Electrolytes and Non-electrolyte

1. A conductor is a substance which conducts electricity but is not

chemically changed during the conduction.
2. Electrolytes are compounds that can conduct electricity in molten or
aqueous solution. Examples of electrolytes are acids, alkalis and
salts dissolved in water or molten salts. All these are ionic
substances.
3. A non-electrolyte is a liquid which does not allow the passage of
electricity. Examples of non-electrolytes, weak electrolytes and
strong electrolytes.
4. Most of the electrolytes are wither liquid (molten) ionic compounds
or the aqueous solution of ionic compounds.
5. Figure below shows the arrangement of ions of solid sodium
chloride, molten sodium chloride and aqueous solution of sodium
chloride.
6. In solid, the ions are not free to move whereas in liquid (molten) and
in aqueous solution, the ions can move freely.
Electrochemical Cell

1. There are 2 types of electrochemical cell, namely

1. Electrolytic Cell
2. Voltaic Cell (or sometimes is called Galvanic Cell)
2. In electrolytic cell, electric current is flowed through an electrolyte to
produce a chemical reaction. Electrical energy is converted to
chemical energy, and the process is called electrolysis.
3. In voltaic cell, chemical is used to produce electricity. In this cell,
chemical energy is converted to electrical energy.

The Electrolytic Cell

1. Figure above shows an electrolytic cell.

2. There are 2 electrodes in an electrolytic cell:
 1. The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the cell is
positive electrode and is given a name, anode.
2. The electrode connected to the negative terminal of the cell is
negative electrode and is called the cathode.

Electrolysis: Decomposing Using the Passage of Electricity

 Electrolysis is a process where a compound is separated into its

constituent elements when electric current passes through an
electrolyte.

Explanation:

1. All electrolytes are ionic, which means they are composed of

positively and negatively charged ions.
2. On passing an electric current through the electrolyte, these ions
move towards the oppositely charged electrode.
3. During electrolysis, negatively charged ions move towards the
positive electrode(anode). The negative ions lose their electron(s) to
the anode, which is positively charged.
4. The electron(s) is then move to the cathode through the external
circuit (the wire).
5. The positively charged ions move towards the negative
electrode(cathode).
6. At cathode, positive ions gain electron(s) from the cathode, which
has an excess of electrons and therefore an overall negative charge.
7. This process results in the chemical decomposition of the
electrolyte. It also allows electrons to travel from the cathode to the
anode and hence allows conduction of electricity.

Conversion of Energy
1. During the electrolysis, electrical energy is supplied to the system to
produce a chemical reaction.
2. Therefore, during electrolysis, electrical energy is converted into
chemical energy.
Electrolysis Of Molten Ionic Compound

Example - Electrolysis of MOLTEN Lead (II) Bromide

Figure above shows the apparatus set up for electrolysis of molten lead
(II) bromide.
The electrolysis process start when lean (II) bromide start melting.

At the Cathode At the Anode

Ion presence: Ion presence:

Pb2+ Br-

Observation Observation
When electricity is flowing, a silvery When electricity is flowing, brown
deposit of lead metal forms on the fumes of bromine gas are seen at
cathode. In fact, as it is molten, it is the anode.
more likely to drip off in a molten
blob.

Half equation Half equation

Pb2+ + 2e ---> Pb
2Br- ---> Br2 + e

Summary:
the lead(II) bromide is split into its component elements :

PbBr2 ---> Pb + Br2

Explanation

At the Anode

The negatively charged bromide ions move to the positive anode

Each bromine ion loses an electron to form a bromine atom.

Two of these newly formed atoms combine to form a bromine molecule

(bromine gas).

At the Cathode

The positively charged lead(II) ions, move to the negative cathode,

Each ion gains two electrons to form a lead atom.

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution

1. An aqueous solution is solution of water of a substance. For

example, if you heat sodium chloride until it melts, it is called molten
sodium chloride, but if you dissolve sodium chloride in water, it is
called aqueous sodium chloride.
2. Electrolysis of aqueous solution is different from electrolysis of
molten electrolyte because an aqueous solution contain more types
of ions.

Example:
Ions presence in molten sodium chloride are Na+ and Cl-

NaCl --> Na+ + Cl-

Ions presence in sodium chloride solution are Na+, H+, O2-and Cl-

NaCl --> Na+ + Cl-

H2O --> 2H+ + O2-

Conclusion:
In an aqueous solution, it can be more than 1 positive and negative ions.

