Electrolysis: Basics

 When an electric current is passed through a molten ionic compound the compound
decomposes or breaks down

 The process also occurs for aqueous solutions of ionic compounds

 Covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity hence they do not undergo electrolysis

 Ionic compounds in the solid state cannot conduct electricity either since they have no free
ions that can move and carry the charge

Particles in ionic compounds are in fixed position in the solid state but can move around when
molten or in solution

Key terms

 Electrode is a rod of metal or graphite through which an electric current flows into or out of
an electrolyte

 Electrolyte is the ionic compound in molten or dissolved solution that conducts the
electricity

 Anode is the positive electrode of an electrolysis cell

 Anion is a negatively charged ion which is attracted to the anode

 Cathode is the negative electrode of an electrolysis cell

 Cation is a positively charged ion which is attracted to the cathode

The basic set-up of an electrolysis cell

Exam Tip

Use the PANIC mnemonic to remember which electrode is the positive and which is the negative:

Positive (is) Anode Negative Is Cathode

Electrolysis: General Principles

Positive electrode (anode)

 Non-metal ions (other than hydrogen) are attracted to the positive electrode

 Non-metal ions will lose electrons to form the non-metal

 The product formed depends on which ion loses electrons more readily, with the more
reactive ion remaining in solution

Negative electrode (cathode)

 H+ and metal ions attracted to the negative electrode but only one will gain electrons

 Either hydrogen or metal will be produced

  If the metal is above hydrogen in reactivity series, then hydrogen will be produced and
bubbling will be seen at the cathode

The electrolysis of molten binary ionic compounds

 A binary ionic compound is one consisting of just two elements joined together by ionic
bonding

 When these compounds undergo electrolysis they always produce their corresponding
elements

 To predict the products made at each electrode, first identify the ions

 The positive ion will migrate towards the cathode and the negative ion will migrate towards
the anode

 Therefore, the cathode product will always be the metal, and the product formed at
the anode will always be the non-metal

Example: Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide

Method:

 Add lead(II) bromide into a beaker and heat so it will turn molten, allowing ions to be free to
move and conduct an electric charge

 Add two graphite rods as the electrodes and connect this to a power pack or battery

 Turn on power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place

 Negative bromide ions move to the positive electrode (anode) and each loses one electron
to form bromine molecules. There is bubbling at the anode as brown bromine gas is given
off

 Positive lead ions move to the negative electrode (cathode) and gain electrons to form
a grey lead metal which deposits on the surface of the electrode
Diagram showing the electrolysis of lead(II) bromide

Worked Example

Identify the product formed at the anode and cathode during the electrolysis of molten potassium
chloride.

Answer:

 The ions present are potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-)

 The chloride ions are attracted to the anode and form chlorine gas

 The potassium ions are attracted to the cathode and form potassium metal

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

 Aqueous solutions will always have water present (H2O)

 In the electrolysis of aqueous solutions, the water molecules dissociate producing H + and
OH– ions:

H2O ⇌ H+ + OH–

 These ions are also involved in the process and their chemistry must be considered
  We now have an electrolyte that contains ions from the compound plus ions from the water

 Which ions get discharged and at which electrode depends on the relative reactivity of the
elements involved

 Concentrated and dilute solutions of the same compound give different products

 For anions, the more concentrated ion will tend to get discharged over a more dilute ion

Positive Electrode (anode)

 Negatively charged OH– ions and non-metal ions are attracted to the positive electrode

 If halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-) and OH- are present then the halide ion is discharged at the anode,
gains electrons and forms a halogen (chlorine, bromine or iodine)

 If no halide ions are present, then OH- is discharged at the anode, gains electrons and forms
oxygen gas

 In both cases the other negative ion remains in solution

 The concentration of the solution also affects which ion is discharged:

o If a concentrated halide solution is being electrolysed, the halogen forms at the

anode

o If a dilute halide solution is being electrolysed, oxygen is formed

 For example:

o For a concentrated solution of barium chloride, the Cl- ions are discharged more
readily than the OH- ions, so chlorine gas is produced at the anode

o If the solution is dilute however only the OH- ion is discharged and so oxygen would
be formed

Negative Electrode (cathode)

 Positively charged H+ and metal ions are attracted to the negative electrode but only one will
gain electrons

 Either hydrogen gas or metal will be produced

 If the metal is above hydrogen in the reactivity series, then hydrogen will be produced and
bubbling will be seen at the cathode

 This is because the more reactive ions will remain in the solution, causing the least reactive
ion to be discharged

 Therefore, at the cathode, hydrogen gas will be produced unless the positive ions from the
ionic compound are less reactive than hydrogen, in which case the metal is produced
The reactivity series of metals including hydrogen and carbon

Products formed for Common Aqueous Solutions

Determining what gas is produced

 If the gas produced at the cathode burns with a 'pop' when a sample is lit with a lighted
splint then the gas is hydrogen

 If the gas produced at the anode relights a glowing splint dipped into a sample of the gas
then the gas is oxygen

 The halogen gases all produce their own colours (bromine is red-brown, chlorine is yellow-
green and fluorine is pale yellow)

Reactions at the Electrodes & Ionic Half-Equations

Extended

 In electrochemistry we are mostly concerned with the transfer of electrons, hence the
definitions of oxidation and reduction are applied in terms of electron loss or gain rather
than the addition or removal of oxygen

 Oxidation is when a substance loses electrons and reduction is when a substance gains
electrons

 As the ions come into contact with the electrode, electrons are either lost or gained and
they form neutral substances

 These are then discharged as products at the electrodes

 At the anode, negatively charged ions lose electrons and are thus oxidised
  At the cathode, the positively charged ions gain electrons and are thus reduced

 Half equations show the oxidation and reduction of the ions involved

 It is important to make sure the charges are balanced

Table of Reduction Reactions at the Cathode

Exam Tip

To help you remember the definitions of oxidation and reduction use OIL RIG

Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons) Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)

Products of Electrolysis & Charge Transfer

Extended

Transfer of Charge

 During electrolysis the electrons move from the power supply towards the cathode

 Positive ions within the electrolyte move towards the negatively charged electrode which is
the cathode

 Here they accept electrons from the cathode and either a metal or hydrogen gas is produced

 Negative ions within the electrolyte move towards the positively charged electrode which is
the anode

 If the anode is inert (such as graphite or platinum), the ions lose electrons to the anode and
form a nonmetal or oxygen gas

 If the anode is a reactive metal, then the metal atoms of the anode lose electrons and go
into solution as ions, thinning the anode
Diagram showing the direction of movement of electrons and ions in the electrolysis of NaCl

Copper refining

 The electrolysis of CuSO4 using inert electrodes (graphite rods) produces oxygen and copper

 By changing the electrodes from graphite to pure and impure copper, the products can be
changed at each electrode

 Electrolysis can be used to purify metals by separating them from their impurities

 In the set-up, the anode is impure copper

 The cathode is a thin sheet of pure copper

 The electrolyte used is an aqueous solution of a soluble salt, in this case copper(II)
sulfate solution

 At the anode:

o Copper atoms lose electrons and go into the solution as ions

Cu → Cu2+ + 2e-

o The mass of the anode decreases due to loss of atoms and the impurities fall to the
bottom of the cell as sludge

 At the cathode:

o The copper ions in the solution are attracted to the cathode where they gain
electrons and form now purified copper atoms

Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu

o Copper collects on the cathode causing its mass to increase

Electrical Energy

Extended

 A simple cell is a source of electrical energy

 The simplest design consists of two electrodes made from metals of different
reactivity immersed in an electrolyte and connected to an external voltmeter by wire,
creating a complete circuit

 A common example is zinc and copper

 Zinc is the more reactive metal and forms ions more easily, readily releasing electrons

 The electrons give the more reactive electrode a negative charge and sets up a charge
difference between the electrodes

 The electrons then flow around the circuit to the copper electrode which is now the
more positive electrode

 The difference in the ability of the electrodes to release electrons causes a voltage to be
produced

 The greater the difference in the metals reactivity then the greater the voltage produced

 The electrolyte used also affects the voltage as different ions react with the electrodes in
different ways
Simple cell made with Cu and Mg. These metals are further apart on the reactivity series than Cu
and Zn and produce a greater voltage

Exam Tip

Use the reactivity series of metals to compare different cells and deduce the relative voltages.

