons and thus obtains a
positive charge. An atom with a charge is called an ion. Negative ions are sometimes called anions
and positive ions are called cations.
ACTIVITY: MATCH THE COLUMNS
Match the information in column A with the information in column B by only the letter (A to I) next to
the question number (1 to 7)
Column A Column B
1. A positive ion that has 3 less electrons than its neutral atom A. Mg2+
2. An ion that has 1 more electron than its neutral atom B. Cl-
3. The anion that is formed when bromine gains an electron C. CO32-
4. The cation that is formed from a magnesium atom D. Al3+
5. An example of a compound ion E. Br2-
6. A positive ion with the electron configuration of argon F. K+
7. A negative ion with the same number of electrons as neon G. Mg+
H. O2-
I. Br-
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5.3. Relative atomic mass
Atoms are very small and scientists cannot weigh a single atom during chemical reactions. An atom’s
diameter is in the order of 0,000 000 000 1 m. The mass of a hydrogen atom is incredibly small
1,7  10-24 g = 0,000 000 000 000 000 000 000 0017 g
A sensitive scale only weighs up to the nearest 0,0001 g. Scientists had to find a more practical unit
in which to express the mass of atoms.
Each atom received a number on a scale in relation to the actual mass of atoms. Carbon-12 was
chosen as the standard atom with which all the other atoms were compared to. A value of 12 was
awarded to carbon-12. The actual mass of all the other atoms were compared to the mass of carbon-
12 and received a number of the scale. This number is called the relative atomic mass.
Hydrogen is twelve times lighter than carbon-12 and consequently has a relative atomic mass of 1.
Magnesium is twice as heavy as carbon-12 and has received a relative atomic mass of 24. Thus, the
relative atomic mass is the mass of an atom on a scale where carbon-12 has a mass of 12. The
Table below indicates the actual mass and relative mass of a few elements. The elements’ atomic
numbers and relative atomic masses can be found on the Periodic Table.
5.4. Mass and relative atomic mass
Whole number Relative atomic Rounded off relative

Atom Mass (g)
ratio mass atomic mass
Hydrogen 1,66 x 10-24 1 1,00797 1
Carbon 1,99 x 10-23 12 12,011 12
Magnesium 4,0 x 10-23 24 24,312 24
Fluorine 3,2 x 10-23 19 18,9984 19
Iron 9,27 x 10-23 56 55,847 56
The relative atomic masses are not whole numbers, but the mass of an atom is determined by the
number of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons cannot be divided. Thomson and Rutherford
struggled with this problem but found no solution. The solution was found with the development of the
mass spectrometer.
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5.5. Isotopes
The mass spectrometer is an instrument that is used to identify compounds according to mass.
Charged particles move through a magnetic field and the heaviest particles are least deflected. Initially
scientists could not understand why pure elements contain atoms with different masses, e.g., neon
consisted of three types of atoms with masses of 20, 21 and 22. These atoms had the same atomic
number and thus had to differ in the number of neutrons. These atoms are called isotopes.
5.5.1. Why relative atomic masses are not whole numbers
The relative atomic masses of elements (as indicated on the Periodic Table) are the average mass of
different isotopes. Chlorine occurs as two types of isotopes namely Cl-35 and Cl-37 in a ratio of 3:1.
This means that 75% of all Cℓ-atoms have a mass of 35 and 25% of all Cℓ-atoms have a mass of 37.
The relative atomic mass would have been 36 if the mixture of the isotopes were 50%:50%. The
relative atomic mass indicated on the Periodic Table is 35,5 and can be calculated as follows:
Mass of 100 Cl-atoms = 35(75) + 37(25) = 3550

3550
Average mass of one Cl-atom = = 35,5
100
ACTIVITY:
1. Complete the following table

Isotope Z A Protons Neutrons Electrons
Carbon-12
Carbon-14
Chlorine-35
Chlorine-37
2. If a sample you have contains 90% carbon-12 and 10% carbon-14, calculate the relative
atomic mass of an atom in that sample
3. In another sample you have 22,5% Cl-17 and 77,5% Cl-35. Calculate the relative atomic
mass of the sample
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6. Electrons in the Atom
Scientists could not understand Bohr’s wave-mechanical model. How is it

possible that a negative particle can move in an orbit around a positive nucleus
without radiating energy? Wouldn’t this negative particle radiate energy and
eventually end up in the positive nucleus? In 1925 Werner Heisenberg, a
German scientist, formulated his uncertainty principle.
6.1. Orbitals
Schrodinger’s work led to a series of wave functions (mathematical equations). Each electron in an
atom was described by its own equation. Consequently, a graph could be drawn for the movement
and behaviour of each electron. The graph represents the electron’s orbital. An orbital is a probability
diagram. It describes the space where there is a 90% chance of finding an electron. However, the
electron’s movement is not limited to the orbital, but it would most likely be found there. The modern
atomic model differs from Bohr’s model in this respect.
The diagrams below illustrate the graphs or shapes of s, p, and d-orbitals. Representations of orbitals
are called probability diagrams. Note the spherical shape of the s-orbitals and the double teardrop
shape of the set of three p-orbitals (px, py and pz).
The d-orbitals occur in sets of five and are only shown for interest’s sake. You will not work with d and
f-orbitals now. Electrons in the 2s-orbitals are further away from the nucleus than those in a 1s-orbital.
Those in a 3s-orbital is further away from the nucleus than those in a 2s-orbital.
6.1.1. Probability diagrams
1s 2s 3s
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z z
Great probability z
to find an
electron
px
x x
x
y
y y
No probability
of finding an py pz
electron
6.2. Pauli’s exclusion principle

