Chapter 2: Research Approaches: Qualitative vs Quantitative

Approaches in Research
1. Quantitative Research Methods –

 Usually starts with a theory or a general statement proposing a general relationship

between variables.
 This is typically concentrates on measuring or counting and involves collecting and
analyzing numerical data and applying statistical tests.
 Most appropriate for audit but be supplemented with qualitative methods such as
observation
 Quantitative Research

 is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns
and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider
populations.

 Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting and
analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio).
 Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry,
psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

STEPS IN Quantitative research

 Theory
 Hypothesis
 Research design
 Data collection
 Data analysis
 Present results

 Quantitative data analysis-

 Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example,
survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use
statistical analysis to answer your research questions.

 Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages
and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your
data and check for any trends or outliers.

 Using inferential statistics, you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data.
You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter

 Quantitative Research characteristics

 Large sample size

 Structured data and measurable variables
 Easy-to-use data collection methods
 Data analysis
 Reliable
 Reusable outcomes

 Quantitative research methods

 In descriptive research, you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
 In correlational research, you investigate relationships between your study variables.
  In experimental research, you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.

 Research method
 How to use
 Experiment Control or manipulate an independent variable
to measure its effect on a dependent variable.

 Survey Ask questions of a group of people in-person,

over-the-phone or online.

 (Systematic) observation Identify a behavior or occurrence of interest

and monitor it in its natural setting.

 Secondary research
Collect data that has been gathered for other
purposes e.g., national surveys or historical
records.

 Advantages of quantitative research

 Replication- Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection

protocols and tangible definitions of abstract concepts.
 Direct comparisons of results- The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or
with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.
 Large samples- Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and
consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.
 Hypothesis testing- Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means
that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data
collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.
 Superficiality- Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent
complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number
in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.
 Narrow focus- Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you
ignore other relevant observations.
 Structural bias- Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative
research. Missing data, imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are
biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.
 Lack of context- Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails
to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

2. Qualitative Research Methods-

 Investigator views the phenomena to be investigated as more personal and softer.
 Uses methods such as personal accounts, unstructured interviews and participant observation
to gain understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for people’s attitudes
preferences or behaviors.
 Generating hypotheses from the data collection rather than testing a hypothesis is the
emphasis of qualitative research.
 Qualitative Research-

 is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s

beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-
numerical data.
 it seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as
interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.
 aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a
more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative
research.

 Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

 One-to-One Interview- This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant
to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one
interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The
interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their
thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into
individual experiences.
 Focus Groups- This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific
topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion
and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for
generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group
dynamics.
 Ethnographic Studies- This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to
gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically
involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis.
Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena
and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.
 Text Analysis- This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns
and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves
close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns.
Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural
trends.
 Case Study- This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or
event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a
combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document
analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for
exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.
 Process of Observation- This method involves systematically observing and recording
behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or
video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is
 useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which
behaviors occur.
 Record Keeping- This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews,
and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for
ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and
interpretation.
 Surveys- This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a
structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail,
or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for
identifying patterns and trends in a population.

 Qualitative Data Anlalysis

 Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It
involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and
surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

 Qualitative Research analysis methods.

 Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and
making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative
data analysis methods:
 Thematic Analysis- This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that
are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies
keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis
is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new
insights into the research topic.
 Content Analysis- This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken
language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or
qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of
texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful
for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.
 Discourse Analysis- This method involves analyzing language to understand how it
constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a
variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and
narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language
shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.
 Grounded Theory Analysis- This method involves developing a theory or explanation
based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses
an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data.
The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than
preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding
complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.
 Narrative Analysis- This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that
participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.
Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis,
thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for
understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their
experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.
 Phenomenological Analysis- This method involves analyzing how individuals make
sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological
analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their
experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding
subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human
consciousness.
 Comparative Analysis- This method involves comparing and contrasting data across
different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis
can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as
well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative
analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different
contexts and groups.
 Applications of Qualitative Research
  MARKET RESEARCH
 HEALTH CARE
 EDUCATION
 SOCIAL WORK
 ANTHROPOLOGY
 PSYCHOLOGY
 PUBLIC POLICY

 How to Conduct Qualitative Research

 Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of
questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also
broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
 Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs,
including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select
a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you
need to answer your research question.

 Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit
participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and
the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media,
or through personal networks.
 Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews,
focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods
that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to
answer your research question.

 Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves
reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your
data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it
manually.
 Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves
making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and
conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research
question and use your data to support your conclusions.
 Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your
results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be
clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to
support your findings.