TEST YOURSELF NEXT TOPIC

Electroplating

 Electroplating is a process where the surface of one metal is coated with a layer of a
different metal

 The anode is made from the pure metal you want to coat your object with

 The cathode is the object to be electroplated

 The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of a soluble salt of the pure metal at the anode
A piece of iron being electroplated with tin. The electrolyte is tin(II) chloride, a water-soluble salt
of tin

Uses of electroplating

 Electroplating is done to make metals more resistant to corrosion or damage

o e.g, chromium and nickel plating

 It is also done to improve the appearance of metals,

o e.g. coating cutlery and jewellery with silver

Conductors & insulators

Conductors

 Conductors of electricity allow electrical charge to pass through them easily

 Conductors can be:

o Solids such as metals or graphite

o Liquids such as molten lead bromide or molten metals

 o Solutions such as sodium chloride solution

 Copper is used extensively in electrical wiring as it is an excellent conductor and

is malleable and easy to work with

 Aluminium is used in overhead cables which are reinforced with a steel core

 The steel core provides extra strength and prevents the cable from breaking under its own
weight

 Although not as good a conductor as copper, aluminium is less dense and cheaper than
copper

Insulators

 Insulators resist the flow of electricity and do not conduct

 Most insulators are solids of plastic, rubber or ceramic

 Plastics are used as insulators and are placed around electrical wiring and for some tool and
machine handles

 Ceramics are used in very high voltage lines where contact between the power line and the
metal of the pylon would be dangerous

TEST YOURSELF NEXT TOPIC

Manufacture of Aluminium, Chlorine, Hydrogen & Sodium Hydroxide

Extended

Extraction of aluminium

 The Earth’s Crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, iron oxide and
aluminium oxide

 To be useful, the more reactive metals have to be extracted from their ore through
processes such as electrolysis, using a blast furnace or by reacting with more reactive
material

 Metals which lie above carbon have to be extracted by electrolysis as they are too reactive
to economically be extracted by displacement
Reactivity series & extraction of metals

Extraction of aluminium by electrolysis

Diagram showing the extraction of aluminium by electrolysis

Raw Materials:

 Aluminium ore (bauxite)

Explanation:

 The bauxite is first purified to produce aluminium oxide Al2O3

 Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point so it is first dissolved in

molten cryolite producing an electrolyte with a lower melting point, as well as a better
conductor of electricity than molten aluminium oxide. This also reduces expense
considerably

 The electrolyte is a mixture of aluminium oxide in molten cryolite at a temperature of about

1000 °C. The molten aluminium is siphoned off from time to time and fresh aluminium oxide
is added to the cell. The cell operates at 5-6 volts and with a current of 100,000 amps. The
heat generated by the huge current keeps the electrolyte molten

 A lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction which is very expensive

Reaction at the Negative Electrode:

 Aluminium ions are attracted to the cathode where they gain electrons and form aluminium
metal

Al3+ + 3e- → Al

 The aluminium melts and collects at the bottom of the cell and is then tapped off:

Reaction at the Positive Electrode:

  Oxide ions are attracted to the anode, and lose electrons to form oxygen gas

2O2- → O2 + 4e-

 Some of the oxygen produced at the anode then reacts with the graphite (carbon) electrode
to produce carbon dioxide gas

C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

 This causes the carbon anodes to wear away, so they must be replaced regularly.

Manufacture of chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide

 Brine is a concentrated solution of aqueous sodium chloride

 When electrolysed it produces chlorine and hydrogen at the electrodes leaving behind
sodium hydroxide solution

 These substances all have important industrial uses:

o Chlorine is used to make bleach

o Hydrogen is used to make margarine

o Sodium hydroxide is used to make soap and detergents

 The electrolyte is concentrated sodium chloride which contains the following ions: Na +, H+,
Cl- and OH-

Reaction at the Negative Electrode:

 The H+ ions are discharged at the cathode as they are less reactive than sodium ions

 The H+ ions gain electrons to form hydrogen gas

2H+ + 2e- → H2

Reaction at the Positive Electrode:

 The Cl– ions are discharged at the anode

 They lose electrons and chlorine gas forms

2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

 The Na+ and OH– ions remain behind and form the NaOH solution
Diagram showing the products of the electrolysis of brine

TEST YOURSELF

TEST YOURSELF

Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions

Heat Exchange in Reactions

 Chemical reactions occur so that elements can achieve a more stable energy state by gaining
a full outer shell of electrons

 This is done by chemical bonding (we have already seen ionic and covalent bonding) where
old bonds are broken, and new bonds are formed)

 This process involves the transfer of energy into and out of reaction mixtures

 The terms used to describe this are the system (what happens in the chemical reaction) and
the surroundings (anything other than the chemicals reacting)

 The energy within the system comes from the chemical bonds themselves which could be
considered as tiny stores of chemical energy

 In the majority of reactions, the energy transferred is in the form of heat energy, although
sometimes other types of energy are produced such as light or sound

Exothermic Reactions
  In exothermic reactions energy is transferred to the surroundings so the temperature of the
surroundings increases

 This energy is transferred from the chemical energy store of the chemical system to the
surroundings and so the energy of the system falls - this means that the energy change is
negative

 The overall transfer is from the system to the surroundings

 Combustion, oxidation, and neutralisation reactions are typical exothermic reactions

 Hand warmers used in the wintertime are based on the release of heat from an exothermic
reaction

 Self-heating cans of food and drinks such as coffee and hot chocolate also use exothermic
reactions in the bases of the containers

Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy outwards from an exothermic reaction

Endothermic Reactions

 In endothermic reactions energy is taken in from the surroundings so the temperature of

the surroundings decreases
  This energy is transferred to the chemical energy store of the chemical system and so the
energy of the system increases - this means the energy change is positive

 The overall transfer is from the surroundings to the system

 These types of reactions are much less common than the exothermic reactions

 Electrolysis, thermal decomposition reactions and the first stages of photosynthesis are
typical endothermic reactions

 Sports injury treatments often use cold packs based on endothermic reactions to take heat
away from a recently injured area to prevent swelling

Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy from the surroundings into an endothermic reaction

Energy Level Diagrams

 Energy level diagrams (sometimes called reaction pathway diagrams or reaction profiles) are
graphical representations of the relative energies of the reactants and products in chemical
reactions

 The energy of the reactants and products are displayed on the y-axis and the reaction
pathway (a bit like time) is shown on the x-axis

 The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products represents
the overall energy change of a reaction.
 o This is usually a sketch but can be drawn to scale if data is provided

 Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is exothermic (overall reaction arrow
is downwards pointing, showing that the system has lost energy) or endothermic (overall
reaction arrow is upwards pointing, showing that the system has gained energy)

 The initial increase in energy represents the activation energy (Ea), which is the minimum
energy that colliding particles must have in order to react

 The greater the initial rise, the more energy that is required to get the reaction going e.g.
more heat needed

Reaction profile of an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction

Exam Tip

To help you remember whether a chemical system is exothermic or endothermic, in EXothermic

reactions heat Exits the system and in ENdothermic reactions heat ENters the system. Exothermic
reactions always give off heat and they feel hot, whereas endothermic reactions take heat in and
they feel cold.

You should be able to interpret (core) and draw/ label (supplement) energy level diagrams diagrams
for both exothermic and endothermic reactions.

This means including the reactants, products, overall change and activation energy if required.

Bond Breaking & Bond Forming

EXTENDED

Chemical bonds in reactions

 Whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic depends on the difference between the

energy needed to break existing bonds and the energy released when the new bonds
are formed
  Bond breaking is always an endothermic process as energy needs to be taken in from the
surroundings to break the chemical bonds

 Bond making is always an exothermic process as energy is transferred to the surroundings

as the new bond is formed

Overall exothermic reactions

 If more energy is released than is absorbed, then the reaction is exothermic

 More energy is released when new bonds are formed than energy required to break the
bonds in the reactants

 The change in energy is negative since the products have less energy than the reactants

 Therefore an exothermic reaction has a negative ΔH value

Making new chemical bonds

releases energy which radiates outwards from the reaction to the surroundings in the form of heat

Overall endothermic reactions

 If more energy is absorbed to break bonds than is released to form new bonds, this reaction
is endothermic overall

 The change in energy is positive since the products have more energy than the reactants

 The symbol ΔH (delta H) is used to show the change in heat energy. H is the symbol for
enthaply, which is a measure of the total heat of reaction of a chemical reaction

 Therefore an endothermic reaction has a positive ΔH value, which is shown on the energy
level diagrams and in calculations
 Breaking chemical bonds
requires energy which is taken in from the surroundings in the form of heat

Bond making and breaking in energy level diagrams

Diagram of energy level diagrams showing bond making and breaking

Exothermic reactions:

 During an exothermic reaction, more energy is energy is given out when new bonds are
made than the energy taken in to break bonds

 This means that the energy of the products will be lower than the energy of the reactants, so
the change in enthalpy (ΔH) is negative

 This is represented on the energy-level diagram above with the energy of the products being
lower than that of the reactants

Endothermic reactions:
  During an endothermic reaction, more energy is taken in to break bonds than the energy
given out to make bonds

 This means that the energy of the products will be higher than the energy of the reactants,
so the change in enthalpy (ΔH) is positive

 This is represented on the energy-level diagram above with the energy of the products being
higher than that of the reactants

Calculating the Energy of a Reaction

EXTENDED

Energy of reaction calculations

 Each chemical bond has a specific bond energy associated with it

 This is the amount of energy required to break the bond or the amount of energy given out
when the bond is formed

 This energy can be used to calculate how much heat would be released or absorbed in a
reaction

 To do this it is necessary to know the bonds present in both the reactants and products

Method

 Write a balanced equation if none is present already

 Optional - draw the displayed formula in order to identify the type and number of bonds
more easily

 Add together all the bond energies for all the bonds in the reactants – this is the ‘energy in’

 Add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products – this is the ‘energy out’

 Calculate the energy change: Energy change = energy in - energy out

Equation

Energy change = Energy taken in - Energy given out

Worked Example

Hydrogen and chlorine react to form hydrogen chloride gas:

H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl

The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the energy change for the reaction and deduce
whether it is exothermic or endothermic:
Answer:

Worked Example

Hydrogen bromide decomposes to form hydrogen and bromine:

2HBr ⟶ H2 + Br2

The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the energy change for the reaction and deduce
whether it is exothermic or endothermic:
Answer:

Exam Tip

For bond enthalpy questions, it is helpful to write down a displayed formula equation for the
reaction before identifying the type and number of bonds, to avoid making mistakes. The reaction
thus becomes: H-H + Cl-Cl → H-Cl + H-Cl