Imaginary axis
This principle, named after Wolfgang Pauli, from Austria,

entails that only two electrons can occur in an orbital, provided
that they are spinning in opposite directions. This explains why
two negative particles will occur in the same space. electron
7. The Atomic Model Continued (Not Examinable)
Scientific knowledge is not static, it is continually evolving as scientist discover new things about our
world. We now know that protons and neutrons are made up of even smaller particles called quarks!
Article extracted from https://www.imperial.ac.uk/humanities/webdesign/2012/nickyguttridge/html/page4.html
This graphic does a really good job of visually explaining what on earth is going on:
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To detect particles such as neutrinos, physicists use bubble chambers - big vats of a substance that
particles pass through and leave trails. Bubble chambers produce beautiful visual representations of
particle trajectories through different mediums. The background for this site is a representation of
the tracks made by a particle as it travels through a bubble chamber.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
The Standard Model has a defined number of key particles: elementary and composite.Elementary
particles are quarks, leptons and bosons. These particles then join together to create the more well-
known particles, such as the neutron and the proton. Such particles are known as composite
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particles, as they are composed of two or more of these elementary particles.
A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental

constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form
particles called hadrons (the most stable of which are
protons and neutrons). Quarks cannot be observed
outside of hadrons. There are six types of quarks,
known as flavours: up, down, strange, charm, bottom,
and top.
In the Standard Model, gauge bosons are force carriers. They are mediators of the strong, weak,
and electromagnetic fundamental interactions.
A lepton is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. The best known of all
leptons is the electron. The two main classes of leptons are charged leptons (also known as the
electron-like leptons), and neutral leptons (better known as neutrinos).
If this interests, you can find out what a Higgs-Boson particle is?
ACTIVITY: GROUP DISCUSSION
The changing nature of scientific knowledge Scientific knowledge is not static: it changes and evolves
over time as scientists build on the ideas of others to come up with revised (and often improved)
theories and ideas. Our understanding of atomic structure changed as more information was gathered
about the atom. There are many more examples like this one in the field of science. Think for example,
about our knowledge of the solar system and the origin of the universe, or about the particle and wave
nature of light.
Often, these changes in scientific thinking can be very controversial because they disturb what people
have come to know and accept. It is important that we realise that what we know now about science
may also change. An important part of being a scientist is to be a critical thinker. This means that you
need to question information that you are given and decide whether it is accurate and whether it can
be accepted as true. At the same time, you need to learn to be open to new ideas and not to become
stuck in what you believe is right... there might just be something new waiting around the corner that
you have not thought about!
In groups of 4-5, discuss the following questions:
7. Think about some other examples where scientific knowledge has changed
because of new ideas and discoveries:
8. What were these new ideas?
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9. Were they controversial? If so, why?

10. What role (if any) did technology play in developing these new ideas?
11. How have these ideas affected the way we understand the world?
12. Many people come up with their own ideas about how the world works. The same
is true in science. So how do we, and other scientists, know what to believe and
what not to? How do we know when new ideas are 'good' science or 'bad' science?
In your groups, discuss some of the things that would need to be done to check
whether a new idea or theory was worth listening to, or whether it was not.
13. Present your ideas to the rest of the class.
8. The Periodic Table
Pure substances can be divided into elements and compounds. An element is a substance that only
consists of one type of particle, while a compound is a composition of two or more elements. The
particles of which elements consist are called atoms. There are currently about 116 known elements
on the Periodic Table. These elements are arranged according to their properties.
8.1. The Father of the Periodic Table
In the 1860s, scientists tried to arrange the elements that were known to them in a
meaningful way. In 1869, Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, made the most
meaningful arrangement of the 63 elements which were known at that time. Like some
of his predecessors, he arranged the elements according to their atomic mass, but instead
of compiling a list of the elements, he arranged them in a table so that a pattern of
repetitive properties were formed. The arrangement of elements according to mass implies that they
were arranged according to their atomic numbers
Mendeleev left spaces for the elements that have not been discovered. As new elements were
discovered, some of the spaces were filled. Some of the spaces were even filled in his lifetime.
Currently there are no spaces in the Periodic Table and new elements must be added at the end of
the table. This means that these elements can only be produced artificially in a laboratory. Number
116 is the most recent element that was discovered in 1999. This element has not been named yet
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Lothar Meyer, a German scientist, made a similar arrangement of the elements. However, his work
was only published a year after Mendeleev’s and consequently Mendeleev is regarded as the father
of the Periodic Table. Mendeleev’s arrangement was better in the sense that the spaces that were
left open described the undiscovered elements accurately. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table is more than
130 years old, the Periodic Tables we see against walls today, differs little from Mendeleev’s.
Mendeleev left us with an instrument of priceless value that simplifies the work of chemists
• Elements 58 to 71 are known as the Lanthanides or the rare earth metals. They occur in
small quantities on earth.
• Elements 90 to 103 are known as the Actinides and include most of the well-known elements
that are used in nuclear reactors.
• All the elements with an atomic number greater than 92,as well as technetium and
promethium, do not occur naturally and are all prepared artificially by bombarding other
elements with particles.
• The elements of Group VII are also known as halogens. Halogen means salt former.
• The gasses of Group 0 or VIII are also called noble gasses. These gasses are unreactive.
• The elements of Group I are also called alkali metals and those of Group II are called the
alkali earth metals.
• Most of the elements are solids. Only bromine, mercury, caesium, gallium and francium are
liquids. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine and the noble gasses appear as
gasses
8.1.1. How did Mendeleev know the masses of atoms?
Avogadro, an Italian chemist, found a way to indirectly, determine the mass of an atom. He discovered
that when two gasses are placed in identical containers at the same pressure and temperature, the
gasses will all contain the same number of atoms. Consequently, Mendeleev only had to compare
the mass of the two gasses to determine which of the gasses’ atoms are heavier.
8.2. Metals and non-metals
Almost 75% of all elements are metals. The metals are located to the left of the Periodic Table while
the non-metals are located to the right of the Table. The metallic property thus decreases from left to
right in a period, and increases from top to bottom in a group, as illustrated below. Non-metal property
increases from left to right in a period and decreases from top to bottom in a group.
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8.3. Periodicity metal reactivity and unreactivity of metals
Decreasing metallic property
Decreasing non-metallic property

