About

 the  HELM  Project  

HELM   (Helping   Engineers   Learn   Mathematics)   materials   were   the   outcome   of   a   three-­‐year   curriculum  
development  project  undertaken  by  a  consortium  of  five  English  universities  led  by  Loughborough  University,  
funded   by   the   Higher   Education   Funding   Council   for   England   under   the   Fund   for   the   Development   of   Teaching  
and  Learning  for  the  period  October  2002  –  September  2005,  with  additional  transferability  funding  October  
2005  –  September  2006.  
HELM  aims  to  enhance  the  mathematical  education  of  engineering  undergraduates  through  flexible  learning  
resources,  mainly  these  Workbooks.  
HELM  learning  resources  were  produced  primarily  by  teams  of  writers  at  six  universities:  Hull,  Loughborough,  
Manchester,  Newcastle,  Reading,  Sunderland.  
HELM   gratefully   acknowledges   the   valuable   support   of   colleagues   at   the   following   universities   and   colleges  
involved  in  the  critical  reading,  trialling,  enhancement  and  revision  of  the  learning  materials:    
Aston,  Bournemouth  &  Poole  College,  Cambridge,  City,  Glamorgan,  Glasgow,  Glasgow  Caledonian,  Glenrothes  
Institute   of   Applied   Technology,   Harper   Adams,   Hertfordshire,   Leicester,   Liverpool,   London   Metropolitan,  
Moray   College,   Northumbria,   Nottingham,   Nottingham   Trent,   Oxford   Brookes,   Plymouth,   Portsmouth,  
Queens   Belfast,   Robert   Gordon,   Royal   Forest   of   Dean   College,   Salford,   Sligo   Institute   of   Technology,  
Southampton,   Southampton   Institute,   Surrey,   Teesside,   Ulster,   University   of   Wales   Institute   Cardiff,   West  
Kingsway  College  (London),  West  Notts  College.  
 

HELM  Contacts:  
Post:  HELM,  Mathematics  Education  Centre,  Loughborough  University,  Loughborough,  LE11  3TU.  
Email:  helm@lboro.ac.uk          Web:  http://helm.lboro.ac.uk  
 

HELM  Workbooks  List  

1   Basic  Algebra   26   Functions  of  a  Complex  Variable  
2   Basic  Functions   27   Multiple  Integration  
3   Equations,  Inequalities  &  Partial  Fractions   28   Differential  Vector  Calculus  
4   Trigonometry   29   Integral  Vector  Calculus  
5   Functions  and  Modelling   30   Introduction  to  Numerical  Methods  
6   Exponential  and  Logarithmic  Functions   31   Numerical  Methods  of  Approximation  
7   Matrices   32   Numerical  Initial  Value  Problems  
8   Matrix  Solution  of  Equations   33   Numerical  Boundary  Value  Problems  
9   Vectors   34   Modelling  Motion  
10   Complex  Numbers   35   Sets  and  Probability  
11   Differentiation   36   Descriptive  Statistics  
12   Applications  of  Differentiation   37   Discrete  Probability  Distributions  
13   Integration   38   Continuous  Probability  Distributions  
14   Applications  of  Integration  1   39   The  Normal  Distribution  
15   Applications  of  Integration  2   40   Sampling  Distributions  and  Estimation  
16   Sequences  and  Series   41   Hypothesis  Testing  
17   Conics  and  Polar  Coordinates   42   Goodness  of  Fit  and  Contingency  Tables  
18   Functions  of  Several  Variables   43   Regression  and  Correlation  
19   Differential  Equations   44   Analysis  of  Variance  
20   Laplace  Transforms   45   Non-­‐parametric  Statistics  
21   z-­‐Transforms   46   Reliability  and  Quality  Control  
22   Eigenvalues  and  Eigenvectors   47   Mathematics  and  Physics  Miscellany  
23   Fourier  Series   48   Engineering  Case  Study  
24   Fourier  Transforms   49   Student’s  Guide  
25   Partial  Differential  Equations   50   Tutor’s  Guide  
 
©  Copyright    Loughborough  University,  2015
 
 
 
Production  of  this  2015  edition,  containing  corrections  and  minor  
revisions  of  the  2008  edition,  was  funded  by  the  sigma  Network.    

 
 
 
Contents 2
Basic Functions
1. Basic Concepts of Functions 2
2. Graphs of Functions and Parametric Form 11
3. One-to-One and Inverse Functions 20
4. Characterising Functions 26
5. The Straight Line 36
6. The Circle 46
7. Some Common Functions 62

Learning outcomes
In this Workbook you will learn about some of the basic building blocks of mathematics.
You will gain familiarity with functions and variables. You will learn how to graph a
function and what is meant by an inverse function. You will learn how to use a parametric
approach to describe a function. Finally, you will meet some of the functions which occur
in engineering and science: polynomials, rational functions, the modulus function and
the unit step function.
Basic Concepts of  

Functions 2.1 

Introduction
In engineering there are many quantities that change their value as time changes. For example, the
temperature of a furnace may change with time as it is heated. Similarly, there are many quantities
that change their value as the location of a point of interest changes. For example, the shear stress
in a bridge girder will vary from point to point across the bridge. A quantity whose value can change
is known as a variable. We use functions to describe how one variable changes as a consequence
of another variable changing. There are many different types of function that are used by engineers.
We will be examining some of these in later Sections. The purpose of this Section is to look at the
basic concepts associated with all functions.

 

Prerequisites • have a thorough understanding of basic

algebraic notation and techniques
Before starting this Section you should . . .

' 
$
• explain what is meant by a function

Learning Outcomes • use common notations for functions

On completion you should be able to . . . • explain what is meant by the argument of a

function
& %

2 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

1. The function rule

A function can be thought of as a rule which operates on an input and produces an output. This
is often illustrated pictorially in two ways as shown in Figure 1. The first way is by using a block
diagram which consists of a box showing the input, the output and the rule. We often write the rule
inside the box. The second way is to use two sets, one to represent the input and one to represent
the output with an arrow showing the relationship between them.

input output
function

input a specific rule output function

which transforms the
input into the output

Figure 1: A general function

More precisely, a rule is a function if it produces only a single output for any given input. The
function with the rule ‘treble the input’ is shown in Figure 2.

f f
input treb he input
le t output
4 Treble the input 12
4 12
f
x 3x
x Treble the input 3x

Figure 2: The function with the rule ‘treble the input’

Note that with an input of 4 the function will produce an output of 12. With a more general input,
x say, the output will be 3x. It is usual to assign a letter or other symbol to a function in order to
label it. The trebling function in Figure 2 has been given the symbol f .

Key Point 1
A function is a rule which operates on an input
and produces a single output from that input.

HELM (2015): 3
Section 2.1: Basic Concepts of Functions
 Task

Write down the output from the function shown in Figure 3 when the input is
(a) 4, (b) −3, (c) x (d) t.

function

input multiply the input by 7 output

and then subtract 2

Figure 3

Your solution
In each case the function rule instructs you to multiply the input by 7 and then subtract 2. Evaluate
the corresponding outputs.

Answer
(a) When the input is 4 the output is 26
(b) When the input is −3 the output is −23
(c) When the input is x the output is 7x − 2
(d) When the input is t the output is 7t − 2.

Several different notations are used by engineers to describe functions. For the trebling function in
Figure 2 it is common to write
f (x) = 3x
This indicates that with an input x, the function, f , produces an output of 3x. The input to the
function is placed in the brackets after the ‘f ’. f (x) is read as ‘f is a function of x’, or simply ‘f of
x’, meaning that the value of the output from the function depends upon the value of the input x.
The value of the output is often called the ‘value of the function’.

4 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Example 1
State in words the rule defined by each of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = 6x
(b) f (t) = 6t − 1
(c) g(x) = x2 − 7
(d) h(t) = t3 + 5
(e) p(x) = x3 + 5

Solution
(a) The rule for f is ‘multiply the input by 6’.
(b) Here the input has been labelled t. The rule for f is ‘multiply the input by 6 and subtract 1’.
(c) Here the function has been labelled g. The rule for g is ‘square the input and subtract 7’.
(d) The rule for h is ‘cube the input and add 5’.
(e) The rule for p is ‘cube the input and add 5’.

Note from Example 1, parts (d) and (e), that it is the rule that is important when describing a
function and not the letters used. Both h(t) and p(x) instruct us to ‘cube the input and add 5’.

Task
Write down a mathematical function which can be used to describe the following
rules:
(a) ‘square the input and divide the result by 2’. Use the letter x for input and
the letter f to represent the function.
(b) ‘divide the input by 3 and add 7’. Call the function g and call the input t.

Your solution

Answer
x2 t
(a) f (x) = , (b) g(t) = + 7
2 3

Exercise
State the rule of each of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = 5x, (b) f (t) = 5t, (c) f (x) = 8x + 10, (d) f (t) = 7t − 27, (e) f (t) = 1 − t,
t 2 1
(f) h(t) = + , (g) f (x) =
3 3 1+x

HELM (2015): 5
Section 2.1: Basic Concepts of Functions
 Answers
(a) multiply the input by 5. (b) same as (a). (c) multiply the input by 8 and then add 10. (d)
multiply the input by 7 and then subtract 27. (e) subtract the input from 1. (f) divide the input
by 3 and then add 2/3. (g) add 1 to the input and then find the reciprocal of the result.

2. The argument of a function

The input to a function is sometimes called its argument. It is frequently necessary to obtain the
output from a function if we are given its argument. For example, given the function g(t) = 3t + 2
we may require the value of the output when the argument is 4. We write this as g(t = 4) or more
usually and compactly as g(4). In this case the value of g(4) is 3 × 4 + 2 = 14.

Example 2
Given the function f (x) = 3x + 1 find
(a) f (2)
(b) f (−1)
(c) f (6)

Solution

(a) The output from the function needs to be found when the argument or input is 2. We
need to replace x by 2 in the expression for the function. We find

f (2) = 3 × 2 + 1 = 7
(b) Here the argument is −1. We find

f (−1) = 3 × (−1) + 1 = −2
(c) f (6) = 3 × 6 + 1 = 19.