TEST YOURSELF NEXT TOPIC

Fuel, Combustion, Hydrogen

Energy from fuels

 A fuel is a substance which releases energy when burned

  When the fuel is a hydrocarbon then water and carbon dioxide are produced in complete
combustion reactions

 Propane for example undergoes complete combustion according to the following equation:

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O ΔH = -2219 kJ/mol

 The efficiency of a fuel refers to how much energy is released per unit amount - this can be
per gram or per mole

 We can measure the efficiency of fuels by calorimetry

 A known mass of the fuel is combusted and used to heat up a known mass of water to
calculate its heat of combustion

 Different fuels heat the water by different amounts and they can be analysed and compared
in this way

Calorimetry experiment – combustion

Diagram showing
the calorimetry experiment for combustion

Method:

 Using a measuring cylinder, place 100 cm3 of water into a copper can

 Measure and record the initial temperature of the water

 Fill the spirit burner with test substance and measure and record its mass, with the lid on the
burner to prevent evaporation

 Place the burner under the copper can and light the wick

 Stir the water constantly with the thermometer and continue heating until a predetermined
temperature rise is achieved (usually a rise of 10-20oC is easily attainable in a reasonable
time)

 Put the lid back over the spirit burner to extinguish the flame

 Measure and record the highest temperature of the water - this is likely to be within the
minute after the flame is extinguished

 Measure the mass of the spirit burner with the lid on again, in order to be able to calculate
the mass of fuel that has reacted

Calculation:

 Temperature change of water = final temperature - initial temperature

o The temperature change will be the same regardless of if the measurements were
made in K or oC

 Mass of fuel used (g) = initial mass of burner - final mass of burner

 Number of moles burned (moles) = mass of fuel used ÷ molecular mass of fuel

 Amount of energy (J)= change in temperature x mass of water x specific heat capacity

 Amount of energy per mole (J/mol) = total amount of energy ÷ moles burned

o Amount of energy per mole is often required in kJ/mol, so be prepared to convert

the units

Hydrogen as a fuel

 Hydrogen is used in rocket engines and in fuel cells to power some cars

 Hydrogen has a some unique advantages and disadvantages regarding its use as a fuel:

o Advantages:

 It releases more energy per kilogram than any other fuel (except for nuclear
fuels)

 It does not pollute as it only produces water on combustion, no other

product is formed
 o Disadvantages:

 Expensive to produce and requires energy for the production process

 Difficult and dangerous to store and move around (usually stored as liquid
hydrogen in highly pressurised containers) as it is so flammable it easily
explodes when stored under pressure

Radioactive isotopes as fuels

 Uranium-235 undergoes decay and gives off heat energy which nuclear power stations
harness

 The heat it produces is used to heat water to steam, which in turn is used to power turbines
to generate electricity

 Nuclear fuel energy is clean as it does not produce pollutants such as CO2 or oxides of
nitrogen or sulfur

 But nuclear power plants are expensive to build and maintain as well as being potentially
dangerous in the event of an accident as radioactive materials may be released

 Radioactive waste still needs to be safely stored so that it does not contaminate the local
ecosystems
The nuclear fission of a large nucleus of uranium-235 into smaller daughter nuclei

Fuel Cells

The hydrogen fuel cell

 A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which a fuel donates electrons at one electrode and
oxygen gains electrons at the other electrode

 This keeps the hydrogen and oxygen separate, reducing the hazards associated with
combusion of hydrogen

 The only product is water

 These cells are becoming more common in the automotive industry to replace petrol or
diesel engines

 H2 and O2 are pumped through two porous electrodes where the half-reactions occur

 The following reaction occurs at the anode:

2H2 → 4H+ + 4e-

 At the cathode the following reaction takes place:

4H+ + O2 + 4e- → 2H2O

 The overall reaction is:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

 The electrons move around the external circuit from the cathode to the anode

 This movement of electrons is used to drive an electric motor

Diagram showing the movement of hydrogen, oxygen and electrons in a Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel
cell
Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells

 Advantages

o They do not produce any pollution

o They produce more energy per kilogram than either petrol or diesel

o No power is lost on transmission as there are far fewer moving parts than in an
internal combustion engine

o Fuel cells are quiet and lightweight compared to combustion engines

 Disadvantages

o Materials used in producing fuel cells are expensive

o High-pressure tanks are needed to store the oxygen and hydrogen in sufficient
amounts

o Fuel cells are affected by low temperatures, becoming less efficient

o Hydrogen is expensive to produce and store

TEST YOURSELF

Physical & Chemical Change

Physical change

 Physical changes (such as melting or evaporating) do not produce any new chemical
substances

 These changes are often easy to reverse

 Making a mixture from 2 or more substances or dissolving a solute in a solvent are examples
of physical changes as no new substances are produced and are usually relatively easy to
separate

Chemical change

 During chemical changes (usually referred to as chemical

reactions), new chemical substances are formed that have very different properties to the
reactants

 There may be signs that a new substance has formed, such as:

o A colour change

o A precipitate being formed

o Bubbles of gas being produced

 Most chemical reactions are very difficult to reverse

 Energy changes also accompany chemical changes and energy can be given out (exothermic)
or taken in (endothermic)
 o The majority of chemical reactions are exothermic with only a small number being
endothermic

Rates of Reaction Factors

Rate of reaction

 The rate of reaction is a measure of how fast or slow a chemical reaction is

 It is calculated by how much reactant is used per unit time OR how much product is
produced per unit time

 Changing the conditions of a reaction can alter the rate of the reaction

Effect of concentration

Diagram showing increase in concentration of solution

Explanation:

 Increasing the concentration of a solution increases the collision rate

 This is because there will be more reactant particles per unit volume, causing more frequent
collisions so there are more successful collisions per second, increasing the rate of reaction

Effect of surface area

A single 2 cm length cube has a surface area of 2 x 2 x 6 = 24cm2. Cutting it into 8 x 1cm cubes
means it now has a surface area of 1 x 1 x 6 x 8 = 48cm2

Explanation:

 Increasing the surface area of a solid increases the collision rate

 This is because more of the solid particles will be exposed to the other reactant so there will
be more frequent collisions and therefore more successful collisions per second, increasing
the rate of reaction

Effect of temperature

Diagram showing the effect of temperature on particles

Increasing the temperature increases the rate of reaction

 This is because the particles will have more energy and move faster, therefore there will be a
greater collision rate

 Also, a higher proportion of particles will have greater than the required activation energy,
and therefore have sufficient energy to react, meaning there will be more successful
collisions per second, increasing the reaction rate

Effect of using a catalyst

Energy level diagram showing the effect of the use of a catalyst on the activation energy

Explanation:

 Catalysts (including enzymes) create alternative reaction pathways which have a lower
activation energy

 This means that more collisions will have sufficient energy to be successful

 When a catalyst is used, the rate of reaction will increase

Explosive combustion

 Explosive combustion occurs when there are many fine particles in the air
  Many industrial processes such as metal working, coal mining or flour milling produce very
fine and tiny particles

 These particles have a very large surface area and are combustible in air

 Even a small spark may cause them to ignite and since the surface area is so large, the rate
of reaction can be incredibly fast, hence they are explosive

 Methane gas mixed with air in coal mines can also form an explosive mixture

Explosion occurring in a silo storing grain. The extremely quick reaction is due to the large surface
area of the many fine particles

Temperature & Concentration

EXTENDED

Temperature

 Particles need to have sufficient energy to react when they collide

 This is called the activation energy

 At low temperatures only a small number of particles will have the required activation
energy so the reaction will be slow

 At higher temperatures the particles have more kinetic energy so they move faster and with
more energy

 The collisions are therefore more energetic, and there are then a greater number of particles
with sufficient energy to react, so the rate of reaction increases

Diagram showing the increased kinetic energy that particles have at higher temperatures
Concentration

 Increasing the concentration means there are more particles per cm3, so there is less space
between the particles

 Since there are more particles then it follows that there are more frequent collisions,
increasing colllision rate and so the rate of the reaction increases

Diagram showing the decrease in space between particles at higher concentrations

Exam Tip

When answering questions on the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction, you should
mention that there are more particles per unit volume (usually cm3) and this causes an increase in
the rate of collisions.

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Interpreting Data

Concentration
Graph showing the effect of the concentration of a solution on the rate of reaction

Explanation:

 Compared to a reaction with a reactant at a low concentration, the graph line for the same
reaction but at a higher concentration has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes
horizontal sooner

 This shows that with increased concentration of a solution, the rate of reaction will
increase

 As long as the reactant having its concentration changed is already in excess, the amount of
product formed will not change, but will simply be formed faster

Particle size
Graph showing the effect of the surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction

Explanation:

 Compared to a reaction with lumps of reactant, the graph line for the same reaction but
with powdered reactant has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner

 This shows that with increased surface area of the solid, the rate of reaction will increase

Catalysts

Explanation:

 Compared to a reaction without a catalyst, the graph line for the same reaction but with a
catalyst has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner

 This shows that when a catalyst is used, the rate of reaction will increase

 A catalyst will never change how much product is made

Temperature
Graph showing the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

Explanation:

 Compared to a reaction at a low temperature, the graph line for the same reaction but at a
higher temperature has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes horizontal sooner

 This shows that with increased temperature, the rate of reaction will increase

 Temperature will not affect how much product is made in an irreversible reaction

Explaining the shape of the graph

 The steeper the curve, the faster the rate of the reaction

 The curve is steepest initially so the rate is quickest at the beginning of the reaction

 As the reaction progresses, the concentration of the reactants decreases, the rate decreases
shown by the curve becoming less steep

 When one of the reactants is used up, the reaction stops, the rate becomes zero and the
curve levels off to a horizontal line

 The amount of product formed in a reaction is determined by the limiting reactant:

o If the amount of limiting reactant increases, the amount of product formed

increases

o If the amount of the reactant in excess increases, the amount of product remains
the same
Worked Example

0.2 g of manganese(IV) oxide was added to 25 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 hydrogen peroxide solution. The
volume of oxygen produced every minute was recorded and the results are shown on the graph.