Increasing metallic property
Reactivity
Increasing non-metallic property
Metals and non-metals have characteristic properties that distinguish them from each other. The
Table below is a summary of the properties of metals and non-metals.
8.4. Properties of metals and non-metals
Metals Non-metals
Good electric conductors Poor electric conductors
Good conductors of heat Poor conductors of heat
Malleable
Brittle (breaks easily if a solid)
(can be rolled or beaten into thin sheets)
Ductile Not ductile
Shiny Dull
High melting points Low melting points
High densities Low densities
Solids at room temperature

Solids, liquids and gasses at room temperature
(except mercury)
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8.5. Semi-metals or metalloids
There are only seven elements with properties of both metals and non-metals. These elements are
boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and astatine. Silicon is the most common
semi-metal and appears shiny but is not malleable. It is also a poorer conductor of electricity and
heat than metals. Activity has already indicated that silicon is a common semi-conductor. Metalloids
are therefore very important in the semi-conductor industry.
ACTIVITY: ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC T ABLE
Lithium (Li); Chlorine (Cl); Magnesium (Mg); Neon (Ne); Oxygen (O); Calcium (Ca); Carbon (C);
Silicon (Si); Mercury (Hg)
Which of the elements listed above:
1. belongs to Group 1
2. is a halogen
3. is a noble gas
4. is an alkali metal
5. has an atomic number of 12
6. has 4 neutrons in the nucleus of its atoms
7. contains electrons in the 4th energy level
8. has only one valence electron
9. has all its energy orbitals full
11. will form positive ions
12. is liquid at room temperature
13. is a semi-metal
9. Ionisation energy
An atom will not, however, lose an electron willingly. The positive nucleus has a force of attraction on
the electron and energy is required to separate them. The energy required to remove an electron from
an atom is called the ionisation energy. The following equation demonstrates the ionisation energy
for element X:
X(g) + ionisation energy → X+(g) + e-
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Ionisation energy is measured in kJ mol-1 (kilojoules per mol) and varies in sizes ranging from 381
(which is low) to 2 370 (which is very high). The mol refers to the mass of matter and will be discussed
later in this section. All elements have a first ionisation energy. This is the energy required to remove
the first electron from the atom in the gaseous phase. Remember: the first electron is the electron in
the outermost orbit which is the farthest from the nucleus.
9.1. Ionisation energies of the first 20 elements