Task

Given the function g(t) = 6t + 4 find (a) g(3), (b) g(6), (c) g(−2)

Your solution

Answer
a) g(3) = 6 × 3 + 4 = 22, (b) g(6) = 40, (c) g(−2) = −8

6 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

It is possible to obtain the value of a function when the argument is an algebraic expression. Consider
the following Example.

Example 3
Given the function y(x) = 3x + 2 find
(a) y(t)
(b) y(2t)
(c) y(z + 2)
(d) y(5x)

Solution
The rule for this function is ‘multiply the input by 3 and then add 2’. We can apply this rule
whatever the argument.

(a) In this case the argument is t. Multiplying this by 3 and adding 2 we find y(t) = 3t + 2.
Equivalently we can replace x by t in the expression for the function, so, y(t) = 3t + 2.
(b) In this case the argument is 2t. We need to replace x by 2t in the expression for the
function. So y(2t) = 3(2t) + 2 = 6t + 2
(c) In this case the argument is z + 2. We find y(z + 2) = 3(z + 2) + 2 = 3z + 8. It is
important to note that y(z + 2) is not y × (z + 2) = yz + y2 but instead reads ‘y of
(z + 2)’ where ‘of’ means ‘take the function of’.
(d) Here we have a complication. The argument is 5x and so there appears to be a clash
of notation with the original expression for the function. There is no problem if we
remember that the rule is to multiply the input by 3 and then add 2. The input now is
5x. So y(5x) = 3(5x) + 2 = 15x + 2.

Task
Given the function g(x) = 8 − 2x find (a) g(4), (b) g(4t), (c) g(2x − 3)

Your solution
(a)

(b)

(c)

HELM (2015): 7
Section 2.1: Basic Concepts of Functions
Answer
(a) g(4) = 8 − 2 × 4 = 0
(b) g(4t) = 8 − 2 × 4t = 8 − 8t
(c) g(2x − 3) = 8 − 2(2x − 3) = 14 − 4x

Exercises
1. Explain what is meant by the ‘argument’ of a function.

2. Given the function g(t) = 8t + 3 find (a) g(7), (b) g(2), (c) g(−0.5), (d) g(−0.11)

3. Given the function f (t) = 2t2 + 4 find: (a) f (x) (b) f (2x) (c) f (−x) (d) f (4x + 2)
t
(e) f (3t + 5) (f) f (λ) (g) f (t − λ) (h) f ( )
α
4. Given g(x) = 3x2 − 7 find (a) g(3t), (b) g(t + 5), (c) g(6t − 4), (d) g(4x + 9)
1
5. Calculate f (x + h) when (a) f (x) = x2 , (b) f (x) = x3 , (c) f (x) = . In each case write
x
down the corresponding expression for f (x + h) − f (x).
1 x
6. If f (x) = 2
find f ( ).
(1 − x) `
Answers

1. The argument is the input.

2. (a) 59, (b) 19, (c) −1, (d) 2.12.

3. (a) 2x2 + 4, (b) 8x2 + 4, (c) 2x2 + 4, (d) 32x2 + 32x + 12, (e) 18t2 + 60t + 54,
2t2
(f) 2λ2 + 4, (g) 2(t − λ)2 + 4, (h) + 4.
α2
4. (a) 27t2 − 7, (b) 3t2 + 30t + 68, (c) 108t2 − 144t + 41, (d) 48x2 + 216x + 236.
1
5. (a) x2 + 2xh + h2 , (b) x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 , (c) .
x+h
The corresponding expressions are (a) 2xh + h2 , (b) 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ,
1 1 h
(c) − =− .
x+h x x(x + h)
1
6. .
(1 − x` )2

8 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

3. Composition of functions
Consider the two functions g(x) = x2 , and h(x) = 3x + 5. Block diagrams showing the rules for
these functions are shown in Figure 4.

x square the input x2

h
treble the input 3x + 5
x and add 5

Figure 4: Block diagrams of two functions g and h

Suppose we place these Block diagrams together in series as shown in Figure 5, so that the output
from function g is used as the input to function h.

g h
x2 treble the input
x square the input
and add 5 3x2 + 5

Figure 5: The composition of the two functions to give h(g(x))

Study Figure 5 carefully and deduce that when the input to g is x the output from the two functions
in series is 3x2 + 5. Since the output from g is used as input to h we write
h(g(x)) = h(x2 ) = 3x2 + 5
The form h(g(x)) is known as the composition of the functions g and h.
Suppose we interchange the two functions so that h is applied first as shown in Figure 6.

h g
treble the input
x and add 5 square the input (3x + 5)2

Figure 6: The composition of the two functions to give g(h(x))

Study Figure 6 and note that when the input to h is x the final output is (3x + 5)2 . We write
g(h(x)) = (3x + 5)2
Note that the function h(g(x)) is different from g(h(x)).

HELM (2015): 9
Section 2.1: Basic Concepts of Functions
 Example 4
Given two functions g(t) = 3t + 2 and h(t) = t + 3 obtain an expression for the
composition g(h(t)).

Solution
We have g(h(t)) = g(t + 3). Now the rule for g is ‘triple the input and add 2’, and so we can
write g(t + 3) = 3(t + 3) + 2 = 3t + 11 so, g(h(t)) = 3t + 11.

Task
Given the two functions g(t) = 3t + 2 and h(t) = t + 3 as in Example 4 above,
obtain an expression for the composition h(g(t)).

Your solution
We have
h(g(t)) = h(3t + 2)
State the rule for h and write down h(g(t)).

Answer
‘add 3 to the input’, h(3t + 2) = 3t + 5. Note that h(g(t)) 6= g(h(t)).

Exercises
1. Find f (g(x)) when f (x) = x − 7 and g(x) = x2 .
2. If f (x) = 8x + 2 find f (f (x)).
3. If f (x) = x + 6 and g(x) = x2 − 5 find (a) f (g(0)), (b) g(f (0)), (c) g(g(2)), (d) f (g(7)).
x−3 1
4. If f (x) = and g(x) = find g(f (x)).
x+1 x
Answers

1. x2 − 7.

2. 8(8x + 2) + 2 = 64x + 18.

3. (a) 1, (b) 31, (c) −4, (d) 50.

x+1
4. .
x−3

10 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Graphs of Functions  

and Parametric Form 2.2 

Introduction
Engineers often find mathematical ideas easier to understand when these are portrayed visually as
opposed to algebraically. Graphs are a convenient and widely-used way of portraying functions. By
inspecting a graph it is easy to describe a number of properties of a function. For example, where
is the function positive, and where is it negative? Where is it increasing and where is it decreasing?
Do function values repeat? Questions like these can be answered once the graph of a function has
been drawn. In this Section we will describe how the graph of a function is obtained and introduce
various terminology associated with graphs.
We have seen in Section 2.1 that it is possible to represent a function using the form y = f (x). An
alternative representation is to write expressions for both y and x in terms of a third variable known
as a parameter. The variables t or θ are normally used to denote the parameter.
For example, when a projectile such as a ball or rocket is thrown or launched, the x and y coordinates
of its path can be described by a function in the form y = f (x). However, it is often useful to also
give its x coordinate as a function of the time after launch, that is x(t), and the y coordinate similarly
as y(t). Here time t is the parameter.

 

Prerequisites • understand what is meant by a function

Before starting this Section you should . . .

 

• draw the graphs of a variety of functions
Learning Outcomes • explain what is meant by the domain and
On completion you should be able to . . . range of a function
 

HELM (2015): 11
Section 2.2: Graphs of Functions and Parametric Form
1. The graph of a function
Consider the function f (x) = 2x. The output is obtained by multiplying the input by 2. We can
choose several values for the input to this function and calculate the corresponding outputs. We
have done this for integer values of x between −2 and 2 and the results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1
input, x −2 −1 0 1 2
output, f (x) −4 −2 0 2 4

To construct the graph of this function we first draw a pair of axes - a vertical axis and a horizontal
axis. These are drawn at right-angles to each other and intersect at the origin as shown in Figure 7.

vertical ( y ) axis
y = 2x
4
origin 3
2
1
−2 −1 1 1.5 2 horizontal ( x ) axis
−1
−2
−3
−4

Figure 7: The two axes intersect at the origin

Each pair of input and output values can be represented on a graph by a single point. The input
values are measured along the horizontal axis and the output values are measured along the vertical
axis. The horizontal axis is often called the x axis. The vertical axis is commonly referred to as the
y axis so that we often write the function as
y = f (x) = 2x
or simply
y = 2x
Each pair of x and y values in the table is plotted as a single point, shown as • in Figure 7. A general
point is often labelled as (x, y). The values x and y are said to be the coordinates of the point.
The points are then joined with a smooth curve to produce the required graph as shown in Figure
7. Note that in this case the graph is a straight line. The graph can then be used to find function
values other than those given in the table. For example, directly from the graph we can see that
when x = 1.5, the value of y is 3.

12 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task
Draw up a table of values of the function f (x) = x3 for x between −3 and 3. Use
the table to plot a graph of this function.

Complete the following table:

Your solution

input, x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
output, f (x) −27 −8 27

Answer
input, x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
output, f (x) −27 −8 −1 0 1 8 27

Now add your points to the graph of f (x) = x3 and draw a smooth curve through them:
Your solution

y
30
20
10

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
− 10
−20
−30

Dependent and independent variables

Since x and y can have a number of different values they are variables. Here x is called the
independent variable and y is called the dependent variable. Knowing or choosing a value of
the independent variable x, the function rule enables us to calculate the corresponding value of the
dependent variable y. To show this dependence we often write y(x). This is read as ‘y is a function
of x’ or ‘y depends upon x’, or simply ‘y of x’. Note that it is the independent variable which is the
input to the function and the dependent variable which is the output.
The domain and range of a function
The set of values which we allow the independent variable to take is called the domain of the
function. A domain is often an interval on the x axis. For example, the function
y = g(x) = 5x + 2, −5 ≤ x ≤ 20
has any value of x between −5 and 20 inclusive as its domain because it has been stated as this. If
the domain of a function is not stated then it is taken to be the largest set possible. For example
h(t) = t2 + 1
has domain −∞ < x < ∞ since h is defined for every value of t and the domain has not been stated
otherwise.