The experiment was repeated using the same mass of manganese(IV) oxide and at the same
temperature but using 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol/dm3 of hydrogen peroxide solution.

Sketch the curve for the results of this experiment on the same grid.

Answer

Step 1 - Deduce how the initial gradient will be different to the original graph

The hydrogen peroxide solution is twice as concentrated so the rate of reaction will be greater and
the initial gradient will be steeper

Step 2 - Deduce how much product will be formed compared to the original experiment

The amount of hydrogen peroxide determines the amount of oxygen produced. In the 2nd
experiment there are twice as many hydrogen peroxide molecules in the same volume so the
amount of oxygen gas produced will be doubled

Step 3 - Sketch the graph

Exam Tip

If the amount of reactant used up is being monitored, then the graph will fall with the steepest
gradient at the start, becoming less steep until it levels off to a horizontal line.

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Investigating the Rate of a Reaction

Effect of surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the
process of downwards displacement to investigate the effect of the surface area of a solid on the
rate of reaction

Method:

 Add dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask

 Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder upside down in a bucket of
water (downwards displacement)

 Add calcium carbonate chips into the conical flask and quickly put the bung back into the
flask

 Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring cylinder

 Repeat with different sizes of calcium carbonate chips (lumps, crushed and powdered)

Result:

 Smaller sizes of chips causes an increase in the surface area of the solid, so the rate of
reaction will increase

 This is because more surface area of the particles will be exposed to the other reactant so
there will be more frequent and successful collisions, increasing the rate of reaction

Effect of concentration of a solution on the rate of reaction:

Diagram
showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction

Method:

 Measure 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution into a flask

 Measure 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a measuring cylinder

 Draw a cross on a piece of paper and put it underneath the flask

 Add the acid into the flask and immediately start the stopwatch

 Look down at the cross from above and stop the stopwatch when the cross can no longer be
seen

 Repeat using different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate solution (mix different volumes
of sodium thiosulfate solution with water to dilute it)

Result:

 With an increase in the concentration of a solution, the rate of reaction will increase

 This is because there will be more reactant particles in a given volume, allowing more
frequent and successful collisions, increasing the rate of reaction

Effect of temperature on the rate of reaction:

Diagram
showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

Method:

 Dilute hydrochloric acid is heated to a set temperature using a water bath

 Add the dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask

 Add a strip of magnesium and start the stopwatch

 Stop the time when the magnesium fully reacts and disappears

 Repeat at different temperatures and compare results

Result:

 With an increase in the temperature, the rate of reaction will increase

 This is because the particles will have more kinetic energy than the required activation
energy, therefore more frequent and successful collisions will occur, increasing the rate of
reaction

Effect of a catalyst on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of a catalyst on the rate of
reaction

Method:

 Add hydrogen peroxide into a conical flask

  Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder upside down in a tub of
water (downwards displacement)

 Add the catalyst manganese(IV) oxide into the conical flask and quickly place the bung into
the flask

 Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring cylinder

 Repeat experiment without the catalyst of manganese(IV) oxide and compare results

Result:

 Using a catalyst will increase the rate of reaction

 The catalyst will provide an alternative pathway requiring lower activation energy so more
colliding particles will have the necessary activation energy to react

 This will allow more frequent and successful collisions, increasing the rate of reaction

Exam Tip

There are many different methods of investigating the rate of reaction. Other methods you may see
include using a gas syringe to collect gas or using a balance to monitor the mass of reactants. If a gas
is produced, the mass will decrease with time.

Those students taking the extended course may be required to devise and evaluate methods of
investigating rates of reaction.

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Photochemistry

EXTENDED

Photochemical reactions

 These reactions occur only when light is present

 The greater the intensity of light then the greater the rate of reaction

 Some reactions of hydrocarbons later in the course are initiated by light

Silver salts in photography

 Prior to digital photography, photographs were produced by the use of photochemical

reactions

 Black and white photography film surfaces contain crystals of silver bromide

 When exposed to light the silver bromide breaks down:

2AgBr → 2Ag + Br2

 Silver ions are reduced to silver:

Ag+ + 2e- → Ag

 AgBr is colourless at low concentrations but the Ag appears grey-black

  When a photograph is taken, the film is exposed briefly to light

 The stronger the light intensity, the quicker the rate of reaction and more silver is produced
during the time that the film is exposed for

 Parts of the film appear black, grey or white depending on the exposure:

o Stronger light = black or dark grey

o Weaker light = light grey

o Not exposed = white

 This produces a 'negative' from which a photograph can be produced

 To produce the black and white photograph, light is shone through the negative onto
photographic paper which also contains crystals of silver bromide

 Light will pass through the white areas of the negative onto the photographic paper, causing
silver bromide to decompose to silver and the photograph turns black/dark grey in these
areas

 Minimal light passes through darker areas of the negative so only a small amount of silver
will be formed on the photographic paper and the photograph will be white/light grey in
these areas

Photosynthesis

 This is the process in which plants produce food for reproduction and growth

 The equation is:

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

 The process requires sunlight and chlorophyll

 Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants which absorbs sunlight and acts as the catalyst for
photosynthesis

 The greater the light intensity, the greater the rate of reaction and the more glucose and
oxygen are produced

Investigating the rate of photosynthesis

Aim

 To investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis using an aquatic
organism such as pondweed

 The most commonly used method to measure the rate of photosynthesis is to measure or
observe the oxygen released from aquatic plants
Diagram showing the setup for the investigation using aquatic plants

Method

 Place a piece of pondweed (Elodea or Cabomba are often used), into a beaker of dilute
sodium hydrogen carbonate solution

 Place a funnel over the pondweed

 Fill a test tube with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution and place this over the inverted
funnel

 Use a light a set distance from the plant

 Leave for one minute then record the number of bubbles given off in one minute

 Repeat steps for different distances

Improvements

 Use a gas syringe to collect the volume of gas produced

 Repeat the experiment at least twice for each distance and calculate the mean number of
bubbles

 Use of a glass tank between lamp and plant to prevent heating of the plant, or using an LED
bulb that releases very little heat energy

Variables
  Independent variable: Distance of light to pondweed

 Dependent variable: The number of oxygen bubbles produced

 Control variables: Temperature of the solution, concentration of sodium hydrogen

carbonate solution, type and amount of pondweed

Results

 A graph of the distance between the light and the pondweed against the number of bubbles
produced per minute can be drawn to see the pattern or trend

A graph of distance from the lamp against number of bubbles per minute

Conclusion

 The number of bubbles per minute increases as the lamp is brought closer to the pondweed

 The rate of photosynthesis increases as the intensity of the light increases

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Reversible Reactions

Reversible reactions

 Some reactions go to completion, where the reactants are used up to form the product
molecules and the reaction stops when all of the reactants are used up
  In reversible reactions, the product molecules can themselves react with each other or
decompose and form the reactant molecules again

 It is said that the reaction can occur in both directions: the forward reaction (which forms
the products) and the reverse direction (which forms the reactants)

Chemical equations for reversible reactions

 When writing chemical equations for reversible reactions, two arrows are used to indicate
the forward and reverse reactions

 Each one is drawn with just half an arrowhead – the top one points to the right, and the
bottom one points to the left: ⇌

Example

 The reaction for the Haber process which is the production of ammonia from hydrogen and
nitrogen:

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

Hydrated and anhydrous salts

 Hydrated salts are salts that contain water of crystallisation which affects their molecular
shape and colour

 Water of crystallisation is the water that is stoichiometrically included in the structure of

some salts during the crystallisation process

 A common example is copper(II) sulfate which crystallises forming the salt copper(II) sulfate
pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O

 Water of crystallisation is indicated with a dot written in between the salt molecule and the
surrounding water molecules

 Anhydrous salts are those that have lost their water of crystallisation, usually by heating, in
which the salt becomes dehydrated

Dehydration of hydrated copper(II) sulfate:

hydrated copper(II) sulfate ⇌ anhydrous copper(II) sulfate + water

Diagram showing the dehydration of hydrated copper II) sulfate

Explanation:

 When anhydrous copper(II) sulfate crystals are added to water they turn blue and heat is
given off (exothermic); this reaction is reversible

 When copper(II) sulfate crystals are heated in a test tube, the blue crystals turn into
a white powder and a clear, colourless liquid (water) collects at the top of the test tube

 The form of copper(II) sulfate in the crystals is known as hydrated copper(II) sulfate because
it contains water of crystallisation

 When hydrated copper(II) sulfate is heated, it loses its water of crystallisation and turns into
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate:

CuSO4.5H2O (s) ⇌ CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)

Dehydration of hydrated cobalt(II) chloride:

hydrated cobalt(II) chloride ⇌ anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride + water