Ionisation energy
kJ.mol-1
Helium doesn’t normally form positive ions and this is clear from the high first ionisation energy. The
first ionisation energy indicates periodicity. It is clear from the graph that it forms a recurring pattern
from left to right in a period. Compare the pattern from Li to Ne (Period II) on the graph with the pattern
from Na to Ar (Period III).
Some atoms lose more than one electron. To remove a second electron from an atom in the gaseous
phase, the second ionisation energy is required, and for a third, the third ionisation energy, etc.
Ionisation energies vary from atom to atom. The first ionisation energy of a sodium atom will be
different to the first ionisation energy of an oxygen atom. Thus, atoms do not have the same force of
attraction to electrons.
ACTIVITY: DATA INTERPRETATION
Refer to the data table below which gives ionisation energy (in kJ/mol) and atomic number (Z) for a
number of elements in the periodic table
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1. Draw a line graph to show the relationship between atomic number (on the x-axis) and
ionisation energy (y-axis).
2. Describe any trends that you observe.
3. Explain why...
(a) the ionisation energy for Z=2 is higher than for Z=1
(b) the ionisation energy for Z=3 is lower than for Z=2
(c) the ionisation energy increases between Z=5 and Z=7
10. Electron affinity and Electronegativity
10.1. Electron affinity
Electron affinity can be thought of as how much an element wants electrons.
10.2. Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the tendency of atoms to attract electrons. The electronegativity of the elements
starts from about 0.7 (Francium (Fr)) and goes up to 4 (Fluorine (F)
The following diagram illustrates some key trends in the periods
11. Distribution of electrons in orbitals
The Aufbau principle is a series of procedures used to place electrons in an the atom. The term
Aufbau means to build up. An atom’s electron structure is constructed based on the electron structure
of the atom preceding it in the Periodic Table.
The Aufbau principle is based on the following procedures:
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• The lowest energy orbitals fill up first. Electrons are placed as close to the bottom of the
diagram as possible.
• According to Pauli’s exclusion principle a maximum of two electrons may be placed in an
orbital, provided they spin in opposite directions.
• No pairing in p-orbitals before there are not at least one electron in each orbital. This is
known as Hund’s rule.
• Electrons are represented by arrows in opposite directions to indicate the spin of each
electron. ()
11.1. Valence electrons
The electrons in the highest energy level of the atom are called the valence electrons. The rest of the
electrons are called the inner-electrons or core electrons. The valence electrons or outer electrons
are the electrons that partake in chemical bonding and are critical to determine the chemical
properties of elements
11.2. Electron configuration
Example 2:
7N is illustrated below. Take note of the application of Hund’s rule when

14
The Aufbau diagram for
filling the p-orbitals.
11.3. Aufbau diagram for N-14
n=2 2px 2py 2pz

2s
n=1
1s
We can deduce the following from the electron structure above:

• A nitrogen atom has 5 valence electrons.
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• A nitrogen atom has 2 inner-electrons.

• The highest filled energy level is n = 2.
• Electron configuration: 147N: 1s22s22px12py12pz1 or [He] 2s22px12py12pz1
Instead of using the Aufbau diagram, we may use a shortened notation.
Example
We may represent potassium’s electron structure as:
1s22s22px22py22pz23s23px23py23pz24s1
OR Noble gas that precedes K [Ar]4s
ACTIVITY: ELECTRON STRUCTURE
Give the electron configuration of the following elements using an Aufbau diagram, shortened electron
structure and the Noble gas notation.
1. Oxygen
2. Magnesium
3. Chlorine
11.4. Why the noble gasses are monatomic?
The noble gases are well known for their unreactivity and exist as monatomic gases, e.g. He, Ne and
Ar. The atomic model may now be applied to explain this unreactivity and tendency not to bond with
other atoms. You will note that the noble gasses have a completely filled highest energy level
according to the model. Other elements need electrons to complete their highest energy level. The
atomic model thus explains the stability of the noble gasses and why they don’t bond with other
elements or each other. This led to the formation of the octet rule.
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11.5. Octet rule
All elements, except hydrogen and helium tend to have an octet of valence electrons. Hydrogen and
helium tend to have two valence electrons. Noble gasses are therefore stable because all noble
gasses except helium have an octet of valence electrons. Helium has two valence electrons and is
therefore also to have a filled first energy level. All atoms that do not have a filled first energy level or
all atoms that do not have an octet of valence electrons will tend to bond chemically with each other
or other atoms.
12. Chemical Bonding
12.1. An important chemical concept
The physical properties of substances is greatly determined by the bonds that hold the constituent
particles together.
12.2. Why do chemical bonds form?
Chemical bonds form so that the energy of the system may be decreased. The particles that bond
become more stable during a chemical bond. Everything in nature wants to stabilise. It’s easier to lie
down than to stand! Chemical bonds are nature’s way of making atoms lie down.
12.3. What is a chemical bond?
A chemical bond is often represented as a line between two atoms or a dowel that
connects two atoms. In the old days these were seen as hooks that joined together.
These representations make a chemical bond look like a “thing”. It is in fact an effect
that causes atoms’ energy to be lower when they are closer together than when they
are further apart.
The forces that bind atoms are the same electrostatic forces that bind electrons to the positive
nucleus. The only difference is that a chemical bond forms as a result of the simultaneous attraction
between two nuclei. The inner-electrons (core electrons) are strongly attracted to the nucleus, but
Page 22 of 38
the attraction of the valence electrons provide the forces that keep atoms together and are the basis
for the chemical bond.
There are different types of chemical bonds. The different properties of matter, make it necessary for
different models for chemical bonds. We can distinguish between three types of chemical bonds. We
will look at the in the following activities. The three models are as follows:
• Covalent bonds
Covalent
Electron sharing between atoms
• Ionic bonds
Electron transfer between atoms.
• Metallic bonds
‘sea of electrons’
Ionic Metal
13. Ionic bond
These compounds are all non-conductors in the solid phase but are conductors in aqueous solution
or in their molten state. Furthermore, these compounds are hard and brittle with high melting points.
The bond model which best describes their properties is the ionic bond model. As an example, for the
formation of the ionic bond we will look at the formation of table salt.
13.1. How does an ionic bond form?
According to the Aufbau diagrams for sodium and chlorine, the Na-atom has 1 valence electron and
the Cl-atom has 7 valence electrons. Both atoms have a valency of 1.
Page 23 of 38
13.2. Aufbau diagrams for sodium and chlorine
3px 3py 3pz 3px 3py 3pz