HELM (2015): 13
Section 2.2: Graphs of Functions and Parametric Form
Later, you will meet some functions for which certain values of the independent variable must be
excluded from the domain because at these values the function would be undefined. One such
1 1
example is f (x) = for which we must exclude the value x = 0, since is a meaningless quantity.
x 0
1
Similarly, we must exclude the value x = 2 from the domain of f (x) = .
x−2
The set of values of the function for a given domain, that is, the set of y values, is called the
range of the function. The range of g(x) (above) is −23 ≤ g(x) ≤ 102 and the range of h(t) is
1 ≤ h(t) < ∞, although this may not be apparent to you at this stage. Usually the range of a
function can be identified quite easily by inspecting its graph.

Example 5
Consider the function given by g(t) = 2t2 + 1, −2 ≤ t ≤ 2.
(a) State the domain of the function.
(b) Plot a graph of the function.
(c) Deduce the range of the function from the graph.

Solution

(a) The domain is given as the interval −2 ≤ t ≤ 2, that is any value of t between −2 and
2 inclusive.
(b) To draw the graph a table of input and output values must be constructed first. See
Table 2.

Table 2
t −2 −1 0 1 2
y = g(t) 9 3 1 3 9
Each pair of t and y values in the table is plotted as a single point shown as • in Figure
8. The points are then joined with a smooth curve to produce the required graph.

y
9
g(t) = 2t2 + 1

−2 −1 0 1 2 t

Figure 8: Graph of g(t) = 2t2 + 1

(c) The range is the set of values which the function takes. By inspecting the graph we see
that the range of g is the interval 1 ≤ g(t) ≤ 9.

14 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task
Consider the function given by f (x) = x2 + 2, −3 ≤ x ≤ 3

(a) State the domain of the function:

Your solution
Recall that the domain of a function f (x) is the set of values that x is allowed to take. Write
down this set of values:

Answer
−3 ≤ x ≤ 3

(b) Draw up a table of input and output values for this function:

Your solution
The table of values has been partially calculated. Complete this now:

input, x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
output, x2 + 2 6 2

Answer
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x2 + 2 11 6 3 2 3 6 11

(c) Plot a graph of the function:

Your solution
Part of the graph f (x) = x2 + 2 is shown in the figure. Complete it.

f (x) = x2 + 2
10

x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

HELM (2015): 15
Section 2.2: Graphs of Functions and Parametric Form
(d) Deduce the range of the function by inspecting the graph:

Your solution
Recall that the range of the function is the set of values that the function takes as x is varied. It is
possible to deduce this from the graph. Write this set as an interval.

Answer
(d) [2, 11]

Exercises
1. Explain the meaning of the terms ‘dependent variable’ and ‘independent variable’. When
plotting a graph, which variables are plotted on which axes ?

2. When stating the coordinates of a point, which coordinate is given first ?

3. Explain the meaning of an expression such as y(x) in the context of functions. What is the
interpretation of x(t) ?

4. Explain the meaning of the terms ‘domain’ and ‘range’ when applied to functions.

5. Plot a graph of the following functions. In each case state the domain and the range of the
function.

(a) f (x) = 3x + 2, −2 ≤ x ≤ 5
2
(b) g(x) = x + 4, −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
(c) p(t) = 2t + 8, −2 ≤ t ≤ 4
(d) f (t) = 6 − t2 , 1≤t≤5
5
6. Explain why the value x = −7 should be excluded from the domain of f (x) = x+7
.
1
7. What value(s) should be excluded from the domain of f (t) = t2
?
Answers
1. The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis.
2. The independent variable is given first, as in (x, y).
3. x(t) means that the dependent variable x is a function of the independent variable t.
5. (a) domain [−2, 5], range [−4, 17], (b) [−2, 3], [4, 13], (c) [−2, 4], [8, 40], (d) [1, 5], [−19, 5].
6. f is undefined when x = −7.
7. t = 0.

16 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

2. Parametric representation of a function

Suppose we write x and y in terms of t in the form
x = 4t y = 2t2 , for − 1 ≤ t ≤ 1 (1)
For different values of t between −1 and 1, we can calculate pairs of values of x and y. For example
when t = 1 we see that x = 4(1) = 4 and y = 2 × 12 = 2. That is, t = 1 corresponds to the point
with (x, y) coordinates (4, 2).
A table of values is given in Table 3.
Table 3

t −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
x −4 −2 0 2 4
y 2 0.5 0 0.5 2

If the resulting points are plotted on a graph then different values of t correspond to different points
on the graph. The graph of (1) is plotted in Figure 9.

2 t=1
t = −1

t = −0.5 t = 0.5

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
t=0
Figure 9: Graph of the function defined parametrically by x = 4t, y = 2t2 , −1 ≤ t ≤ 1

It is often possible to convert a parametric representation of a function into the more usual form by
x
combining the two expressions to eliminate the parameter. Thus if x = 4t we can write t = and
4
so
 x 2
2
y = 2t = 2
4
2x2
=
16
x2
=
8

x2
Using y = we can, by giving x values, find corresponding values of y. Plotting these (x, y) values
8
gives, of course, exactly the same curve as in Figure 9.

HELM (2015): 17
Section 2.2: Graphs of Functions and Parametric Form
 Task

Consider the function x = 21 t + 1t , y = 12 t − 1t , 1 ≤ t ≤ 8.

(a) Draw up a table of values of this function.

(b) Plot a graph of the function

Your solution
(a) A partially completed table of values has been prepared. Complete the table.

t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x 1 1.25 1.67 4.06
y 0 0.75 3.94

Answer
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x 1 1.25 1.67 2.13 2.60 3.08 3.57 4.06
y 0 0.75 1.33 1.88 2.40 2.92 3.43 3.94

Your solution
(b) The graph is shown in the figure. Add your points to those already marked on the graph.

4
3
2
1

x
1 2 3 4

It is possible to eliminate t between the two equations so that the original parametric form can be
expressed as x2 − y 2 = 1.

18 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task

A particle with mass m falls under gravity so that at time t its distance from the
t2
y-axis is 2t and its distance from the x-axis is −mg + 3 where g is a constant
2
(the acceleration due to gravity). Find the value of t when the particle crosses the
x-axis and, at this time, find the distance from the y-axis.

Begin by obtaining the parametric equations of the path of the particle:

Your solution

x= y=

Answer
t2
x = 2t y = −mg + 3
2
Now find the value of t when y = 0:
Your solution

t=

Answer
p
t = 6/(mg)

Finally, obtain the value of x at this value of t:

Your solution

x=

Answer
p
x = 2 6/(mg)

Exercises
1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘parameter’.
√
2. Consider the parametric equations x = t, y = t, for t ≥ 0.

(a) Draw up a table of values of t, x and y for values of t between 0 and 10.
(b) Plot a graph of this function.
(c) Obtain an explicit equation for y in terms of x.

Answers
√
2. (c) y = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 10

HELM (2015): 19
Section 2.2: Graphs of Functions and Parametric Form
One-to-One and  

Inverse Functions 2.3 

Introduction
In this Section we examine more terminology associated with functions. We explain one-to-one and
many-to-one functions and show how the rule associated with certain functions can be reversed to
give so-called inverse functions. These ideas will be needed when we deal with particular functions
in later Sections.

 

• understand what is meant by a function

Prerequisites
• be able to sketch graphs of simple functions
Before starting this Section you should . . .

' 
$
• explain what is meant by a one-to-one
function

• explain what is meant by a many-to-one

Learning Outcomes function
On completion you should be able to . . . • explain what is meant by an inverse function,
and determine when and how such a function
can be found
& %

20 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

1. One-to-many rules, many-to-one and one-to-one

functions
One-to-many rules
Recall from Section 2.1 that a rule for a function must produce a single output for a given input.
Not all rules satisfy this criterion. For example, the rule ‘take the square root of the input’ cannot be
a rule for a function because for a given input there are two outputs; an input of 4 produces outputs
of 2 and −2. Figure 10 shows two ways in which we can picture this situation, the first being a block
diagram, and the second using two sets representing input and output values and the relationship
between them.

e square ro
2 input take th ot output
take the square root
4 of the input
−2 2
√ 4
x −2
take the square root
x of the input √
− x

Figure 10: This rule cannot be a function - it is a one-to-many rule

Such a rule is described as a one-to-many rule. This means that one input produces more than
one output. This is obvious from inspecting the sets in Figure 10.
√
The graph of the rule ‘take ± x’ can be drawn by constructing a table of values:
Table 4

x 0 1 √2 √3 4
√
y = ± x 0 ±1 ± 2 ± 3 ±2

The graph is shown in Figure 11(a). For each value of x there are two corresponding values of y.
Plotting a graph of a one-to-many rule will result in a curve through which a vertical line can be
drawn which cuts the curve more than once as you can see. The vertical line cuts the curve more
than once because there is more than one y value for each x value.

y y

x x

(a) (b)
Figure 11

HELM (2015): 21
Section 2.3: One-to-One and Inverse Functions
By describing a rule more carefully it is possible to make sure a single output results from a single
input, thereby defining a valid rule for a function. For example, the rule ‘take the positive square
root of the input’ is a valid function rule because a given input produces a single output. The graph
of this function is displayed in Figure 11(b).

Many-to-one and one-to-one functions

Consider the function y(x) = x2 . An input of x = 3 produces an output of 9. Similarly, an input of
−3 also produces an output of 9. In general, a function for which different inputs can produce the
same output is called a many-to-one function. This is represented pictorially in Figure 12 from
which it is clear why we call this a many-to-one function.

input y = x2
output

−3
9
3

Figure 12: This represents a many-to-one function

Note that whilst this is many-to-one it is still a function since any chosen input value has only one
arrow emerging from it. Thus there is a single output for each input.
It is possible to decide if a function is many-to-one by examining its graph. Consider the graph of
y = x2 shown in Figure 13.

y
y = x2

x
−3 3

Figure 13: The function y = x2 is a many-to-one function

We see that a horizontal line drawn on the graph cuts it more than once. This means that two (or
more) different inputs have yielded the same output and so the function is many-to-one.
If a function is not many-to-one then it is said to be one-to-one. This means that each different
input to the function yields a different output.