Diagram showing the dehydration of hydrated cobalt(II) chloride

Hydration of cobalt(II) chloride

 When anhydrous blue cobalt(II) chloride crystals are added to water they turn pink and the
reaction is reversible

 When the cobalt(II) chloride crystals are heated in a test tube, the pink crystals turn back to
the blue colour again as the water of crystallisation is lost

 The form of cobalt(II) chloride in the crystals that are pink is known as hydrated cobalt(II)
chloride because it contains water of crystallisation

 When hydrated cobalt(II) chloride is heated, it loses its water of crystallisation and turns into
anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride:

CoCl2.6H2O (s) ⇌ CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O (l)

Exam Tip

Both the hydration of CoCl2 and CuSO4 are chemical tests which are commonly used to detect the
presence of water. You should remember the equations and colour changes:

 CoCl2 + 6H2O ⇌ CoCl2.6H2O Blue to pink

 CuSO4 + 5H2O ⇌ CuSO4.5H2O White to blue

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The Concept of Equilibrium

EXTENDED

Reversible reactions and equilibrium

  We have already seen that a reversible reaction is one that occurs in both directions

 When during the course of reaction, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the
reverse reaction, then the overall reaction is said to be in a state of equilibrium

Characteristics of a reaction at equilibrium

 It is dynamic e.g. the molecules on the left and right of the equation are changing into each
other by chemical reactions constantly and at the same rate

 The concentration of reactants and products remains constant (given there is no other
change to the system such as temperature and pressure)

 It only occurs in a closed system so that none of the participating chemical species are able
to leave the reaction vessel

Equilibrium can only be reached in a closed vessel which prevents reactants or products from
escaping the system

The reaction between H2 and N2 in the Haber process

 Nitrogen and hydrogen react together to form ammonia

  When only nitrogen and hydrogen are present at the beginning of the reaction, the rate of
the forward reaction is at its highest, since the concentrations of hydrogen and nitrogen are
at their highest

 As the reaction proceeds, the concentrations of hydrogen and nitrogen gradually decrease,
so the rate of the forward reaction will decrease

 However, the concentration of ammonia is gradually increasing and so the rate of

the backward reaction will increase (ammonia will decompose to reform hydrogen and
nitrogen)

 Since the two reactions are interlinked and none of the gas can escape, the rate of the
forward reaction and the rate of the backward reaction will eventually become equal and
equilibrium is reached:

3H2 (g) + N2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)

Diagram showing when the rates of forward and backward reactions become equal

The position of equilibrium

 Equilibrium position refers to the relationship between the concentration of reactants and
products at the equilibrium state

 When the position of equilibrium shifts to the left, it means the concentration
of reactant increases
  When the position of equilibrium shifts to right, this means the concentration
of product increases

Effect of catalyst on equilibrium position

 The presence of a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium but it does increase the
rate at which equilibrium is reached

 This is because the catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and backward reactions
by the same amount (by providing an alternative pathway requiring lower activation energy)

 As a result, the concentration of reactants and products is nevertheless the same at

equilibrium as it would be without the catalyst

Diagram showing the effect of a catalyst on the time taken for equilibrium to be established

Le Chatelier’s Principle

EXTENDED

 Le Chatelier’s Principle states that when a change is made to the conditions of a system at
equilibrium, the system automatically moves to oppose the change

 The principle is used to predict changes to the position of equilibrium when there are
changes in temperature, pressure or concentration
Table showing the effects of temperature on equilibrium

Example: Iodine monochloride reacts reversibly with chlorine to form iodine trichloride

ICl + Cl2 ⇌ ICl3

dark brown yellow

 When the equilibrium mixture is heated, it becomes dark brown in colour. You can use this
observation to deduce whether the backward reaction is exothermic or endothermic

 Equilibrium has shifted to the left as the colour dark brown means that more of ICI is
produced

 Increasing temperature moves the equilibrium in the endothermic direction

 So the backward reaction is endothermic

Table showing the effects of pressure on equilibrium

Example: Nitrogen dioxide can form dinitrogen tetroxide, a colourless gas

2NO2 ⇌ N2O4
brown gas colourless gas

 Predict the effect of an increase in pressure on the position of equilibrium:

o Number of molecules of gas on the left = 2

o Number of molecules of gas on the right = 1

  An increase in pressure will cause equilibrium to shift in the direction that produces
the smaller number of molecules of gas

 So equilibrium shifts to the right

 The reaction mixture becomes paler as more colourless N2O4 is produced

Table showing the effects of concentration on equilibrium

Example: Iodine monochloride reacts reversibly with chlorine to form iodine trichloride

ICl + Cl2 ⇌ ICl3

dark brown yellow

 Predict the effect of an increase in concentration on the position of equilibrium:

o An increase in the concentration of ICl or Cl2 causes the equilibrium to shift to

the right so more of the yellow product is formed

o A decrease in the concentration of ICl or Cl2 causes the equilibrium to shift to

the left so more of the dark brown reactant is formed

Exam Tip

When the conditions at equilibrium are changed, the system always responds by doing the opposite.
For example if the concentration is increased the system tries to reduce it by changing the direction
of the reaction or if the temperature is increased the system will try to reduce the temperature by
absorbing the extra heat.

TEST YOURSELF NEXT TOP

Oxidation & Reduction

Redox reactions

 Oxidation and reduction take place together at the same time in the same reaction

 These are called redox reactions

 Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen is added to an element or a compound

 Reduction is a reaction in which oxygen is removed from an element or compound

Example redox equation: oxygen loss/gain

zinc oxide + carbon → zinc + carbon monoxide

ZnO + C → Zn + CO

o In this reaction, the zinc oxide has been reduced since it has lost oxgyen

o The carbon atom has been oxidised since it has gained oxygen

Names using oxidation states

 Transition elements can bond in different ways by forming ions with different charges

 When naming, the charge on the ion is shown by using a Roman numeral after the element's
name

o e.g. iron can form ions with a 2+ charge, called iron(II) ions or a 3+ charge,
called iron(III) ions

 The Roman numeral is the oxidation state of the element

 When iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide, the formula depends on the oxidation
state of the iron ions

o The compound where iron has a 2+ charge has the formula FeO and is called iron(II)
oxide

o The compound where iron has a 3+ charge has the formula Fe2O3 and is called
iron(III) oxide

Exam Tip

You may see the term oxidation number used instead of oxidation state. Although there is a subtle
difference between the two terms (this is beyond the scope of this course), they are often used
interchangeably. Usually oxidation number is used to refer to the Roman numerals found within the
name.

Redox & Electron Transfer

EXTENDED

Oxidation and reduction

 Redox reactions can also be defined in terms of electron transfer

 Oxidation is a reaction in which an element, ion or compound loses electrons

o The oxidation state of the element is increased

o This can be shown in a half equation, e.g. when silver reacts with chlorine, silver
is oxidised to silver ions:

Ag → Ag+ + e-

 Reduction is a reaction in which an element, ion or compound gains electrons

o The oxidation state of the element is decreased

 o This can be shown in a half equation, e.g. when oxygen reacts with magnesium,
oxygen is reduced to oxide ions:

O2 + 4e- → 2O2-

 Oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer can be remembered by the mnemonic
'OIL RIG': Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain of electrons

Mnemonic to remember oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer

Oxidation state

 The oxidation state (also called oxidation number) is a number assigned to an atom or ion in
a compound which indicates the degree of oxidation (or reduction)

 The oxidation state helps you to keep track of the movement of electrons in a redox process

 It is written as a +/- sign followed by a number (not to be confused with charge which is
written by a number followed by a +/- sign)

 E.g. aluminium in a compound usually has the oxidation state +3

Assigning the oxidation state

 Oxidation state refers to a single atom or ion only

 The oxidation number of a compound is 0 and of an element (for example Br in Br2) is also 0

 The oxidation number of oxygen in a compound is always -2 (except in peroxide R-O-O-R,

where it is -1)

 For example in FeO, oxygen is -2 then Fe must have an oxidation number of +2 as the overall
oxidation number for the compound must be 0

Table to show some common oxidation states of elements within compounds

Example redox equation: electron loss/gain and oxidation state

zinc + copper sulphate → zinc sulphate + copper

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

 Writing all of the ions present and including state symbols we get:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) →Zn2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Cu(s)

 The spectator ions (those that do not change) are SO42-(aq), removing these we can write
the ionic equation as:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

 By analysing the ionic equation, we can split the reaction into two half equations by adding
in the electrons to show how the changes in charge have occurred.

 It then becomes clear that zinc has been oxidised as its oxidation state
has increased from 0 in Zn to +2 in Zn2+ and it has lost electrons:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

 Copper ions have been reduced as the oxidation state has decreased from +2 in Cu2+ to 0 in
Cu and they have gained electrons:

Cu2+(aq) +2e- → Cu(s)

Exam Tip

Use the mnemonic OIL-RIG to remember oxidation and reduction in terms of the movement of
electrons: Oxidation Is Loss – Reduction Is Gain.

Oxidising & Reducing Agents

EXTENDED

Oxidising agent

 A substance that oxidises another substance, in so doing becoming itself reduced

 An oxidising agent gains electrons as another substance loses electrons

 Common examples include hydrogen peroxide, fluorine and chlorine

Reducing agent

 A substance that reduces another substance, in so doing becoming itself oxidised

 A reducing agent loses electrons as another substance gains electrons

 Common examples include carbon and hydrogen

 The process of reduction is very important in the chemical industry as a means of extracting
metals from their ores

Example

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O

 In the above reaction, hydrogen is reducing the CuO and is itself oxidised as it has lost
electrons, so the reducing agent is therefore hydrogen:

H2 → 2H+ + 2e-

 The CuO is reduced to Cu by gaining electrons and has oxidised the hydrogen, so
the oxidising agent is therefore copper oxide

Cu2+ +2e- → Cu

Worked Example

When iron reacts with bromine to form iron(II) bromide, a redox reaction reaction occurs:

Fe + Br2 → FeBr2

What is acting as the reducing agent in this reaction?