n=3 n=3
3s 3s
2px 2py 2pz n=2 2px 2py 2pz

n=2
2s 2s
n=1 n=1
1s 1s
The Cl-atom thus needs one electron to acquire a stable structure. The Na-atom needs to receive
seven electrons or lose one electron to acquire a stable structure. The easiest way for this to happen
is an electron transfer. The sodium atom loses one electron and acquires a stable structure. The
chlorine atom takes up the lost electron and also acquires a stable structure. The result is the
formation of positive and negative ions that are attracted to each other through electrostatic forces.
The fact that the Na-atom easily loses an atom corresponds with the low first ionisation energy for
Na. Cl has a high first ionisation energy and will thus not easily lose electrons.
13.3. Diagrammatic representation of the electron transfer between Na- and Cl-
atoms
Na Cl Na+ Cl-
The attraction between millions of Na+- and Cl--ions forms the NaCl crystal lattice. This crystal lattice
is held together by strong electrostatic forces, which explains the ionic properties of matter.
Page 24 of 38
13.3.1. When do ionic bonds form?
The ionisation energy increases from left to right in periods. Atoms of the elements to the left of the
Periodic Table will thus lose electrons easily and those to the right not so easily. You already know
that metals occur on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table and non-metals are to the right. This
means that metal atoms are prone to donate electrons when they meet atoms of non-metals.
Ionic bonds are usually formed between metals and non-metals. The metal atom donates an electron,
and this becomes positive. The non-metal atom receives the electron and thus becomes a negative
ion. Electrostatic forces of attraction form the crystal lattice. The formula for an ionic compound
indicates the relationship in which the ions are formed in the crystal lattice, e.g. in NaCl the relationship
is 1:1. NaCl is the empirical formula for the sodium chloride crystal lattice. In the lattice each positive
ion is surrounded by a negative ion and the other way round.
13.3.2. What is a crystal lattice?
An orderly three-dimensional arrangement of particles (ions,

Cl-
molecules or atoms) in a solid structure is known as a crystal lattice.
Na
The particles in an ionic lattice are positive and negative ions.
14. Covalent Bonding
The formation of a hydrogen molecule is illustrated below with the aid of a space-filling model. Notice
that the two atoms share the two bonding electrons. A chemical bond that results from electron sharing
is called a covalent bond. In the Couper structure below a line between the two H-atoms represents
the two bonding electrons.
14.1. Space-filling model for the formation of a hydrogen molecule
• • •
H + H H • H
Hydrogen atoms Hydrogen molecule (H2)
H+H H H
Page 25 of 38
Couper structure:
The occurrence of all other diatomic molecules may be explained in the same way by the covalent
bond model. In the hydrogen molecule, only one bond forms between the two hydrogen atoms. This
is called a single bond. Sometimes even double or triple covalent bonds may occur.
14.1.1. A triple covalent bond
Nitrogen occurs in the air as the diatomic gas N2. According to the Aufbau diagram for nitrogen, the
nitrogen needs three electrons to form a filled energy level. A second nitrogen atom has the same
problem, and each atom will donate 3 electrons and as a result two nitrogen atoms will share six
electrons between them to form the nitrogen molecule. The result is a triple covalent bond between
the molecules. In the space-filling model we only use the valence electrons. That is why we only draw
five electrons around the N-atom and not all seven electrons of nitrogen. Take note: Two electrons
are needed to form one bond. One line in a Couper structure represents two bonding electrons. As a
result, the Couper structure for nitrogen has three lines between the two N-atoms.
14.1.2. Why some elements are diatomic
Chlorine, fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are known as diatomic gasses. Once again the
atomic model can give an explanation for this the figure below illustrates the Aufbau diagrams for
hydrogen and nitrogen.
14.2. Aufbau diagrams for hydrogen and nitrogen
n=2 2px 2py 2pz

2s
n=1
1s
1 H
1
n=1 14
7N
1s
According to the Aufbau diagram for hydrogen which needs one electron to have a stable helium
structure. Another hydrogen molecule has the same problem. The only solution is for two hydrogen
atoms to bond and share the two electrons. In this way each will have a filled energy level. Thus two
hydrogen atoms form a hydrogen molecule through the sharing of electrons.
Page 26 of 38
A molecule can be defined as a group of two or more atoms that are bonded and function as a unit.
It is the smallest unit of a compound that still has the compound’s properties.
• •
• • • • • •
• • • • •
N + • N • N N •
• •
• •
Nitrogen atoms Nitrogen molecule (N2)
N + N N
N
Couper structure:
14.2.1. Multi-atomic molecules
Ammonia (NH3) is a gas that is used in the fertiliser industry. The gas consists of many ammonia
molecules. Can the atomic model explain the formation of NH3? From the Aufbau diagram for nitrogen
it is clear that nitrogen needs three electrons to form a stable. If nitrogen and hydrogen were to bond,
three hydrogen atoms would be needed to bond to the bond together
14.3. Space-filling model for the formation of an ammonia molecule
• •
• • •
• • H • H • H •
• N + + + • N • H
• • •
Nitrogen atom Hydrogen atoms H