Selective Discharge
1. When the ions move to the anode and cathode, only 1 negative ion
and 1 positive ion will be selected to be discharged, and this is
called selective discharge.
2. There are three main factors that affect the selective discharge in an
electrolysis:
1. position in the electrochemical series
2. the concentration and
3. the type of electrode
Factors Affecting The Selective Discharge - Electrochemical Series

1. The tendency of ions to be selected to be discharged at an electrode

depends on their position in a series called the electrochemical
series.
2. The ions at the top of the list is more difficult to be discharged, but
as we go down the table, they become easier to be discharged.
3. During electrolysis, the ion in the lower position will be selected to
be discharge.
4. Figure below shows the electrochemical series for the positive and
negative ions.
Example: Electrolysis of Aqueous Sulphuric Acid

1. Figure above shows the set up of apparatus used to investigate the

electrolysis of aqueous sulphuric acid.
2. Carbon electrodes are used as the anode and cathode.
3. The molecules of sulphuric acid ionise to form hydrogen ions and
sulphuric ions.
H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42-

4. In an aqueous solution, water molecules will also ionise to form

hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
H2O → H+ + OH-

5. Therefore, the ions that present in the solution are H+ , SO42-

, H+ and OH-

At anode

1. The negative ions (SO42- and OH-) will be attracted to the anode.
2. OH- ions is lower than SO42- ions in electrochemical series, hence
the OH- ions will be selected to be discharged at anode.
3. The OH- ions discharged to form water and oxygen gas.
4OH- → 2H2O + O2 + 4e
Observation:
Colourless gas bubbles are released around anode. When a glowing
wooden splinter is inserted into the test tube that contain the gas, the
wooden splinter light up.

At cathode

1. The positive ions (H+) are attracted to cathode.

2. The H+ ions are discharged to form hydrogen molecule.

2H+ + 2e → H2

Observation:
Colourless gas bubbles are released around cathode. When a lighted
wooden splinter is brought close to the mouth of the test tube that
contain the gas, a "pop" sound is produced.

Note:
Selective discharge occur at anode when there are more than one type
of ions present. The ions located lower in the electrochemical series is
selected to be discharge.
Factors Affecting The Selective Discharge – Concentration

If the concentration of a particular ion is high, it may be selected to be

discharged even though it is higher in the electrochemical series
compares with another ion present in the solution.

Example

Electrolysis Electrolysis
of Diluted Hydrochloric Acid of Concentrated Hydrochloric
Acid

Ions presence at Ions presence at

Anode: Anode:

Cl-, OH- Cl-, OH-

Cathode: Cathode:

H+ H+
Observation at Observation at
Anode: Anode:
Colour gas is produced. When a A greenish yellow gas produced.
glowing wooden splinter is inserted When a blue litmus paper is
into the test tube that contain the inserted into the test tube that
gas, the splinter is rekindled. contain the gas, the blue litmus
paper turn red and then become
Cathode colourless.
Colour gas is produced. When a
lighted wooden splinter is brought Cathode
close to the test tube that contain Colour gas is produced. When a
the gas, a "pop" sound produced.. lighted wooden splinter is brought
close to the test tube that contain
the gas, a "pop" sound produced.

Half Equation of the Reaction at Half Equation of the Reaction at

Anode: Anode:

4OH- → 2H2O + O2 + 4e 2Cl- → Cl + 2e

Cathode: Cathode:

H+ + 2e → H2 H+ + 2e → H2

Note: At anode, the position of hydroxide ion (OH-) is lower compare to

chloride ion (Cl-). However, chloride is selected to be discharged
because its concentration is much higher than he concentration of
hydroxide ion.

1. Nevertheless, concentration is not a determining factor. It only affect

the selective discharge of the ions which is very close to each other
in electrochemical series.
2. The chart below summurises the ions that likely to be selected if
they are presence with hydrogen ions at cathode or hydroxide ions
at anode with high concentration.
Factors Affecting The Selective Discharge - Types Of Electrode

Type of Electrode
1. There are 2 types of electrode:
1. Inert electrode
Inert electrodes do not react with electrolyte and does not take
part in the chemical reaction. (Example: Carbon, platinum)
2. Active electrode
Active electrode will react with the electrolyte and take part in
the reaction. (Example: Copper, Silver, Mercury)

Example: Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulphate with Carbon/Copper

Electrodes
 Using Carbon Electrode Using Copper Electrode
Ions presence at Ions presence at
Anode: Anode:
OH-, SO42- OH-, SO42-
Cathode: Cathode:
H+, Cu2+ H+, Cu2+
Observation at Observation at
Anode: Anode:
Colourless gas is produced. When a The electrode become thinner.
glowing wooden splinter is inserted
into the test tube that contain the gas, Cathode
the wooden splinter is rekindled. The electrode become thicker.