Answer

Step 1 - Write half equations to work out what has gained/lost electrons
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-

Br2 + 2e- → 2Br-

Fe loses electrons; Br2 gains electrons

Step 2 - Deduce what has been oxidised/reduced (remember OIL RIG)

Fe has been oxidised as it has lost electrons

Br2 has been reduced as it has gained electrons

Step 3 - Identify the reducing agent

Fe is the reducing agent as it has been oxidised by losing electrons and caused Br 2 to be reduced as it
gained electrons

TEST YOURSELF NEXT TOPIC

Redox Reactions

EXTENDED

Identifying redox reactions

 Redox reactions can be identified by the changes in the oxidation states when a reactant
goes to a product

Example

chlorine + potassium iodide → potassium chloride + iodine

Cl2 + 2KI → 2KCl + I2

 Chlorine has become reduced as its oxidation state has decreased from 0 to -1 on changing
from the chlorine molecule to chloride ions and it gains electrons:

Cl2(g) + 2e- → 2Cl-(aq)

 When chlorine is reduced it allows another substance to be oxidised, and so chlorine is

called an oxiding agent

 Iodine has been oxidised as its oxidation state has increased from -1 to 0 on changing from
iodide ions to the iodine molecule and it loses electrons:

2I-(aq) → I2(s) +2e-

 When iodine is oxidised it allows another substance to be reduced, and so iodine is called
a reducing agent

Identifying redox reactions by colour changes

 The tests for redox reactions involve the observation of a colour change in the solution being
analysed

 Two common examples are acidified potassium manganate(VII), and potassium iodide
  Potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4, is an oxidising agent which is often used to test for the
presence of reducing agents

 When acidified potassium manganate(VII) is added to a reducing agent its colour changes
from purple to colourless

Diagram to show the colour change when potassium manganate(VII) is added to a reducing agent

 Potassium iodide, KI, is a reducing agent which is often used to test for the presence
of oxidising agents

 When added to an acidified solution of an oxidising agent such as aqueous chlorine or

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the solution turns a red-brown colour due to the formation of
iodine, I2:

2KI (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) + H2O2 (aq) → I2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) + 2H20 (l)

 The potassium iodide is oxidised as it loses electrons and hydrogen peroxide is reduced,
therefore potassium iodide is acting as a reducing agent as it will itself be oxided:

2I- → I2 + 2e-

Diagram to show the colour change when potassium iodide is added to an oxidising agent

TEST YOURSELF

Organic Compound Names, Structures & Types

 Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds

 Carbon forms a vast number of compounds because it can form strong covalent bonds with
itself

 This enables it to form long chains of carbon atoms, and hence an almost infinite variety of
carbon compounds are known

 Carbon always forms four covalent bonds which can be single, double or triple bonds

 A functional group is a specific atom or group of atoms which confer certain physical and
chemical properties onto the molecule

 Organic compounds with the same functional group, but a different number of carbon
atoms, are said to belong to the same homologous series

o Every time a carbon atom is added to the chain, two hydrogen atoms are also added

o Organic molecules are classified by the dominant functional group on the molecule

 Organic compounds can be represented in a number of ways

Types of Formulae:

 General Formulae

o This type of formula tells you the composition of any member of a whole
homologous series of organic compound

o For example, all of the alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2
 o This tells you that however many carbon atoms there are in the alkane, doubling this
number and adding two will give you the number of hydrogen atoms present in the
alkane

 Displayed Formulae

o This shows the spatial arrangement of all the atoms and bonds in a molecule

 Molecular Formulae

o This shows the actual number of each atom in a molecule, one element at a time

The displayed formulae and molecular formulae of butane and butene

 Structural Formulae

o This gives enough information to make the structure clear, but most of the actual
covalent bonds are omitted

o Only important bonds are shown, such as double and triple bonds

o Identical groups can be bracketed together

Representing Structural Formulae of Two Alkenes

Naming Compounds

 The names of organic compounds have two parts: the prefix (or stem) and the end part (or
suffix)

 The prefix tells you how many carbon atoms are present in the longest continuous chain in
the compound

 The suffix tells you what functional group is on the compound

Structures

Further Rules for Naming Compounds

 When there is more than one carbon atom where a functional group can be located it is
important to distinguish exactly which carbon the functional group is on

 Each carbon is numbered and these numbers are used to describe where the functional
group is

 When 2 functional groups are present di- is used as a prefix to the second part of the name

 For example, the structure below is called 1,2- dichloroethane

o The 1,2 refers to the fact that the chlorine atoms are on the first and second carbon
atoms (sometimes there may be more than two in a chain)

o The di refers to the fact that there are two chlorine atoms present

Diagram showing 1,2-dichloroethane

Structures & Formulae

Extended

Alkanes

Alkenes
Alcohols

Carboxylic acids
Esters

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Common Fossil Fuels

 A fuel is a substance which when burned, releases heat energy

 This heat can be transferred into electricity, which we use in our daily lives

 Most common fossil fuels include coal, natural gas and hydrocarbons such as methane and
propane which are obtained from crude oil

 Hydrocarbons are made from hydrogen and carbon atoms only

 The main constituent of natural gas is methane, CH4

Petroleum & Fractional Distillation

Petroleum
  Petroleum is also called crude oil and is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons which also
contains natural gas

 It is a thick, sticky, black liquid that is found under porous rock (under the ground and under
the sea)

Diagram showing crude oil under the sea

 Petroleum itself as a mixture isn't very useful but each component part of the mixture,
called a fraction, is useful and each fraction has different applications

 The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process

called fractional distillation

 The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points, which depend on
the number of carbon atoms in the chain
  The boiling point and viscosity of each fraction increases as the carbon chain gets longer

Fractional Distillation

Diagram showing the process of fractional distillation

 Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column

 The fractionating column is hot at the bottom and cool at the top

 Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise

 Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately turn into liquid and
are tapped off at the bottom of the column

 Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense at the
top to be tapped off

 The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling points and are
tapped off as liquids.

 The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the fractionating
column as gases
  The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the
fractionating column

Properties of Fractions

 Viscosity

o This refers to the ease of flow of a liquid.

o High viscosity liquids are thick and flow less easily. I

o f the number of carbon atoms increases, the attraction between the hydrocarbon
molecules also increases which results in the liquid becoming more viscous with the
increasing length of the hydrocarbon chain.

o The liquid flows less easily with increasing molecular mass

 Colour

o As carbon chain length increases the colour of the liquid gets darker as it gets thicker
and more viscous

 Melting point/boiling point

o As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular attraction becomes greater.

o More heat is needed to separate the molecules.

o With increasing molecular size there is an increase in boiling point

 Volatility

o Volatility refers to the tendency of a substance to vaporise.

o With increasing molecular size hydrocarbon liquids become less volatile.

o This is because the attraction between the molecules increases with increasing
molecular size

Uses of Fractions

 Refinery gas: heating and cooking

 Gasoline: fuel for cars (petrol)

 Naphtha: raw product for producing chemicals

 Kerosene: for making jet fuel (paraffin)

 Diesel: fuel for diesel engines (gas oil)

 Fuel oil: fuel for ships and for home heating

 Lubricating oil: for lubricants, polishes, waxes

 Bitumen: for surfacing roads

Trends in Properties
Exam Tip

When defining a hydrocarbon, ensure you say that is has hydrogen and carbon atoms only.

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Homologous Series

 This is a series or family of organic compounds that have similar features and chemical
properties due to them having the same functional group

 The functional group is a group of atoms which are bonded in a specific arrangement that is
responsible for the characteristic reactions of each member of a homologous series

Table of Compounds & their Functional Groups

Characteristics, Formula & Structural Isomerism

EXTENDED

Characteristics of a Homologous Series

 All members of a homologous series have:

o The same general formula

o Same functional group

o Similar chemical properties

o Gradation in their physical properties, such as melting and boiling point

o The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is CH 2

General Formula

 This type of formula tells you the composition of any member of a whole homologous series
of organic compound

 For example, all of the alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2
  This tells you that however many carbon atoms there are in the alkane, doubling this
number and adding two will give you the number of hydrogen atoms present in the alkane

Structural Isomers

 Structural isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different
structural formulae

 This is due to the different arrangement of their atoms in space

 There are two types: chain and position

 In chain isomerism the structure of the carbon chain differs

 In position isomerism, the position of the functional group differs

Table showing Chain Isomerism

Table showing Position Isomerism

Exam Tip

Exam questions often ask you to identify the functional groups of different homologous series, so
make sure you learn these.