Ammonia molecule
N+H+H+H H N H (NH3)
Couper structure H
Page 27 of 38
14.3.1. When do covalent bonds form?
Covalent bonds form mainly between the atoms of non-metals. This means that when the atoms of
the elements on the right-hand side of the Periodic Table bond to each other to form molecules,
electron sharing takes place.
14.3.2. Valency
The number of bonds that an atom can form is called the valency of the atom. A hydrogen atom needs
only one electron to fill an energy level and only forms one bond. Hydrogen thus has a valency of
one. Nitrogen has a valency of three. The valency of an atom may be determined using the following
formula:
Groups I – IV:Valency = group number (in the Periodic Table)

Groups V – VIII (0): Valency = 8 – group number (in the Periodic Table)
14.4. Polar and non-polar Covalent Bonds
There are two types of Covalent Bonds Polar and Non-Polar sometimes called a pure covalent bond.
These terms refer to how the electron is shared between two atoms. We use the electronegativity
difference between the elements to determine which type of covalent bond is formed.
14.4.1. Non-Polar Covalent bond
This type of bond is formed when there is very little difference between the electronegativities of the
elements involved in the bond. This means that the electron is evenly share between the atoms
For example: PH3 - P has an EN of 2,1 and so does hydrogen therefore ΔEN = 2,1 – 2,1 = 0. The
electron sits in the middle of the atoms
P H
An electronegativity difference approximately less than 0,4 is regarded as a non-polar covalent
14.4.2. Polar Covalent
In this type of bond the shared electron is not evenly distributed, instead it pulled closer to the element
with the atom with the higher electronegativity
For example: HCl - Cl has an EN of 3 and H an EN of 2,1 ΔEN = 3,0 – 2,1 = 0,9.
Page 28 of 38
This is greater than 0,4 and therefore is regarded as a polar covalent bond the electron will sit closer
to the chlorine atom making the bond polar.
H Cl
Take Note:
The approximate parameters EN differences for the different types of bonds are as follows:
0 – 0,4 Non-polar covalent

0,4 – 1,9 Polar Covalent
>1,9 Ionic
But bonding occurs on a continuum it is possible to have two non-metals to be involved in a covalent
bond that is so strongly polar that is nearly ionic in nature. These values provide approximate
guidelines.
0,4 1,9
15. Lewis Structures
Lewis Dot notation uses dots and crosses to represent the valence electrons on different atoms. The
chemical symbol of the element is used to represent the nucleus and the inner electrons of the atom.
To determine which are the valence electrons we look at the last energy level in the atom’s electronic
structure. For example, chlorine’s electronic structure can be written as: 1s22s22p63s23p5 or
[Ne]3s23p5. The last energy level is the third one and it contains 7 electrons. These are the valence
electrons.
Page 29 of 38
For example:
A hydrogen atom (one valence electron) would be represented like this: H • A chlorine atom (seven
valence electrons) would look like this:
15.1. Lewis structures with covalent bonding
A molecule of hydrogen chloride would be shown like this:
The dot and cross in between the two atoms, represent the pair of electrons that are shared
in the covalent bond.
Here are some more examples of Lewis Structures
15.2. Lewis Dot Notation with ionic bonding
In an ionic bond the electron is transferred, and this is represented in the following way
There is not an overlapping of the electrons as shown in a covalent bond instead the transfer is shown
and the charges on the atoms are shown.
Page 30 of 38
ACTIVITY: LEWIS DOT STRUCTURES

Draw the Lewis Dot diagrams for the following molecules
1. Calcium and chlorine

2. Nitrogen and Hydrogen
3. Sodium and Oxygen
4. Hydrogen and Oxygen
5. Lithium and Chlorine
6. Carbon and Oxygen
16. Metallic bonds
Metals are usually solids at room temperature, conduct electricity and heat and are malleable. To
explain the conductive ability in the solid phase, there must be free electrons available to carry the
charge. In covalent bonds the electrons are trapped in the bond. In ionic bonds electrons are
transferred from one atom to the other and are also not free. Another model is necessary where
valence electrons are not shared and also not transferred, but move freely around.
16.1.1. Metallic bond model
According to this model, a metal is considered as consisting of positive ions and a sea of delocalised
valence electrons. The valence electrons of metal atoms become detached from the atom and roam
freely through the metal. Delocalised means that all the moving valence electrons belong to all the
positive ions in the metallic lattice and that no valence electron belongs to a specific atom.
The figure below illustrates the metallic bond model in the metallic lattice of silver. Every silver atom’s
valence electron becomes delocalised and moves freely through the metallic lattice. As a result of the
loss of the valence electrons, silver ions form.
The metallic bond model for silver
Page 31 of 38
16.1.2. The metallic bond model explains the properties of metals
• Conduction of heat and electricity