Cathode Colour of the Solution:

The electrode become thicker. Remain unchanged

Colour of the Solution:

Become paler
Half Equation of the Reaction at Half Equation of the Reaction at
Anode: Anode:
4OH- → 2H2O + O2 + 4e Cu → Cu2+ + 2e
Cathode: Cathode:
Cu2+ + 2e → Cu Cu2+ + 2e → Cu

Note:
For the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution by using copper
electrodes, both the hydroxide and sulphate ions are not selected to be
discharged, Instead, the copper electrode ionise to form copper(II) ions.
The electrode has taken part in the reaction!
Industrial Applications Of Electrolysis - Extraction Of Metals

1. Diagram below shows the methods of extraction for different metals.

2. Metals which are less reactive than carbon in reactivity series are
extracted from their ore by displacement reaction using carbon.
3. Copper and mercury can be extracted from their ore by burning
directly in air.
4. Silver (Ag) and gold (Au) need no extraction because they exist as
element in nature.
5. Those metals which are more reactive than carbon are extracted by
electrolysis.
Industrial Applications Of Electrolysis - Extraction Of Sodium

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the designed used to extract

sodium in industry by using electrolysis.

Electrolyte:
Molten sodium chloride
NaCl ---> Na+ + Cl-

Electrode:

Anode: Graphite
Cathode: Iron

Chemical Reaction:

Anode:

2Cl- ---> Cl2 + 2e

The negative chloride ions are attracted to the anode and then
discharged to form chlorine gas.
Cathode

Na+ + e ---> Na

Note:

1. The sodium ions are discharged to form sodium atom.

2. Due to high temperature, the sodium metal formed is in molten form.
3. Metal sodium have lower density. Therefore it moves upward and
been collected.

Industrial Applications Of Electrolysis - Extraction Of

Aluminium

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the designed used to extract

aluminium in industry by using electrolysis.
Electrolyte:
Molten bauxite (Aluminium Oxide).
Al2O3→ 2Al3+ + 3O2-

Electrode:
Anode: Graphite
Cathode: Graphite

Chemical Reaction:

Anode:

2O2- → O2 + 4e
At the anode, oxygen gas which also has commercial value is collected.

Cathode

Al3++ + 3e → Al

Note:

1. The aluminium ions are attracted towards the graphite cathode.

2. The ions is discharged and become molten aluminium metal.

 Explain why cryolite is added into molten bauxite in the process?

To reduce the melting point of bauxite.

 Explain why the carbon electrodes need to be replaced

periodically.
At the temperature of 980 °C, the oxygen burns the carbon
anode. Also, this cell uses large quantities of electricity, and
therefore needs cheap sources of power.

Industrial Applications Of Electrolysis - Electroplating

1. Electroplating is a process to coat an object with a thin protective
layer of metal
2. Electroplating is used to
1. prevent corrosion
2. improve the appearance of the objects
3. In electroplating,
0. the anode is the electroplating metal
1. the cathode is the object to be electroplated
2. the electrolyte must contain the ions of the plating meta
Example: Electroplate a Key with Copper

Electrolyte:
Copper(II) sulphate

CuSO4 ---> Cu2+ + SO42-

Electrode:
Anode: Copper
Cathode: Object to be electroplated

Chemical Reaction:
Anode:

Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e

In anode, the copper atoms from the electrode are ionised to form
copper(II) ions.

Note: The anode is then made of the metal we wish to plate with
(copper), and the electrolyte needs to be a solution of a salt of this metal
(copper(II) sulphate).
Cathode

Cu2+ ---> Cu + 2e

In cathode, the copper ions are discharged to form copper atom and
then deposit on the surface of the key

Note: we need to make the cathode the object for plating.

Industrial Applications Of Electrolysis - Purifying Of Copper

1. Copper is a good electrical conductor and is used extensively to

make electrical wiring and components. However, the presence of
impurity in copper can reduce its electrical conductivity.
2. In industry, electrolysis processed is used to purify copper, and the
process is called electrolytic refining.

Electrolytic Refining of Copper

1. Figure above shows the illustration of the apparatus setup to

investigate electrolytic refining of copper.
 2. When electricity flows, the copper in the impure anode dissolves in
the solution to form copper ions.
3. Copper ions are then deposit on the cathode which consist of a
piece of pure copper.

Electrolyte:
Copper(II) sulphate

CuSO4 = Cu2+ + SO42-

Electrode:
Anode: Impure copper

Cathode: Pure copper

Chemical Reaction:

Anode:

Cu ---> Cu2+ + 2e
In anode, the copper atoms from the electrode are ionised to form
copper(II) ions.