Consider the function y(x) = x3 which is shown in Figure 14. A horizontal line drawn on this graph
will intersect the curve only once. This means that each input value of x yields a different output
value for y.

22 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

y y = x3
10

x
−5 5

−10

Figure 14: The function y(x) = x3 is a one-to-one function

Task
Study the graphs shown in Figure 15. Decide which, if any, are graphs of functions.
For those which are, state if the function is one-to-one or many-to-one.

y y
a) y b) c)

x x
x

Figure 15

Your solution

Answer
(a) not a function, (b) one-to-one function, (c) many-to-one function

2. Inverse of a function
We have seen that a function can be regarded as taking an input, x, and processing it in some way
to produce a single output f (x) as shown in Figure 16(a). A natural question to ask is whether we
can find another function that will reverse the process. In other words, can we find a function that
will start with f (x) and process it to produce x again? This idea is also shown in Figure 16(b). If we
can find such a function it is called the inverse function to f (x) and is given the symbol f −1 (x).
Do not confuse the ‘−1’ with an index, or power. Here the superscript is used purely as the notation
for the inverse function. Note that the composite function f −1 (f (x)) = x as shown in Figure 17.

HELM (2015): 23
Section 2.3: One-to-One and Inverse Functions
 f

x process f (x) (a)

f −1

f (x) reverse process x (b)

Figure 16: The second block reverse the process in the first

f f −1
f (x)
x process reverse process x

Figure 17: f −1 reverses the process in f

Example 6
Find the inverse function to f (x) = 3x − 8.

Solution
The given function takes an input, x and produces an output 3x − 8. The inverse function, f −1 ,
must take an input 3x − 8 and give an output x. That is
f −1 (3x − 8) = x
If we introduce a new variable z = 3x − 8, and transpose this for x to give
z+8 z+8
x= then f −1 (z) =
3 3
So the rule for f is add 8 to the input and divide the result by 3. Writing f −1 with x as its
−1

argument gives
x+8
f −1 (x) =
3
This is the inverse function.

24 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Not all functions possess an inverse function. In fact, only one-to-one functions do so. If a function
is many-to-one the process to reverse it would require many outputs from one input contradicting
the definition of a function.

Task
Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 7 − 3x, using the fact that the inverse
function must take an input 7−3x and produce an output x. So f −1 (7−3x) = x

Introduce a new variable z so that z = 7 − 3x and transpose this to find x. Hence write down the
inverse function:
Your solution

Answer
7−z 7−x
f −1 (z) = . With x as its argument the inverse function is f −1 (x) = .
3 3

Exercises
1. Explain why a one-to-many rule cannot be a function.
2. Illustrate why y = x4 is a many-to-one function by providing a suitable example.
3. By sketching a graph of y = 3x − 1 show that this is a one-to-one function.
4. Explain why a many-to-one function does not have an inverse function. Give an example.
5. Find the inverse of each of the following functions:
1
(a) f (x) = 4x + 7, (b) f (x) = x, (c) f (x) = −23x, (d) f (x) = .
x+1
Answers
x−7 x 1−x
5. (a) f −1 (x) = , (b) f −1 (x) = x, (c) f −1 (x) = − , (d) f −1 (x) = .
4 23 x

HELM (2015): 25
Section 2.3: One-to-One and Inverse Functions
Characterising  

Functions 2.4 

Introduction
There are a number of different terms used to describe the ways in which functions behave. In this
Section we explain some of these terms and illustrate their use.

 

• understand what is meant by a function

Prerequisites
• be able to graph simple functions
Before starting this Section you should . . .

' 
$
• explain the distinction between a continuous
and discontinuous function

• find the limits of simple functions

Learning Outcomes
• explain what is meant by a periodic function
On completion you should be able to . . .
• explain what is meant by an odd function and
an even function
& %

26 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

1. Continuous and discontinuous functions and limits

Look at the graph shown in Figure 18a. The curve can be traced out from left to right without
moving the pen from the paper. The function represented by this curve is said to be continuous at
every point. If we try to trace out the curve in Figure 18b, the presence of a jump in the graph (at
x = x1 ) means that the pen must be lifted from the paper and moved in order to trace the graph.
Such a function is said to be discontinuous at the point where the jump occurs. The jumps are
known as discontinuities.

x1
(a) (b)
Figure 18: (a) A continuous function (b) A discontinuous function

Task
Sketch a graph of a function which has two discontinuities.

Your solution

(Get your tutor to check it.)

When defining a discontinuous function algebraically it is often necessary to give different function
rules for different values of x. Consider, for example, the function defined as:

3 x<0
f (x) =
x2 x ≥ 0
Notice that there is one rule for when x is less than 0 and another rule for when x is greater than or
equal to 0.
A graph of this function is shown in Figure 19.

HELM (2015): 27
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
 f(x)

x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Figure 19: An example of a discontinuous function

Suppose we ask ‘to what value does y approach as x approaches 0?’. From the graph we see that
as x gets nearer and nearer to 0, the value of y gets nearer to 0, if we approach from the right-hand
side. We write this formally as
lim f (x) = 0
x→0+

and say ‘the limit of f (x) as x tends to 0 from above is 0.’

On the other hand if x gets closer to zero, from the left-hand side, the value of y remains at 3. In
this case we write
lim f (x) = 3
x→0−

and say ‘the limit of f (x) as x tends to 0 from below is 3.’

In this example the right-hand limit and the left-hand limit are not equal, and this is indicative of
the fact that the function is discontinuous.
In general a function is continuous at a point x = a if the left-hand and right-hand limits are the
same there and are finite, and if both of these are equal to the value of the function at that point.
That is

Key Point 2
A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if and only if:

lim f (x) = lim− f (x) = f (a)

x→a+ x→a

If the right-hand and left-hand limits are the same, we can simply describe this common limit as
lim f (x). If the limits are not the same we say the limit of the function does not exist at x = a.
x→a

28 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Exercises
1. Explain the distinction between a continuous and a discontinous function. Draw a graph
showing an example of each type of function.

2. Study graphs of the functions y = x2 and y = −x2 . Are these continuous functions?

3. Study graphs of y = 3x − 2 and y = −7x + 1. Are these continuous functions?

4. Draw a graph of the function


 2x + 1 x < 3
f (x) = 5 x=3
6 x>3


Find

(a) lim+ f (x), (b) lim− f (x), (c) lim f (x), (d) lim+ f (x), (e) lim− f (x),
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→3 x→3

(f) lim f (x),

x→3

Answers 2. Yes. 3. Yes. 4. (a) 1, (b) 1, (c) 1, (d) 6, (e) 7, (f) limit does not exist.

2. Periodic functions
Any function that has a definite pattern repeated at regular intervals is said to be periodic. The
interval over which the repetition takes place is called the period of the function, and is usually given
the symbol T . The period of a periodic function is usually obvious from its graph.
Figure 20 figure shows a graph of a periodic function with period T = 3. This function has discon-
tinuities at values of x which are divisible by 3.

f(x)

−6 −3 0 3  x
T

Figure 20

HELM (2015): 29
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
Figure 21 shows a graph of a periodic function with period T = 6. This function has no discontinu-
ities.

f(x)

−6 −3 0 3  x
T

Figure 21
If a function is a periodic function with period T then, for any value of the independent variable x,
the value of f (x + T ) is the same as the value of f (x).

Key Point 3
A function f (x) is periodic if we can find a number T such that
f (x + T ) = f (x) for all values of x

Often a periodic function will be defined by simply specifying the period of the function and by
stating the rule for the function within one period. This information alone is sufficient to draw the
graph for all values of the independent variable.
Figure 22 shows a graph of the periodic function defined by
f (x) = x, −π < x < π, period T = 2π

f(x)
π

0 x
π 3π

−π

Figure 22

30 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Exercises
1. Explain what is meant by a periodic function.
2. Sketch a graph of a periodic function which has no discontinuities.
3. Sketch a graph of a periodic function which has discontinuities.
4. A periodic function has period 0.01 seconds. How many times will the pattern in the graph repeat
over an interval of 10 seconds ?

Answer 4. 1000.

3. Odd and even functions

Example 7
Figure 23 shows graphs of several functions. They share a common property.
Study the graphs and comment on any symmetry.

Figure 23

Solution
The graphs are all symmetrical about the y axis.

Any function which is symmetrical about the y axis, i.e. where the graph of the right-hand part is the
mirror image of that on the left, is said to be an even function. Even functions have the following
property:

Key Point 4
Even Function

An even function is such that f (−x) = f (x) for all values of x.

HELM (2015): 31
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
Key Point 4 is saying that the function value at a negative value of x is the same as the function
value at the corresponding positive value of x.

Example 8
Show algebraically that f (x) = x4 + 5 is an even function.

Solution
We must show that f (−x) = f (x).

f (−x) = (−x)4 + 5 = x4 + 5
Hence f (−x) = f (x) and so the function is even. Check for yourself that f (−3) = f (3).

Task
Extend the graph in the solution box in order to produce a graph of an even
function.

Your solution

Answer

32 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task
The following diagrams shows graphs of several functions. They share a common
property. Study the graphs and comment on any symmetry.

Your solution

Answer
There is rotational symmetry about the origin. That is, each curve, when rotated through 180◦ ,
transforms into itself.

Any function which possesses such symmetry − that is the graph of the right can be obtained by
rotating the curve on the left through 180◦ about the origin − is said to be an odd function. Odd
functions have the following property:

Key Point 5
Odd Function

An odd function is such that f (−x) = −f (x) for all values of x.

Key Point 5 is saying that the function value at a negative value of x is minus the function value at
the corresponding positive value of x.