The free-moving valence electrons act as carriers of heat and electricity.
• Malleability and ductility. If you hit a piece of metal with a hammer, the positive ions shift
over each other, but the delocalised valence electrons move between them and prevent the
positive ions from getting too close and then repelling each other.
• High density - Because electrons are very small, metal ions can be packed very close
together.
• Metallic lustre - Valence electrons are free and do not belong to one specific atom anymore.
These free electrons can absorb and radiate light of any frequency, unlike electrons in
atoms. Metals thus have a gleam in any light. (Energy from these free electrons is not
quantised!)
ACTIVITY: BONDING
14. Give two examples of everyday objects that contain:

a. covalent bonds
b. ionic bonds
c. metallic bonds
15. Complete the table which compares the different types of bonding:
16.
Covalent Ionic Metallic
Types of atoms
involved
Nature of the bond
Conducts electricity
yes/no?
High or low melting
point
Other properties?
Page 32 of 38
17. Complete the table below by identifying the type of bond (polar covalent, non-polar
covalent ionic, or metallic
Molecular formula ΔEN Type of Bond

FeS
NaI
Zn
PH3
NH3
O2
Cu
HF
H2S
18. Use your knowledge of the different types of bonding to explain the following
statements:
a. A sodium chloride crystal does not conduct electricity.

b. Most jewellery items are made from metals.
c. It is very hard to break a diamond.
d. Pots are made from metals, but their handles are made from plastic.
17. Compounds
A compound is a substance that consists of two or more atoms of different elements that are bonded
chemically. Examples of compounds are sodium chloride, copper(II)sulphate and carbon dioxide. The
elements in the compound do not possess their original properties and can thus not be separated by
simple separation methods. More energy is needed to separate the compound into the elements it
consists of.
Vitamin B12: C62H87N14O14PCo
Page 33 of 38
17.1. Representation of compounds
You already know that elements are represented by symbols. Because compounds are a combination
of two or more elements, they are represented by the composition of the symbols of the elements that
occur in the compound. This is called a formula.
Formulae for the abovementioned compounds:

Sodium chloride – NaCl
Copper (II) sulphate – CuSO4
Carbon dioxide – CO2
Take note: An ion is the term used for an atom with a charge. You probably know that there are
positive and negative charges. Thus, ions can be positive or negative.
17.2. Rules for naming compounds
• The names of the elements in the compound form part of the name of the compound.
• Elements to the left (usually the metals) of the Periodic Table are mentioned first. The
second element (usually a non-metal) is used in an inflected form, e.g., chloride instead of
chlorine.
• Prefixes or insertions (mono – one, di – two, tri – three, tetra – four, penta – five) are used to
indicate the ratio in which the elements occur in the compound, e.g., carbon dioxide.
• Certain everyday names, e.g., NH3 (ammonia), H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), CH4 (methane)
and H2O (water) are exceptions to the rule because of historical reasons. More common
names are indicated below
• Sometimes a Roman numeral is used in the names of compounds, e.g. copper (II) sulphate.
This is known as the Stock notation. The Roman numeral refers to the element that stands in
front of it.
Example: Copper (II) sulphate – The II indicates that copper has a charge of +2 in the
compound. Thus, copper is a positive ion with a +2 charge. We write it as Cu2+.
• Atoms are sometimes grouped together and form an ion which consists of a variety of
atoms. This ion is called a polyatomic ion.
Page 34 of 38
Example: SO42- consists of one sulphur atom and four oxygen atoms and has a -2 charge.
The tables below provide formulae for different polyatomic and monatomic ions.
Any compound is electrically neutral. When two ions are grouped together, the sum of the charges of
the ions in the compound should be zero.
Example:
Copper (II) sulphate– Cu2+ + SO42- → CuSO4 (+2 -2 = 0)
Example:
Write formulae for: (Remember the charges have to balance)
silver chloride Ag+ + Cl- → AgCl

potassium permanganate K+ + MnO4- → KMnO4
iron(III)sulphate 2 Fe3+ + 3 SO42- → Fe2(SO4)3
ammonium sulphate 2 NH4+ + SO42- → (NH4)2SO4
17.3. Chemical and everyday names of well-known compounds
Chemical name Everyday name Chemical name Everyday name