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Alkanes: Properties & Bonding

 Alkanes are a group of saturated hydrocarbons

 The term saturated means that they only have single carbon-carbon bonds, there are no
double bonds

 The general formula of the alkanes is CnH2n+2

 They are colourless compounds which have a gradual change in their physical properties as
the number of carbon atoms in the chain increases

 Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds but they do undergo combustion reactions,
can be cracked into smaller molecules and can react with halogens in the presence of light

 Methane is an alkane and is the major component of natural gas

 Methane undergoes complete combustion forming carbon dioxide and water:

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

This table shows the displayed formula of the first four members of the alkane homologous series
Substitution Reaction of Alkanes with Halogens

Extended

 In a substitution reaction, one atom is swapped with another atom

 Alkanes undergo a substitution reaction with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet

radiation (sunlight is a source of UV radiation)

 A hydrogen atom is replaced with the halogen atom

 More than one hydrogen atom can be substituted depending on the amount of ultraviolet
radiation there is
In the presence of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, methane reacts with bromine to form bromomethane
and hydrogen bromide

Exam Tip

The substitution reaction in your exam will usually refer to chlorine as the halogen being
substituted.

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Alkenes: Catalytic Cracking & Distinguishing from Alkanes

 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C)

 Their general formula is CnH2n

 The presence of the double bond, C=C, means they can make more bonds with other atoms
by opening up the C=C bond and allowing incoming atoms to form another single bond with
each carbon atom of the functional group

 Each of these carbon atoms now forms 4 single bonds instead of 1 double and 2 single bonds

 This makes them much more reactive than alkanes

The displayed formula of the first three alkenes

Manufacture of Alkenes & Hydrogen

 Although there is use for each fraction obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil,
the amount of longer chain hydrocarbons produced is far greater than needed

 These long chain hydrocarbon molecules are further processed to produce other products
 A process called catalytic cracking is used to convert longer-chain molecules into short-
chain and more useful hydrocarbons

 Shorter chain alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen are produced from the cracking of longer chain
alkanes

 Alkenes can be used to make polymers and the hydrogen used to make ammonia

 Kerosene and diesel oil are often cracked to produce petrol, other alkenes and hydrogen

 Cracking involves heating the hydrocarbon molecules to around 600 – 700°C

to vaporise them

 The vapours then pass over a hot powdered catalyst of alumina or silica

 This process breaks covalent bonds in the molecules as they come into contact with the
surface of the catalyst, causing thermal decomposition reactions

 The molecules are broken up in a random way which produces a mixture of smaller alkanes
and alkenes

 Hydrogen and a higher proportion of alkenes are formed at higher temperatures and higher
pressure
The 10 carbon molecule decane is catalytically cracked to produce octane for petrol and ethene for
ethanol

Distinguishing Between Alkanes & Alkenes

 Alkanes and alkenes have different molecular structures

 All alkanes are saturated and alkenes are unsaturated

 The presence of the C=C double bond allows alkenes to react in ways that alkanes cannot

 This allows us to tell alkenes apart from alkanes using a simple chemical test using bromine
water
Diagram showing the result of the test using bromine water with alkanes and alkenes

 Bromine water is an orange coloured solution of bromine

 When bromine water is shaken with an alkane, it will remain as an orange solution as
alkanes do not have double carbon bonds (C=C) so the bromine remains in solution

 When bromine water is shaken with an alkene, the alkene will decolourise the bromine
water and turn colourless as alkenes do have double carbon bonds (C=C)

 The bromine atoms add across the C=C double bond hence the solution no longer contains
the orange coloured bromine

 This reaction between alkenes and bromine is called an addition reaction

Each carbon atom of the double bond accepts a bromine atom, causing the bromine solution to
lose its colour

Exam Tip

When describing what happens to bromine water in an alkene ensure you say colourless, and not
clear.

Addition Polymerisation

 Polymers are large molecules formed from shorter molecules called monomers

 Addition polymers are formed by the joining up of many small molecules called monomers

 Addition polymerisation only occurs in monomers that contain C=C bonds

 One of the bonds in each double bond breaks and forms a bond with the adjacent monomer

 There are many types of polymers that are synthesised from alkene monomers

 A common example is poly(ethene) or polythene which is the addition of many ethene

monomers
Polymerisation of ethene monomers to produce polythene

Further Addition Reactions

Extended

 Alkenes undergo addition reactions in which atoms of a simple molecule add across the C=C
double bond

 The reaction between bromine and ethene is an example of an addition reaction

Bromine atoms add across the C=C in the addition reaction of ethene and bromine

 Alkenes also undergo addition reactions with hydrogen in which an alkane is formed
  These are hydrogenation reactions and occur at 150ºC using a nickel catalyst

 Hydrogenation reactions are used to manufacture margarine from vegetable oils

o Vegetable oils are polyunsaturated molecules which are partially hydrogenated to

increase the Mr and turn the oils into solid fats

Hydrogen atoms add across the C=C in the hydrogenation of ethene to produce an alkane

 Alkenes also undergo addition reactions with steam in which an alcohol is formed.

 Since water is being added to the molecule it is also called a hydration reaction

 The reaction is very important industrially for the production of alcohols and it occurs using
the following conditions:

o Temperature of around 300ºC

o Pressure of 60 - 70 atm

o Concentrated phosphoric acid catalyst

A water molecule adds across the C=C in the hydration of ethene to produce ethanol

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Alcohols
  All alcohols contain the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group which is the part of alcohol
molecules that is responsible for their characteristic reactions

 Alcohols are a homologous series of compounds that have the general formula CnH2n+1OH

 They differ by one -CH2 in the molecular formulae from one member to the next

Diagram showing the first three alcohols

The Manufacture of Ethanol

 Ethanol (C2H5OH) is one of the most important alcohols

 It is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic drinks such as wine and beer

 It is also used as fuel for cars and as a solvent

 Alcohols burn in excess oxygen and produce CO2 and H2O

 Ethanol undergoes combustion:

CH3CH2OH (l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H20 (l)

 There are two methods used to manufacture ethanol:

o The hydration of ethene with steam

o The fermentation of glucose

 Both methods have advantages and disadvantages which are considered

 Hydration of ethene

o A mixture of ethene and steam is passed over a hot catalyst of phosphoric acid at a
temperature of approximately 300 °C

o The pressure is used 60-70 atmosphere

o The gaseous ethanol is then condensed into a liquid for use

A water molecule adds across the C=C in the hydration of ethene to produce ethanol

 Fermentation of glucose

o Sugar or starch is dissolved in water and yeast is added

o The mixture is then fermented between 15 and 35 °C with the absence of oxygen for
a few days

o Yeast contains enzymes that catalyse the break down of starch or sugar to glucose

o If the temperature is too low the reaction rate will be too slow and if it is
too high the enzymes will become denatured

o The yeast respire anaerobically using the glucose to form ethanol and carbon
dioxide:

C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH

 The yeast are killed off once the concentration of alcohol reaches around 15%, hence the
reaction vessel is emptied and the process is started again

 This is the reason that ethanol production by fermentation is a batch process

Exam Tip

Make sure you learn the conditions for fermentation.

Comparing Methods of Ethanol Production

Extended
TEST YOURSELF

Carboxylic Acids: Basics

 These are a homologous series of organic compounds that all contain the same functional
group: –COOH

 They have the general formula: CnH2n+1COOH

 They are colourless liquids which are weakly acidic and have typical acidic properties

 They react with alkaline solutions, turn blue litmus red and form salts called ethanoates
Diagram showing the first three carboxylic acids

Exam Tip

The carbon atom in the -COOH functional group is counted as part of the molecule and not just the
functional group. Eg. CH3CH2CH2COOH has 4 carbon atoms so is called butanoic acid, not propanoic
acid.

Ethanoic Acid

Extended

 Ethanoic acid (also called acetic acid) is the acid used to make vinegar, which contains
around 5% by volume ethanoic acid

 Ethanoic acid is a typically weak acid and dissociates slightly in water, producing a mildly
acidic solution

 The equilibrium lies far to the left during ionisation:

CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

 The carboxylic acids behave like other acids

 They react with metals to form a salt and hydrogen and with carbonates to form a salt,
water and carbon dioxide gas

 They also take part in neutralisation reactions with bases to produce salt and water

 In the reaction with metals a metal salt and hydrogen gas are produced

o For example, in reaction with magnesium the salt magnesium ethanoate is formed:

2CH3COOH (aq) + Mg (s) → (CH3COO)2Mg (aq) + H2(g)

 In the reaction with hydroxides a salt and water are formed in a neutralisation reaction

o For example, in reaction with potassium hydroxide the salt potassium ethanoate is
formed:

CH3COOH (aq) + KOH (aq) → CH3COOK (aq) + H2O (l)

 In the reaction with carbonates a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas are produced
 o For example, in reaction with potassium carbonate the salt potassium ethanoate is
formed:

2CH3COOH (aq) + K2CO3 (s) → 2CH3COOK (aq) + H2O (l) +CO2 (g)

Ethanoic Acid & Esterification Reactions

Extended

Making Carboxylic Acids

 Two methods used to make carboxylic acids are:

o Oxidation by fermentation

o Using oxidising agents

 The microbial oxidation (fermentation) of ethanol will produce a weak solution of vinegar
(ethanoic acid)

 This occurs when a bottle of wine is opened as bacteria in the air (acetobacter) will use
atmospheric oxygen from air to oxidise the ethanol in the wine

C2H5OH (aq) + O2 (g) → CH3COOH (aq)+ H2O (l)

 The acidic, vinegary taste of wine which has been left open for several days is due to the
presence of ethanoic acid

 Alternatively, oxidising agent potassium manganate(VII) can be used

 This involves heating ethanol with acidified potassium manganate(VII) in the presence of an
acid

 The heating is performed under reflux which involves heating the reaction mixture in a
vessel with a condenser attached to the top