HELM (2015): 33
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
 Example 9
Show that the function f (x) = x3 + 4x is odd.

Solution
We must show that f (−x) = −f (x).

f (−x) = (−x)3 + 4(−x)

= −x3 − 4x
= −(x3 + 4x)
= −f (x)

and so this function is odd. Check for yourself that f (−2) = −f (2).

Task
Extend the graph in the solution box in order to produce a graph of an odd function.

Your solution

Answer

Note that some functions are neither odd nor even; for example f (x) = x3 + x2 is neither even
nor odd.
The reader should confirm (with simple examples) that, ‘odd’ and ‘even’ functions have the following
properties:
odd + odd = odd even + even = even odd + even = neither
odd × odd = even even × even = even odd × even = odd

34 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Exercises
1. Classify the following functions as odd, even or neither. If necessary sketch a graph to help you
decide. (a) f (x) = 6, (b) f (x) = x2 , (c) f (x) = 2x + 1, (d) f (x) = x, (e) f (x) = 2x

2. The diagram below represents a heavy cable hanging under gravity from two points at the
same height. Such a curve (shown as a dashed line), known as a catenary, is described by a
mathematical function known as a hyperbolic cosine, f (x) = cosh x, discussed in 6.

y
y = cosh x

0 x

A catenary

(a) Comment upon any symmetry.

(b) Is this function one-to-one or many-to-one?

(c) Is this a continuous or discontinuous function?

(d) State lim cosh x.

x→0

Answers
1(a) even, (b) even, (c) neither, (d) odd, (e) odd
2(a) function is even, symmetric about the y-axis, (b) many-to-one, (c) continuous, (d) 1

HELM (2015): 35
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
  

The Straight Line 2.5 

Introduction
Probably the most important function and graph that you will use are those associated with the
straight line. A large number of relationships between engineering variables can be described using a
straight line or linear graph. Even when this is not strictly the case it is often possible to approximate
a relationship by a straight line. In this Section we study the equation of a straight line, its properties
and graph.

 

• understand what is meant by a function

Prerequisites
• be able to graph simple functions
Before starting this Section you should . . .

' 
$
• recognise the equation of a straight line

• explain the significance of a and b in the

equation of a line f (x) = ax + b

Learning Outcomes • find the gradient of a straight line given two

points on the line
On completion you should be able to . . .
• find the equation of a straight line through
two points

• find the distance between two points

& %

36 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

1. Linear functions
Any function of the form y = f (x) = ax + b where a and b are constants is called a linear function.
The constant a is called the coefficient of x, and b is referred to as the constant term.

Key Point 6
All linear functions can be written in the form:

f (x) = ax + b
where a and b are constants.

1 2
For example, f (x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = x − 7, h(x) = −3x + and k(x) = 2x are all linear functions.
2 3
The graph of a linear function is always a straight line. Such a graph can be plotted by finding just
two distinct points and joining these with a straight line.

Example 10
Plot the graph of the linear function y = f (x) = 4x + 3.

Solution
We start by finding two points. For example if we choose x = 0, then y = f (0) = 3, i.e. the first
point has coordinates (0, 3). Secondly, suppose we choose x = 5, then y = f (5) = 23. The second
point is (5, 23). These two points are then plotted and then joined by a straight line as shown in
the following diagram.
y
25

20
15
10
5

0 1 2 3 4 5 x

HELM (2015): 37
Section 2.5: The Straight Line
 Example 11
Plot graphs of the three linear functions y = 4x − 3, y = 4x, and y = 4x + 5, for
−2 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution
For each function it is necessary to find two points on the line.
For y = 4x − 3, suppose for the first point we choose x = 0, so that y = −3. For the second point,
let x = 2 so that y = 5. So, the points (0, −3) and (2, 5) can be plotted and joined. This is shown
in the following diagram.
y

10
5

−2 −1 1 2 x
−5

For y = 4x we find the points (0, 0) and (2, 8). Similarly for y = 4x + 5 we find points (0, 5) and
(2, 13). The corresponding lines are also shown in the figure.

Task
Refer to Example 11. Comment upon the effect of changing the value of the
constant term of the linear function.

Your solution

Answer
As the constant term is varied, the line moves up or down the page always remaining parallel to its
initial position.

The value of the constant term is also known as the vertical or y -axis intercept because this is the
value of y where the line cuts the y axis.

38 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task
State the vertical intercept of each of the following lines:
1 1
(a) y = 3x + 3, (b) y = x − , (c) y = 1 − 3x, (d) y = −5x.
2 3

In each case you need to identify the constant term:

Your solution
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Answer
1
(a) 3, (b) − , (c) 1, (d) 0
3

Example 12
Plot graphs of the lines y = 3x + 3, y = 5x + 3 and y = −2x + 3.

Solution
Note that all three lines have the same constant term, that is 3. So all three lines pass through
(0, 3), the vertical intercept. A further point has been calculated for each of the lines and their
graphs are shown in the following diagram.
y

10
5

−2 1 x
−5

Note from the graphs in Example 12 that as the coefficient of x is changed the gradient of the
graph changes. The coefficient of x gives the gradient or slope of the line. In general, for the
line y = ax + b a positive value of a produces a graph which slopes upwards from left to right. A
negative value of a produces a graph which slopes downwards from left to right. If a is zero the line
is horizontal, that is its gradient is zero. These properties are summarised in the next figure.

HELM (2015): 39
Section 2.5: The Straight Line
 y y y

a is negative
a is zero
a is positive

x x x

Figure 24: The gradient of a line y = ax + b depends upon the value of a.

Key Point 7
Linear Equation
In the linear function f (x) = ax + b, a is the gradient and b is the vertical intercept.

Task
State the gradients of the following lines:
1 x+2
(a) y = 7x + 2 (b) y = − x + 4 (c) y =
3 3

In each case the coefficient of x must be examined:

Your solution

(a) (b) (c)

Answer
(a) 7, (b) −1/3, (c) 1/3

40 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task
Which of the following lines has the steepest gradient ?
17x + 4 1
(a) y = , (b) y = 9x − 2, (c) y = x + 4.
5 3

Your solution

Answer
17 1
(b) because the three gradients are (a) (b) 9 (c)
5 3

Exercises
1. State the general form of the equation of a straight line explaining the role of each of the terms
in your answer.

2. State which of the following functions will have straight line graphs.
1
(a) f (x) = 3x − 3, (b) f (x) = x1/2 , (c) f (x) = , (d) f (x) = 13, (e) f (x) = −2 − x.
x
3. For each of the following, identify the gradient and vertical intercept.

(a) f (x) = 2x + 1, (b) f (x) = 3, (c) f (x) = −2x, (d) f (x) = −7 − 17x,

(e) f (x) = mx + c.

Answers

1. e.g. y = ax + b. x is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable, a is the gradient

and b is the vertical intercept.

2. (a), (d) and (e) will have straight line graphs.

3. (a) gradient = 2, vertical intercept =1, (b) 0, 3, (c) −2, 0, (d) −17, −7, (e) m, c.

HELM (2015): 41
Section 2.5: The Straight Line
2. The gradient of a straight line through two points
A common requirement is to find the gradient of a line when we know the coordinates of two points
on it. Suppose the two points are A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ) as shown in the following figure.

y
B(x2 , y2 )

A(x1 , y1 )
0 x

Figure 25
The gradient of the line joining A and B can be calculated from the following formula.

Key Point 8
Gradient of Line Through Two Points
The gradient of the line joining A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is given by
y2 − y1
gradient =
x2 − x1

Example 13
Find the gradient of the line joining the points A(0, 3) and B(4, 5).

Solution
We calculate the gradient as follows:

y2 − y1 y
gradient =
x2 − x1 7
5−3 3
=
4−0
1 0 4 8 x
=
2

Thus the gradient of the line is 12 . Graphically, this means that when x increases by 1, the value of
y increases by 21 .

42 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task
Find the gradient of the line joining the points A(−1, 4) and B(2, 1).

Your solution
y2 − y1
gradient = =
x2 − x1
Answer
1−4
= −1
2 − (−1)

Thus the gradient of the line is −1. Graphically, this means that when x increases by 1, the value of
y decreases by 1.

Exercises
1. Calculate the gradient of the line joining (1, 0) and (15, −3).
2. Calculate the gradient of the line joining (10, −3) and (15, −3).
Answers
1. −3/14. 2. 0

HELM (2015): 43
Section 2.5: The Straight Line
3. The equation of a straight line through two points
The equation of the line passing through the points with coordinates A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is given
by the following formula.

Key Point 9
The line passing through points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is given by
y − y1 x − x1 y2 − y1
 
= or, equivalently y − y1 = (x − x1 )
y2 − y1 x 2 − x1 x2 − x1

Task
Find the equation of the line passing through A(−7, 11) and B(1, 3).

y − y1 x − x1
First apply the formula: =
y2 − y1 x 2 − x1

Your solution
y−
=

Answer
y − 11 x+7
= .
3 − 11 1+7

Simplify this to obtain the required equation:

Your solution

Answer
y =4−x

Exercises
1. Find the equation of the line joining (1, 5) and (−9, 2).
2. Find the gradient and vertical intercept of the line joining (8, 1) and (−2, −3).

3 47
Answers 1. y = x+ . 2. 0.4, −2.2.
10 10

44 HELM (2015):
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4. The distance between two points

Referring again to the figure of 2, the distance between the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is
given using Pythagoras’ theorem by the following formula.

Key Point 10
Distance Between Two Points
p
The distance between points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Task
Find the distance between A(−7, 11) and B(1, 3), using Key Point 10.

Your solution

Answer
p √ √
(1 − (−7))2 + (3 − 11)2 = 64 + 64 = 128

Exercises
1. Find the distance between the points (4, 5) and (−17, 1).
2. Find the distance between the points (−4, −5) and (1, 7).

Answers
√
1. 457
2. 13

HELM (2015): 45
Section 2.5: The Straight Line
  

The Circle 2.6 

Introduction
A circle is one of the most familiar geometrical figures and has been around a long time! In this
brief Section we discuss the basic coordinate geometry of a circle - in particular the basic equation
representing a circle in terms of its centre and radius.