Cathode:

Cu2+ ---> Cu + 2e

In cathode, the copper ions are discharged to form copper atom and
then deposit on the surface of the key

Note: Impurities in the copper do not dissolve, and instead fall off the
anode as anode sludge. At the cathode, the copper ions are deposited
as pure copper metal.
Simple Voltaic Cell

1. A simple voltaic cell consists of two metal plates of different metals

immerse in an electrolyte.
2. The metal which is higher in electrochemical series will become
the negative terminal.
3. The atom of the metal which is higher in electrochemical series will
release electron to form negative ions.
4. The electrons are then move to the other metal plate through the
wire.
5. The metal which is lower in electrochemical series will become
the positive terminal.
6. In positive terminal, the electrons will be released to the positive ions
in the electrolyte.
7. In a voltaic cell, the negative terminal is the anode while the positive
terminal is the cathode.

Example
At Anode:

Since magnesium is higher than copper in electrochemical series, hence

magnesium is the negative electrode. In voltaic cell, the negative
electrode is the anode.

Chemical Reaction:

Magnesium atoms release 2 electrons to form magnesium ions.

Mg → Mg2+ + 2e

Observation:

The magnesium strip (anode) erodes.

Note: The electrons released are transferred to the cathode (copper)

through the wire. As a result, current is produced and the galvanometer
deflects.

At Cathode:

Copper is lower than magnesium in electrochemical series, hence

copper becomes the positive electrode. In voltaic cell, the positive
electrode is the cathode.

Chemical Reaction:

The positive ions that presence in the electrolyte is magnesium ions and
the hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions is lower than magnesium in
electrochemical series, hence it will be selected to be discharged.
2H+ + 2e → H2

Observation:

Bubbles of colourless gas are evolved around the copper metal.

Voltaic Cell - Daniel Cell

1. It was invented to eliminate the hydrogen bubble problem found in

the simple voltaic cell.
2. The Daniell cell consist of a zinc electrode and a copper electrode.
3. The zinc electrode is immersed in zinc sulphate solution (or
sulphuric acid) whereas the copper electrode is immersed in
copper(II) sulphate solution.
4. Figure below shows the illustration of the Daniell cell.

5. Since zinc is more electropositive than copper, hence it acts as the

anode and be come the negative therminal of the cell. Copper is
the cathode and the positive therminal of the cell.

At Anode (Zinc Electrode)

The zinc atoms release 2 electrons and become zinc ions.
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e

Observation:
The zinc electrode erodes (become thinner).

At Cathode (Copper Electrode)

The copper(II) ions in the electrolyte are discharged and become zinc
atom
Cu2+ + 2e Cu

Observation:
The copper electrode become thicker.

Other Observation:

1. The pointer of the galvanometer deflect.

2. The intensity of the blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution
decreases because the concentration of the copper(II) ions
deceases.

Function of the Porous Pot:

1.To allow the flow of ions to complete the circuit
2.To separate the two electrolytes and hence prevent them from
react with each other.

Weaknesses of Daniel Cell

1. The electrolyte can easily spill out.
2. Difficult to be carried around.
3. The voltage produced decreases rapidly owing to the polarity
of the cell.

Voltaic Cell - Cell With Salt Bridge

Cell with Salt Bridge
 1. A Daniel Cell can be substitute by a design as showing in diagram
above. The chemical reaction remains the same as the Daniel cell.
2. Using salt bridge can reduce the internal resistance of the cell.
3. The function of the salt bridge is to allow ions follow from one
solution to another to complete the circuit.

At Anode (Zinc Electrode)

The zinc atoms release 2 electrons and become zinc ions.
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e

Observation:
The zinc electrode erodes (become thinner).

At Cathode (Copper Electrode)

The copper(II) ions in the electrolyte are discharged and become zinc
atom.
Cu2+ + 2e Cu

Observation:
The copper electrode become thicker.

Other Observation:
1. The pointer of the galvanometer deflect.
2. The intensity of the blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution
decreases because the concentration of the copper(II) ions
deceases.

Voltage Of The Cell

1. The voltage of a voltaic cell depends on the difference of the
electropositivity of the two metals.
2. The greater the difference in electrochemical series, the bigger the
voltage produced.
 3. For example, the voltage of the cell consist of zinc and copper as
the electrodes is higher than the voltage of the cell that uses iron
and copper as its electrodes.

The Electrochemical Series

1. The electrochemical series is an arrangement of metals based on
the tendency of each metal atom to donate electrons.
2. The higher the position of a metal in the Electrochemical Series, the
greater the tendency of the metal atoms to donate electrons.
3. The Electrochemical Series can be constructed based on
1. The votage between two metals
2. The ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt
solution.