ammonium carbonate smelling salts carbon disulphide carbon bisulphide
ammonium nitrate fertiliser hydrogen oxide water
ammonium sulphate Fertiliser hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid
calcium carbonate Marble hydrogen sulphate sulphuric acid
calcium sulphate plaster of Paris hydrogen nitrate nitric acid
magnesium sulphate Epsom salts ethanoic acid acetic acid
sodium chloride table salt hydrogen carbonate carbonic acid
hydrogen sulphite sulphurous acid
sodium hydrogen carbonate baking soda hydrogen nitrite nitrous acid
sodium hydroxide caustic soda copper(II)sulphate blue vitriol
sodium carbonate washing soda calcium oxide quick lime
potassium hydroxide caustic potash carbon dioxide carbonic acid gas
calcium hydroxide slaked lime
Page 35 of 38
NEGATIVE IONS
-1 -2 -3
Name Name Name
Symbol Symbol Symbol
F- fluoride O2- oxide N3- nitride
Cl- chloride S2- sulphide PO43- phosphate
Br- bromide CO32- carbonate
I- iodide SO42- sulphate
-
OH hydroxide SO32- sulphite
NO3- nitrate CrO42- chromate
NO2- nitrite Cr2O72- dichromate
CN- cyanide S2O32- thiosulphate
HCO3- hydrogen MnO42- manganate
carbonate
HSO4- hydrogen
sulphate
ClO3- chlorate
MnO4- permanganate
IO3- iodate
CNS- thiocyanate
-
CH3COO ethanoate
Page 36 of 38
POSITIVE IONS
+1 +2 +3
Name Name Name
Symbol Symbol Symbol
H+ hydrogen Be2+ beryllium Al3+ aluminium
Li+ lithium Mg2+ magnesium Fe3+ iron(III)
Na+ sodium Ca2+ calcium Cr3+ chromium(III)
K+ potassium Sr2+ strontium As3+ arsenic(III)
+ 2+ 3+
Ag silver Ba barium Sb antimony(III)
Hg+ mercury(I) Sn2+ tin(II) Bi3+ bismuth(III)
Cu+ copper(I) Pb2+ lead(II)
NH4+ ammonium Zn2+ sink
+ 2+
H3O hydronium Fe iron(II)
(oxonium) Hg2+ mercury(II)
Mn2+ manganese
Ni2+ nickel
2+
Cd cadmium
Cr2+ chromium(II)
Cu2+ copper(II)
1. Write the chemical formulae for each of the following compounds and calculate the relative
molecular mass or formula mass:
a. hydrogen cyanide
b. carbon dioxide
c. sodium carbonate
d. ammonium hydroxide
e. barium sulphate
f. copper (II) nitrate
2. Complete the following table. The cations at the top combine with the anions on the left. The
first row is done for you. Also include the names of the compounds formed and the anions.
Page 37 of 38
Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ NH4+ H+

Br- NaBr MgBr2 AlBr3 (NH4)Br HBr
Name Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Ammonium Hydrogen
Bromide Bromide Bromide Bromide Bromide
S2-
Name
P3-
Name
MnO4-
Name
Cr2O72-
Name
SO42-
Name
Page 38 of 38

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Grade 10 Matter and Materials

Grade 10 - Matter and Materials

Pure substances Mixtures

Compounds Elements Homogeneous Heterogeneous

The properties of materials could include the following:

All the properties of materials listed above are measurable quantities.

3.1. Separation methods for the separation of mixtures

Separation Properties of substances

A mixture has the following properties:

3.2. Homogeneous mixtures

3.3. Heterogeneous mixtures

3.4. Pure substances

Substance Pure substances, heterogenous mixtures or homogeneous mixtures

A materials’ physical properties are present because of its chemical composition

4. The Atomic Model (Grade 9 Revision)

5. The structure of the atom

The atom consists of three subatomic particles, electron

An atom is electrically neutral and thus contains the same nucleus

5.1. Mass and charges of the subatomic particles

Particle Mass Atomic mass (u) Charge Relative charge

proton 1,67  10-27 kg 1 1,6  10-19 C +1

neutron 1,67  10-27 kg 1 0 0

A K-39 atom is used as an example

A = 35; Z = 17; number of protons = 17; number of electrons = 18; N = 35 – 17 = 18

5.2. What is an ion?

ACTIVITY: MATCH THE COLUMNS

5.3. Relative atomic mass

5.4. Mass and relative atomic mass

Whole number Relative atomic Rounded off relative

5.5.1. Why relative atomic masses are not whole numbers

Mass of 100 Cl-atoms = 35(75) + 37(25) = 3550

1. Complete the following table

6. Electrons in the Atom

Scientists could not understand Bohr’s wave-mechanical model. How is it

6.1.1. Probability diagrams

6.2. Pauli’s exclusion principle

This principle, named after Wolfgang Pauli, from Austria,

7. The Atomic Model Continued (Not Examinable)

Article extracted from https://www.imperial.ac.uk/humanities/webdesign/2012/nickyguttridge/html/page4.html

particles, as they are composed of two or more of these elementary particles.

A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental

ACTIVITY: GROUP DISCUSSION

In groups of 4-5, discuss the following questions:

9. Were they controversial? If so, why?

13. Present your ideas to the rest of the class.

8. The Periodic Table

8.1. The Father of the Periodic Table

8.1.1. How did Mendeleev know the masses of atoms?

8.2. Metals and non-metals

8.3. Periodicity metal reactivity and unreactivity of metals

Decreasing metallic property

Decreasing non-metallic property

Increasing non-metallic property

8.4. Properties of metals and non-metals

Good electric conductors Poor electric conductors

Good conductors of heat Poor conductors of heat

Ductile Not ductile

High melting points Low melting points

High densities Low densities