 
• understand what is meant by a function and
Prerequisites be able to use functional notation
Before starting this Section you should . . . • be able to plot graphs of functions

 

• obtain the equation of any given circle
Learning Outcomes • obtain the centre and radius of a circle from
On completion you should be able to . . . its equation
 

46 HELM (2015):
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 ®

1. Equations for circles in the Oxy plane

The obvious characteristic of a circle is that every point on its circumference is the same distance
from the centre. This fixed distance is called the radius of the circle and is generally denoted by R
or r or a.
In coordinate geometry terms suppose (x, y) denotes the coordinates of a point. For example, (4,2)
means x = 4, y = 2, (−1, 1) means x = −1, y = 1 and so on. See Figure 26.

(4, 2)
(−1, 1)
x

Figure 26

Example 14
Write down the distances d1 and d2 from the origin of the points with coordinates
(4,2) and (−1, 1) respectively. Generalise the result to obtain the distance d from
the origin of any arbitrary point with coordinates (x, y).

Solution
Using Pythagoras’ Theorem:
√ √
d1 = 42 + 22 = 20 is the distance between the origin (0,0) and the point (4,2).
p √
d2 = (−1)2 + 12 = 2 is the distance between the origin and (−1, 1).
p
d = x2 + y 2 is the distance from the origin to an arbitrary point (x, y). Note that the positive
square root is taken in each case.

HELM (2015): 47
Section 2.6: The Circle
Circles with centre at the origin
Suppose (x, y) is any point P on a circle of radius R whose centre is at the origin. See Figure 27.

(x, y )
P
R
x

Figure 27

Task
Using the final result of Example (14), write down an equation relating x, y and
R.

Your solution

Answer p
Since x2 + y 2 is distance of any point (x, y) from the origin, then for any point P on the above
circle.
p
x2 + y 2 = R or x2 + y 2 = R 2

As the point P in Figure 27 moves around the circle its x and y coordinates change. However P will
remain at the same distance R from the origin by the very definition of a circle.
Hence we say that
p
x2 + y 2 = R or, more usually,
x2 + y 2 = R 2 (1)
is the equation of the circle radius R centre at the origin. What this means is that if a point (x, y)
satisfies (1) then it lies on the circumference of the circle radius R. If (x, y) does not satisfy (1) then
it does not lie on that circumference.
Note carefully that the right-hand sides of the circle equation (1) is the square of the radius.

48 HELM (2015):
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Task
Consider the circle centre at the origin and of radius 5.

(a) Write down the equation of this circle.

(b) For the following points determine which lie on the circumference of
this circle, which lie inside the circle and which lie outside the circle.
√ √
(5, 0) (0, −5) (4, 3) (−3, 4) (2, 21) (−2 6, 1) (1, 4) (4, −4)

Your solution
(a)

(x, y) x2 + y 2 conclusion
(5, 0)
(0, −5)
(4, 3)
(b) (−3,√−4)
(2, √21)
(−2 6, 1)
(1, 4)
(4, −4)

Answer

(a) x2 + y 2 = 52 = 25 is the equation of the circle.

(b) For each point (x, y) we calculate x2 + y 2 . If this equals 25 the point lies on the circle’
if greater than 25 then outside and if less than 25 then inside.

x, y x2 + y 2 conclusion
(5, 0) 25 on circle
(0, −5) 25 on circle
(4, 3) 25 on circle
(−3,√−4) 25 on circle
(2, √21) 25 on circle
(−2 6, 1) 25 on circle
(1, 4) 17 inside circle
(4, −4) 32 outside circle

HELM (2015): 49
Section 2.6: The Circle
Figure 28 demonstrates some of the results of the previous Task.

y
x2 + y 2 = 25

(1, 4) (4, 3)

(5, 0)
x

(−3, − 4) (4, −4)

(0, −5)

Figure 28
Note that the circle centre at the origin and of radius 1 has a special name – the unit circle.

Task
Calculate the distance between the points P1 (−1, 1) and P2 (4, 2).

(4, 2)
(−1, 1)
x

Your solution

50 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Answer
y

P2
d
P1
A
x

Using Pythagoras’ Theorem the distance between the two given points is
p
d = (P1 A)2 + (AP2 )2
where P1 A = 4 − (−1) = 5, AP2 = 2 − 1 = 1
√ √
∴ d = 52 + 12 = 26

Task
Generalise your result to the previous Task to obtain the distance between any two
points whose coordinates are (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).

Your solution

HELM (2015): 51
Section 2.6: The Circle
 Answer
y

(x1 , y1 )
P1
d
P2
A (x2 , y2 )

Between the arbitrary points P1 and P2 the distance is

p
d = (AP2 )2 + (P1 A)2
where AP2 = x2 − x1 , P1 A = y1 − y2 = −(y2 − y1 )
p
so d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Using the result of the last Task, we now consider a circle centre at the point C(x0 ; y0 ) and of radius
R. Suppose P is an arbitrary point on this circle which has co-ordinates (x, y):

P (x, y)
R

C (x0 , y0 )

Figure 29
p
Clearly R = CP = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2
Hence, squaring both sides,
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = R2 (2)
which is said to be the equation of the circle centre (x0 , y0 ) radius R.
Note that if x0 = y0 = 0 (i.e. circle centre is at origin) then (2) reduces to (1) so the latter is simply
a special case.
The interpretation of (2) is similar to that of (1): any point (x, y) satisfying (2) lies on the circum-
ference of the circle.

52 HELM (2015):
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Example 15
What does the equation (x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 4 represent?

Solution
It represents a circle of radius 2 (the positive square root of 4) and has centre C (3, 4).

N.B. There is no need to expand the√terms on the left-hand side of the equation here. The given
form reveals quite plainly the radius ( 4) and centre (3, 4) of the circle.

Task
Write down the equations of each of the following circles for which the centre C
and radius R are given:

(a) C(0, 2), R = 2

(b) C(−2, 0), R = 3
(c) C(−3, 4), R = 5
√
(d) C(1, 1), R = 3

Your solution
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Answer

(a) x0 = 0, y0 = 2, R2 = 4 so by Equation (2) the circle’s equation is

x2 + (y − 2)2 = 4
(b) x0 = −2, y0 = 0, R2 = 9 ∴ (x + 2)2 + y 2 = 9

(c) (x + 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 25

(d) (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 3

Again we emphasise that the right-hand side of each of these equations is the square of the radius.

HELM (2015): 53
Section 2.6: The Circle
 Task
Write down the equations of each of the circles shown below:

y
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3

2 1 2 −1
x
3
−1

Your solution

Answer

(a) x2 + y 2 = 4 (centre (0, 0) i.e. the origin, radius 2)

(b) (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 (centre (1, 0), radius 1)
(c) (x − 3)2 + (y − 3)2 = 0 (centre (3, 3), radius 3)
(d) (x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 = 1 (centre (−1, −1), radius 1)

Consider again the equation of the circle, centre (3,4) of radius 2:

(x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 4 (3)

In this form of the equation the centre and radius of the circle can be clearly identified and, as we
said, there is no advantage in squaring out. However, if we did square out the equation would become

x2 − 6x + 9 + y 2 − 8x + 16 = 4 or x2 − 6x + y 2 − 8x + 21 = 0 (4)

Equation (4) is of course a valid equation for this circle but, we cannot immediately obtain the centre
and radius from it.

54 HELM (2015):
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Task
For the case of the general circle of radius R
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = R2
expand out the square terms and simplify.

Your solution

Answer
We obtain
x2 − 2x0 x + x20 + y 2 − 2y0 y + y02 − R2 = 0
or
x2 + y 2 − 2x0 x − 2y0 y + c = 0
where the constant c = x20 + y02 − R2 .

It follows from the above task that any equation of the form
x2 + y 2 − 2gx − 2f y + c = 0 (5)
represents a circle with centre (g, f ) and a radius obtained by solving
c = g 2 + f 2 − R2
for R.
Thus
p
R= g2 + f 2 − c (6)
There is no need to remember Equation (6). In any specific problem the technique of completion
of square can be used to turn an equation of the form (5) into the form of Equation (2) (i.e.
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = R2 ) and hence obtain the centre and radius of the circle.
NB. The key point about Equation (5) is that the coefficients of the term x2 and y 2 are the same,
i.e. 1. An equation with the coefficient of x2 and y 2 identical with value k 6= 1 could be converted
into the form (5) by division of the whole equation by k.

HELM (2015): 55
Section 2.6: The Circle
 Task
If
x2 + y 2 − 2x + 10y + 16 = 0
obtain the centre and radius of the circle that this equation represents.

Begin by completing the square separately on the x−terms and the y−terms:

Your solution

Answer

x2 − 2x = (x − 1)2 − 1
y 2 + 10y = (y + 5)2 − 25

Now complete the problem:

Your solution

Answer
The original equation
x2 + y 2 − 2x + 10y + 16 = 0
becomes
(x − 1)2 − 1 + (y + 5)2 − 25 + 16 = 0

∴ (x − 1)2 + (y + 5)2 = 10
√
which represents a circle with centre (1, −5) and radius 10.