 The condenser prevents the volatile alcohol from escaping the reaction vessel as alcohols
have low boiling points

 The equation for the reaction is:

CH3CH2OH (aq) + [O] → CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)

 The solution will change from purple to colourless

 The oxidising agent is represented by the symbol for oxygen in square brackets
Diagram showing the experimental setup for the oxidation with KMnO4 using reflux apparatus

Making Esters

 Alcohols and carboxylic acids react to make esters in esterification reactions

 Esters are compounds with the functional group R-COO-R

 Esters are sweet-smelling oily liquids used in food flavourings and perfumes
  Ethanoic acid will react with ethanol in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid (catalyst)
to form ethyl ethanoate:

CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5OH (aq) ⇌ CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O (l)

Diagram showing the formation of ethyl ethanoate

Naming Esters

 An ester is made from an alcohol and carboxylic acid

 The first part of the name indicates the length of the carbon chain in the alcohol, and it ends
with the letters ‘- yl’
  The second part of the name indicates the length of the carbon chain in the carboxylic acid,
and it ends with the letters ‘- oate’

o E.g. the ester formed from pentanol and butanoic acid is called pentyl butanoate

Diagram showing the origin of each carbon chain in ester; this ester is ethyl butanoate

Table showing the formation of esters

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Polymers: Basics

 Polymers are large molecules built by linking 50 or more smaller molecules called monomers

 Each repeat unit is connected to the adjacent units via covalent bonds

 Some polymers contain just one type of unit

o Examples include poly(ethene) and poly(chloroethene), commonly known as PVC

 Others contain two or more different types of monomer units and which are
called copolymers

o Examples include nylon and biological proteins

 Different linkages also exist, depending on the monomers and the type of polymerisation

o Examples of linkages are covalent bonds, amide links and ester links
Diagram showing how lots of monomers bond together to form a polymer

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Plastics & Man-Made Fibres

 Synthetic polymers are ones made in a factory, for example nylon, terylene and lycra

 Nylon is a polyamide used to produce clothing, fabrics, nets and ropes

 Terylene is a polyester made from monomers which are joined together by ester links

 Terylene is used extensively in the textile industry and is often mixed with cotton to
produce clothing
Table showing uses of plastics

Non-biodegradable plastics

 These are plastics which do not degrade over time or take a very long time to degrade, and
cause significant pollution problems

 In particular plastic waste has been spilling over into the seas and oceans and is causing
huge disruptions to marine life

 In landfills waste polymers take up valuable space as they are non-biodegradable so

microorganisms cannot break them down. This causes the landfill sites to quickly fill up

 Polymers release a lot of heat energy when incinerated and produce carbon dioxide which
is a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change

 If incinerated by incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide will be produced which is a toxic

gas that reduces the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen

 Polymers can be recycled but different polymers must be separated from each other which
is a difficult and expensive process

Addition & Condensation Polymers & Deducing Structures

Extended

Addition Polymerisation

 Addition polymers are formed by the joining up of many monomers and only occurs in
monomers that contain C=C bonds
 One of the bonds in each C=C bond breaks and forms a bond with the adjacent monomer
with the polymer being formed containing single bonds only

 Many polymers can be made by the addition of alkene monomers

 Others are made from alkene monomers with different atoms attached to the monomer
such as chlorine or a hydroxyl group

 The name of the polymer is deduced by putting the name of the monomer in brackets and
adding poly- as the prefix

 For example if propene is the alkene monomer used, then the name is polypropene

 Polyethene is formed by the addition polymerisation of ethene monomers

 Deducing the polymer from the monomer

o Polymer molecules are very large compared with most other molecule

o Repeat units are used when displaying the formula

o To draw a repeat unit, change the double bond in the monomer to a single bond in
the repeat unit

o Add a bond to each end of the repeat unit

o The bonds on either side of the polymer must extend outside the brackets (these
are called extension or continuation bonds)

o A small subscript n is written on the bottom right hand side to indicate a large
number of repeat units

o Add on the rest of the groups in the same order that they surrounded the double
bond in the monomer
Examples of addition polymerisation: polythene and PVC

 Deducing the monomer from the polymer

o Identify the repeating unit in the polymer

o Change the single bond in the repeat unit to a double bond in the monomer

o Remove the bond from each end of the repeat unit

Diagram showing the monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer (polychloroethene)

Condensation Polymerisation

 Condensation polymers are formed when two different monomers are linked together with
the removal of a small molecule, usually water

 This is a key difference between condensation polymers and addition polymers:

o Addition polymerisation forms the polymer molecule only

o Condensation polymerisation forms the polymer molecule and

one water molecule per linkage

 The monomers have two functional groups present, one on each end

 The functional groups at the ends of one monomer react with the functional group on the
end of the other monomer, in so doing creating long chains of alternating monomers,
forming the polymer

 Hydrolysing (adding water) to the compound in acidic conditions usually reverses the
reaction and produces the monomers by rupturing the peptide link

Forming Nylon

 Nylon is a polyamide made from dicarboxylic acid monomers (a carboxylic with a -COOH
group at either end) and diamines (an amine with an -NH2 group at either end)

 Each -COOH group reacts with another -NH2 group on another monomer

 An amide linkage is formed with the subsequent loss of one water molecule per link
The condensation reaction in which the polyamide, nylon is produced

 The structure of nylon can be represented by drawing out the polymer using boxes to
represent the carbon chains

Diagram showing a section of nylon

Forming Terylene

 Terylene is a polyester made from dicarboxylic acid monomers (a carboxylic with a -COOH
group at either end) and diols (an alcohol with an -OH group at either end)

 Each -COOH group reacts with another -OH group on another monomer

 An ester linkage is formed with the subsequent loss of one water molecule per link
  For every ester linkage formed in condensation polymerisation, one molecule of water is
formed from the combination of a proton (H+) and a hydroxyl ion (OH–)

The condensation reaction in which the polyester Terylene is produced

 The structure of terylene can be represented by drawing out the polymer using boxes to
represent the carbon chains

 This can be done for all polyesters

Diagram showing a section of the polyester terylene

Exam Tip

You should be able to draw the box diagrams representing polymers where each box represents a
part of the repeating hydrocarbon chain.The functional groups on the monomers and
the link formed in the polymers are the important parts and must be clearly drawn.

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Proteins & Carbohydrates

 These are two of the main and most important components of food

 Carbohydrates provide energy which is released during cellular respiration

 Proteins are the building blocks of cells and are essential for growth

 Biological catalysts also consist of protein

Proteins as Polymers

Extended

 Proteins are condensation polymers which are formed from amino acid monomers joined
together by amide links (in proteins also known as a peptide link) similar to the structure in
nylon

 The units in proteins are different however, consisting of amino acids

 Amino acids are small molecules containing NH2 and COOH functional groups

 There are twenty common amino acids, each differing by their side chain, represented by R

 Proteins can contain between 60 and 600 of these amino acids in different orders

 These are the monomers which polymerise to form the protein

Diagram showing condensation polymerisation to produce a protein

 The structure of the protein can be represented using the following diagram whereby the
boxes represent the carbon chains

Diagram showing a section of protein

Hydrolysis of proteins

 Hydrolysis is the splitting up of a molecule using water

 When polymers are hydrolysed they will produce their monomers

  Proteins can therefore be hydrolysed and will produce the monomer they were formed
from, amino acids

 In a lab this is done by heating them with concentrated hydrochloric acid

Diagram showing the rupture of a peptide link by hydrolysis

Carbohydrates, Fermentation & Chromatography

Extended

Carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

 There are simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates

 Simple carbohydrates are called monosaccharides and are sugars

 o Examples include fructose and glucose

 Complex carbohydrates are called polysaccharides

o Examples include starch and cellulose.

o They are usually made up of the same monomers, unlike proteins

o They are condensation polymers formed from simple sugar monomers

o A water molecule is eliminated due to it being a condensation reaction

o The linkage formed within the polymer is an -O- linkage called a glycosidic linkage

Diagram of a polysaccharide showing the glycosidic linkages (-O-) binding the monomers together

Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates

 The complex carbohydrates also undergo hydrolysis (water is used to split up the molecule)
and produce the simple sugar monomers from which they were made

 In a lab this can be done by either:

o heating the carbohydrate with an acid, usually dilute HCl

o using enzymes

 In your body starch will produce glucose which can be then be used for respiration to
produce energy

Fermentation of Simple Sugars

 Simple sugars can be fermented to produce alcohol

 They are dissolved in water and yeast is added to be fermented between 15 and 35 °C in
anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen) for a few days

 If the temperature is too low the reaction rate will be too slow and if it is too high the
enzymes will become denatured

 Yeast contains a naturally occurring enzyme, zymase (a biological catalyst) that breaks down
starch or sugar to glucose
  The yeast respires anaerobically using the glucose to form ethanol and carbon dioxide:

C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH

Chromatography

 The identification of the products of the hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins can be
done using chromatography

 Originally used for separating coloured substances, chromatography can also be used to
identify colourless compounds, such as amino acids and simple sugars, using locating agents

 Chromatography is carried out in much the same way, the only difference being that it is not
obvious on the resulting chromatogram where the amino acids and sugars are located as
they are colourless

 The chromatogram is dried and sprayed with a locating agent to enable the substances to
be seen

 The Rf value can then be calculated for each dot and the sugar/amino acid identified

Exam Tip

Make sure you remember the conditions needed for the hydrolysis of proteins and carbohydrates as
these come up in exam questions.

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