56 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Circles and functions

Let us return to the equation of the unit circle
x2 + y 2 = 1
Solving for y we obtain
√
y = ± 1 − x2 .
This equation does not represent a function because of the two possible square roots which imply
that for any value of x there are two values of y. (You will recall from earlier in this Workbook that
a function requires only one value of the dependent variable y corresponding to each value of the
independent variable x.) √ √
However two functions can be obtained in this case: y = y1 = + 1 − x2 y = y 2 = − 1 − x2
whose graphs are the semicircles shown.

y √ y
y = + 1 − x2

−1 1
x x
−1 1
√
y = − 1 − x2

Figure 30

2. Annuli between circles

Equations in x and y, such as (1) i.e. x2 + y 2 = R2 and (2) i.e. (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 = R2 for
circles, define curves in the Oxy plane. However, inequalities are necessary to define regions. For
example, the inequality
x2 + y 2 < 1
is satisfied by all points inside the unit circle - for example (0, 0), (0, 21 ), ( 14 , 0), ( 12 , 21 ).
Similarly x2 + y 2 > 1 is satisfied by all points outside that circle such as (1, 1).

y
x2 + y 2 > 1
1
x2 + y 2 = 1

x
1
x2 + y 2 < 1

Figure 31

HELM (2015): 57
Section 2.6: The Circle
 Example 16
Sketch the regions in the Oxy plane defined by
(a) (x − 1)2 + y 2 < 1 (b) (x − 1)2 + y 2 > 1

Solution
The equality (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1 is satisfied by any point on the circumference of the circle centre
(1,0) radius 1. Then, remembering that (x − 1)2 + y 2 is the square of the distance between any
point (x, y) and (1,0), it follows that

(a) (x − 1)2 + y 2 < 1 is satisfied by any point inside this circle (region (A) in the diagram.)
(b) (x − 1)2 + y 2 > 1 defines the region exterior to the circle since this inequality is satisfied
by every point outside. (Region (B) on the diagram.)

(B) (A) (B)

x
0 1 2

The region between two circles with the same centre (i.e. concentric circles) is called an annulus
or annular region. An annulus is defined by two inequalities. For example the inequality
x2 + y 2 > 1 (7)
defines, as we saw, the region outside the unit circle.
The inequality
x2 + y 2 < 4 (8)
defines the region inside the circle centre origin radius 2.
Hence points (x, y) which satisfy both the inequalities (7) and (8) lie in the annulus between the
two circles. The inequalities (7) and (8) are combined by writing
1 < x2 + y 2 < 4

y
1 < x2 + y 2 < 4

x
0 1 2

Figure 32

58 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Task
Sketch the annulus defined by the inequalities
1 < (x − 1)2 + y 2 < 9

Your solution

Answer
The quantity (x − 1)2 + y 2 is the square of the distance of a point (x, y) from the point (1,0).
Hence, as we saw earlier, the left-hand inequality
1 < (x − 1)2 + y 2 which is the same as (x − 1)2 + y 2 > 1
is the region exterior to the circle C1 centre (1, 0) radius 1.
Similarly the right-hand inequality
(x − 1)2 + y 2 < 9
defines the interior of the circle C2 centre (1, 0) radius 3. Hence the double inequality holds for any
point in the annulus between C1 and C2 .

C2

C1
x
−2 0 1 22 4

HELM (2015): 59
Section 2.6: The Circle
 Exercises
1. Write down the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle for each of the following
equations

(a) x2 + y 2 = 16
(b) (x − 4)2 + (y − 3)2 = 12
(c) (x + 3)2 + (y − 1)2 = 25
(d) x2 + (y + 1)2 − 4 = 0
(e) (x + 6)2 + y 2 − 36 = 0

2. Obtain in each case the equation of the given circle

(a) centre C (0, 0) radius 7

(b) centre C (0, 2) radius 2
(c) centre C (4, −4) radius 4
(d) centre C (−2, −2) radius 4
(e) centre C (−6, 0) radius 5

3. Obtain the radius and the coordinates of the centre for each of the following circles

(a) x2 + y 2 − 10x + 12y = 0

(b) x2 + y 2 + 2x − 4y = 11
(c) x2 + y 2 − 6x − 16 = 0

4. Describe the regions defined by each of these inequalities

(a) x2 + y 2 > 4
(b) x2 + y 2 < 16
(c) the inequalities in (i) and (ii) together

5. State an inequality that describes the points that lie outside the circle of radius 4 with centre
(−4, 2).
√
6. State an inequality that describes the points that lie inside the circle of radius 6 with centre
(−2, −1).

7. Obtain the equation of the circle which has centre (3, 4) and which passes through the point
(0, 5).

8. Show that if A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) are at opposite ends of a diameter of a circle then the
equation of the circle is (x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) = 0.

(Hint: if P is any point on the circle obtain the slopes of the lines AP and BP and recall that
the angle in a semicircle must be a right-angle.)

9. State the equation of the unique circle which touches the x−axis at the point (2,0) and which
passes through the point (−1, 9).

60 HELM (2015):
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Answers

1. (a) radius 4 centre (0, 0)

√
(b) radius 12 centre (4, 3)
(c) radius 5 centre (−3, 1)
(d) radius 2 centre (0, −1)
(e) radius 6 centre (−6, 0)

2. (a) x2 + y 2 = 49
(b) x2 + (y − 2)2 = 4
(c) (x − 4)2 + (y + 4)2 = 16
(d) (x + 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 16
(e) (x + 6)2 + y 2 = 25
√
3. (a) centre (5, −6) radius 61
(b) centre (−1, 2) radius 4
(c) centre (3,0) radius 5

4. (a) the region outside the circumference of the circle centre the origin radius 2.
(b) the region inside the circle centre the origin radius 4 (often referred to as a circular disc)
(c) the annular ring between these two circles.

5. (x + 4)2 + (y − 2)2 > 16

6. (x + 2)2 + (y + 1)2 < 6

7. (x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 = 10

8. (x − x1 )(x − x2 ) + (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) = 0.

9. (x − 2)2 + (y − 5)2 = 25 (Note: since we are told the circle touches the x−axis at (2,0) the
centre of the circle must be at the point (2, y0 ) where y0 = R).

HELM (2015): 61
Section 2.6: The Circle
Some Common  

Functions 2.7 

Introduction
This Section provides a catalogue of some common functions often used in Science and Engineering.
These include polynomials, rational functions, the modulus function and the unit step function.
Important properties and definitions are stated. This Section can be used as a reference when the
need arises. There are, of course, other types of function which arise in engineering applications,
such as trigonometric, exponential and logarithm functions. These others are dealt with in 4
to 6.

 
• understand what is meant by a function and
Prerequisites use functional notation
Before starting this Section you should . . . • be able to plot graphs of functions

' 
$
• state what is meant by a polynomial
function, and a rational function
Learning Outcomes
• use and graph the modulus function
On completion you should be able to . . .
• use and graph the unit step function
& %

62 HELM (2015):
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 ®

1. Polynomial functions
A very important type of function is the polynomial. Polynomial functions are made up of multiples
of non-negative whole number powers of a variable, such as 3x2 , −7x3 and so on. You are already
familiar with many such functions. Other examples include:

P0 (t) = 6
P1 (t) = 3t + 9 (The linear function you have already met).
2
P2 (x) = 3x − x + 2
P4 (z) = 7z 4 + z 2 − 1

where t, x and z are independent variables.

Note that fractional and negative powers of the independent variable are not allowed so that f (x) =
x−1 and g(x) = x3/2 are not polynomials. The function P0 (t) = 6 is a polynomial - we can regard
it as 6t0 .
By convention a polynomial is written with the powers either increasing or decreasing. For example
the polynomial
3x + 9x2 − x3 + 2
would be written as
−x3 + 9x2 + 3x + 2 or 2 + 3x + 9x2 − x3
In general we have the following definition:

Key Point 11
A polynomial expression has the form
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where n is a non-negative integer, an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 are constants and x is a variable.
A polynomial function P (x) has the form
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

The degree of a polynomial or polynomial function is the value of the highest power. Referring to
the examples listed above, polynomial P2 has degree 2, because the term with the highest power
is 3x2 , P4 has degree 4, P1 has degree 1 and P0 has degree 0. Polynomials with low degrees have
special names given in Table 5.

HELM (2015): 63
Section 2.7: Some Common Functions
 Table 5
degree name
a 0 constant
ax + b 1 linear
ax2 + bx + c 2 quadratic
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 3 cubic
ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e 4 quartic

Typical graphs of some polynomial functions are shown in Figure 30. In particular, observe that the
graphs of the linear polynomials, P1 and Q1 are straight lines.

P2 (x ) = x 2 + 3
10
P1 (x ) = 2x + 3 10 10 P3 (x ) = x 3
5
Q1 (x ) = −x + 4
−5 5
x x −5 x
−5 5 5
−5
−10
−15
Q2 (x ) = −x 2 + 2x
Q3 (x ) = −x 3 + 7x − 6

Figure 30: Graphs of some typical linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials

Task
Which of the polynomial graphs in Figure 30 are odd and which are even? Are
any periodic ?

Your solution

Answer
P2 is even. P3 is odd. None are periodic.

64 HELM (2015):
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 ®

Task
State which of the following are polynomial functions. For those that are, state
the degree and name.
(a) f (x) = 6x2 + 7x3 − 2x4 (b) f (t) = t3 − 3t2 + 7
1 3 1
(c) g(x) = 2
+ (d) f (x) = 16 (e) g(x) = 6
x x

Your solution

Answer
(a) polynomial of degree 4 (quartic), (b) polynomial of degree 3 (cubic), (c) not a polynomial,
(d) polynomial of degree 0 (constant), (e) polynomial of degree 0 (constant)

Exercises
1. Write down a polynomial of degree 3 with independent variable t.
2. Write down a function which is not a polynomial.
3. Explain why y = 1 + x + x1/2 is not a polynomial.
4. State the degree of the following polynomials: (a) P (t) = t4 + 7, (b) P (t) = −t3 + 3,
(c) P (t) = 11, (d) P (t) = t
5. Write down a polynomial of degree 0 with independent variable z.
6. Referring to Figure 27, state which functions are one-to-one and which are many-to-one.

Answers
1. For example f (t) = 1 + t + 3t2 − t3 .
1
2. For example y = .
x
3. A term such as x1/2 , with a fractional index, is not allowed in a polynomial.
4. (a) 4, (b) 3, (c) 0, (d) 1.
5. P (z) = 13, for example.
6. P1 , Q1 and P3 are one-to-one. The rest are many-to-one.

HELM (2015): 65
Section 2.7: Some Common Functions
2. Rational functions
A rational function is formed by dividing one polynomial by another. Examples include
x+6 t3 − 1 2z 2 + z − 1
R1 (x) = , R2 (t) = , R 3 (z) =
x2 + 1 2t + 3 z2 + z − 2
For convenience we have labelled these rational functions R1 , R2 and R3 .

Key Point 12
A rational function has the form
P (x)
R(x) =
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomial functions.
P is called the numerator and Q is called the denominator.

The graphs of rational functions can take a variety of different forms and can be difficult to plot by
hand. Use of a graphics calculator or computer software can help. If you have access to a plotting
package or calculator it would be useful to obtain graphs of these functions for yourself. The next
Example and two Tasks allow you to explore some of the features of the graphs.

66 HELM (2015):
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Example 17
x+2
Given the rational function R1 (x) = and its graph shown in Figure 31
x2 + 1
answer the following questions.

x
−2

x+2
Figure 31: Graph of R1 (x) =
x2 + 1
(a) For what values of x, if any, is the denominator zero?
(b) For what values of x, if any, is the denominator negative?
(c) For what values of x is the function negative?
(d) What is the value of the function when x is zero?
(e) What happens to the function as x gets larger and larger?

Solution
(a) x2 + 1 is never zero
(b) x2 + 1 is never negative, it is always positive
(c) only when the numerator x + 2 is negative which is when x is less than −2
(d) 2, because that is when the numerator x + 2 = 0
(e) R1 approaches zero because the x2 term in the denominator becomes very large. (This is seen
by substituting larger and larger values e.g. 10, 100, 1000 . . . )

Note that for large x values the graph gets closer and closer to the x axis. We say that the x axis is
a horizontal asymptote of this graph.
Answering questions such as (a) to (c) above will help you to sketch graphs of rational functions.

HELM (2015): 67
Section 2.7: Some Common Functions
 Task
t3 − 1
Study the graph and the algebraic form of the function R2 (t) = carefully
2t + 3
and answer the following questions. The following figure shows its graph (the solid
curve). The dotted line is an asymptote.

10

−10 −5 5 10 t

−10

t3 − 1
Graph of R2 (t) =
2t + 3

(a) What is the function value when t = 1?

(b) What is the value of the denominator when t = −3/2?
(c) What do you think happens to the graph of the function when t = −3/2?

Your solution

(a)

(b)

(c)

Answer
(a) 0,
(b) 0,
(c) The function value tends to infinity, the graph becomes infinite.

Note from the answers to parts (b) and (c) that we must exclude the value t = −3/2 from the
domain of this function because division by zero is not defined. At this point as you can see the
graph shoots off towards very large positive values (we say it tends to positive infinity) if the point is
approached from the left, and towards very large negative values (we say it tend to negative infinity)
if the point is approached from the right. The dotted line in the graph of R2 (x) has equation t = − 23 .
It is approached by the curve as t approaches − 32 and is known as a vertical asymptote.

68 HELM (2015):
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Task
2z 2 + z − 1
Study the graph and the algebraic form of the function R3 (z) =
(z − 1)(z + 2)
carefully and try to answer the following questions. The graph of R3 (z) is shown
in the following figure.

10

−5 5 z

−10

2z 2 + z − 1
Graph of R3 (z) =
(z − 1)(z + 2)

(a) What is happening to the graph when z = −2 and when z = 1?

(b) Which values should be excluded from the domain of this function?
(c) Substitute some values for z (e.g. 10, 100 . . .). What happens to R3 as z gets large?
(d) Is there a horizontal asymptote?
(e) What is the name given to the vertical lines z = 1 and z = −2?
Your solution

Answer
(a) denominator is zero, R3 tends to infinity,
(b) z = −2 and z = 1,
(c) R3 approaches the value 2,
(d) y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote,
(e) vertical asymptotes

HELM (2015): 69
Section 2.7: Some Common Functions
The previous Examples are intended to give you some guidance so that you will be able to sketch
rational functions yourself. Each function must be looked at individually but some general guidelines
are given in Key Point 13.

Key Point 13
Sketching rational functions

• Find the value of the function when the independent variable is zero. This is generally easy
to evaluate and gives you a point on the graph.

• Find values of the independent variable which make the denominator zero. These values must
be excluded from the domain of the function and give rise to vertical asymptotes.

• Find values of the independent variable which make the dependent variable zero. This gives
you points where the graph cuts the horizontal axis (if at all).

• Study the behaviour of the function when x is large and positive and when it is large and
negative.

• Are there any vertical or horizontal asymptotes? (Oblique asymptotes may also occur but
these are beyond the scope of this Workbook.)

It is particularly important for engineers to find values of the independent variable for which the
denominator is zero. These values are are known as the poles of the rational function.

Task
State the poles of the following rational functions:
t−3 s+7 2x + 5
(a) f (t) = (b) F (s) = (c) r(x) =
t+7 (s + 3)(s − 3) (x + 1)(x + 2)
x−1
(d) f (x) = 2 .
x −1

In each case locate the poles by finding values of the independent variable which make the denominator
zero:
Your solution

Answer
(a) −7, (b) 3 or −3, (c) −1 or −2, (d) x = −1

If you have access to a plotting package, plot these functions now.

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Exercises
1. Explain what is meant by a rational function.

2. State the degree of the numerator and the degree of the denominator of the rational function
3x2 + x + 1
R(x) = .
x−1
3. Explain the term ‘pole’ of a rational function.

4. Referring to the graphs of R1 (x), R2 (t) and R3 (z) (on pages 66 - 68), state which functions,
if any, are one-to-one and which are many-to-one.
1 1
5. Without using a graphical calculator plot graphs of y = and y = 2 . Comment upon
x x
whether these graphs are odd, even or neither, whether they are continuous or discontinuous,
and state the position of any poles.

Answers
1. R(x) = P (x)/Q(x) where P and Q are polynomials.
2. numerator: 2, denominator: 1
3. The pole is a value of the independent variable which makes the denominator zero.
4. All are many-to-one.
1 1
5. is odd, and discontinuous. Pole at x = 0. 2 is even and discontinuous. Pole at x = 0.
x x

3. The modulus function

The modulus of a number is the size of that number with no regard paid to its sign. For example the
modulus of −7 is 7. The modulus of +7 is also 7. We can write this concisely using the modulus
sign | |. So we can write | − 7| = 7 and | + 7| = 7. The modulus function is defined as follows:

Key Point 14
Modulus Function
The modulus function is defined as

x x≥0
f (x) = |x| =
−x x < 0

HELM (2015): 71
Section 2.7: Some Common Functions
The output from the function in Key Point 14 is simply the modulus of the input.
A graph of this function is shown in Figure 32.

f (x) = |x|

Figure 32: Graph of the modulus function |x|

Task
Draw up a table of values of the function f (x) = |x − 2| for values of x between
−3 and 5. Sketch a graph of this function.

Your solution
The table has been started. Complete it for yourself.

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) 5 3 2 0

Some points on the graph are shown in the figure. Plot your calculated points on the graph.

f (x) = |x − 2|
5

−3 2 x
5

Answer

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

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Exercises
1. Sketch a graph of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = 3|x|, (b) f (x) = |x + 1|, (c) f (x) = 7|x − 3|.
2. Is the modulus function one-to-one or many-to-one?

Answers 2. Many-to-one

4. The unit step function

The unit step function is defined as follows:

Key Point 15
The unit step function u(t) is defined as:

1 t≥0
u(t) =
0 t<0

Study this definition carefully. You will see that it is defined in two parts, with one expression to be
used when t is greater than or equal to 0, and another expression to be used when t is less than 0.
The graph of this function is shown in Figure 33. Note that the part of u(t) for which t < 0 lies on
the t-axis but, for clarity, is shown as a distinct dashed line.

u(t)

Figure 33: Graph of the unit step function

There is a jump, or discontinuity in the graph when t = 0. That is why we need to define the function
in two parts; one part for when t is negative, and one part for when t is non-negative. The point
with coordinates (0,1) is part of the function defined on t ≥ 0.

HELM (2015): 73
Section 2.7: Some Common Functions
The position of the discontinuity may be shifted to the left or right. The graph of u(t − d) is shown
in Figure 34.

u(t − d)

t
d

Figure 34: Graph of u(t − d).

In the previous two figures the function takes the value 0 or 1. We can adjust the value 1 by
multiplying the function by any other number we choose. The graph of 2u(t − 3) is shown in Figure
35.

2 u(t − )

t
3

Figure 35: Graph of 2u(t − 3)

Exercises
Sketch graphs of the following functions:

1. u(t),

2. −u(t),

3. u(t − 1),

4. u(t + 1),

5. u(t − 3) − u(t − 2),

6. 3u(t),

7. −2u(t − 3).

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Answers

(1) (2)
u(t)
1

--------------------- ---------------------
t t
− u(t)
-1

(3) (4)
u(t − 1) u(t + 1)
1 1

------------------------------- ------------ t
1 t -1

(5) 3u(t)
(6)
3

------------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------

1 2 3 t t

-1
u(t − 3) − u(t − 2)

(7)

------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 t

-2
− 2u(t − 3)

HELM (2015): 75
Section 2.7: Some Common Functions
NOTES  
 Index for Workbook 2

Annulus 58 Inverse of a function 23

Argument 6
Asymptote 67 Limit 28
Line 36-45
Catenary 35 Linear function 37-40, 64
Centre of circle 47
Circle 46-61 Modulus function 71
Composition of functions 9
Concentric circles 58 Numerator 66
Continuity 27
Coordinates 12 Parameter 17
Cubic 64 Parametric representation 17
Pole 70
Degree 63 Polynomial 63
Denominator 66
Distance between points 45 Quadratic 64
Domain 13 Quartic 64

Function 3, 21, 57, 63 Radius of a circle 47

Function - 1 to 1 22 Range 13
- continuous 27 Rational function 66
- discontinuous 27
- inverse 23 Sketching 70
- linear 37
- many-to-one 22 Unit step function 73
- modulus 71
- even 31 Variables - dependent 13
- odd 33 - independent 13
- periodic 29
- rational 66 EXERCISES
- unit step 73 5, 8, 10, 16, 19, 25, 29, 31, 35, 41, 43, 44,
45, 60, 65, 71, 73, 74
Gradient of a line 42
Graph 12
Graph sketching 70