 Purpose of Qualitative Research

 The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences,
behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike
quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative
research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop
insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

 Characteristics of Qualitative Research

 Focus on subjective experience

 Use of an open-ended questions
 Sampling-based on purpose and diversity
 Data collection through multiple methods
 Inductive data analysis
 Emphasis on researcher reflexivity

 Advantages of Qualitative Research

 Depth and detail

  Flexibility
 Contextual understanding
 Participant perspective
 Theory development
 Validity

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Open- ended Closed-ended
Textual (obtained from audiotapes. videotapes, Numerical (obtained by assigning numerical
and field notes) values to responses)
Some aspects of the study are flexible Study design is stable from beginning to end.
Participant responses affect how and which Participant responses do not influence or
questions researchers ask next- Researcher may determine how and which questions researchers
use probes ask next-Researcher is limited by the
Questionnaire
Study design is iterative, that is, data collection Study design is subject to statistical assumptions
and research questions are adjusted according to and conditions
what is learned

Chapter 3: Typical Stages of a Research Study

 A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in
practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
 Good (2004) defined problem as any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or
artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking; a perplexing situation after it has been
translated into a question or series of questions that help determine the direction of subsequent
inquiry.

There are two factors in the selection of topic external and personal.

1. External criteria involve how the topic is important for the field, availability of both data and
data collection methods and the administration is cooperative or not.
2. Personal Criteria means researcher own interest, time and cost.

 Criteria for selection of research problem depend on the following characteristics.

1. Personal Inclination. The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the
personal inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he
would select that problem for his research work.
2. Resources Availability. During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources
available. If these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available
to the selection place, then the selection of the problem is easy.
3. Relative Importance. The importance and the problem also play a vital role in the
selection of research problem. If the problem is relatively important, then the researcher
tends towards the selection of the problem.
4. Researcher Knowledge. The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the
selection of the research problem. The wisdom and experience of an investigator is
required for well collection of the research data. He can bitterly select a problem.
5. Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The practical usefulness of
the problem is the main motivation for a researcher to attend it.
6. Time-lines of the Problem. Some problems take little time for its solution while others
take more time. So, it depends on the time in which we have to complete his research work.
 7. Data Availability. If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem
would be selected.
8. Urgency. Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent
problem must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
9. Feasibility. Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research problem.
The researcher qualification, training and experience should match the problem.
10. Area Culture. The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is also
responsible for the selection of research problem.
 A- Characteristic of Research Problem
Any research is a difficult task to achieve and research needs to do a great effort.

Selection of research topic is the first step to success.

1. Research topic must be very clear and easy to understand. It should not distract people.

2. If a topic is well defined is the only way to successful research. The topic should not create
doubt and double impression.

3. Easy language is a key to success. Use technical words if necessary otherwise focus of
simplicity.

4. Research title should be according to the rules of titling. There are different rules of titling, a
researcher must aware before writing a research title.

5. While selecting a research topic current importance of a researcher should also be

considered. Topic should not be obsolete and it should have great importance in the current
day.

 B- Problem statements often have three elements:

 the problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to establish why it is
important;

 the method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or a working thesis;

 the purpose, statement of objective and scope of the document the writer is preparing.

 C- How is a good research problem selected?

 The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the personal inclination of
the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he would select that
problem for his research work.

 D- What does a problem statement look like?

 A problem statement is usually one or two sentences to explain the problem your process
improvement project will address.

 In general, a problem statement will outline the negative points of the current situation and
explain why this matters.

 A problem statement concisely details a vision and method that will be used to solve a
problem.

 E- How do you write a problem statement for design thinking?

 Focus on the user: The user and their needs should be front and center of your problem
statement.

 Avoid statements that start with “we need to…” or “the product should”, instead concentrating
on the user's perspective: “Young working professionals need…”, as in the examples
above.14 Jan 2019
 F- How to write a problem statement

1. Put the problem in context (what do we already know?)

2. Describe the precise issue that the research will address (what do we need to know?)
3. Show the relevance of the problem (why do we need to know it?)
4. Set the objectives of the research (what will you do to find out?)
5. Describe how things should work.
6. Explain the problem and state why it matters.
7. Explain your problem's financial costs.
8. Back up your claims.
9. Propose a solution.
10. Explain the benefits of your proposed solution(s).
11. Conclude by summarizing the problem and solution.

 Techniques for Narrowing Down a Topic into a Research Question

Nueman (2007) likewise presented techniques to narrow down a topic into a research question:

1. Examine the literature. Published articles are an excellent source of ideas for research
questions. They are usually at an appropriate level on specificity and suggest research
questions that focus on the following:

a. Replicate a previous research project exactly or with slight variations.

b. Explore unexpected findings discovered in previous research.
c. Follow suggestions an author gives for future research at the end of an article.
d. Extend an existing explanation or theory to a new topic or setting.
e. Challenge findings or attempt to refute a relationship.
f. Specify the intervening process and consider linking relations.

2. Talk over ideas with others.

a. Ask people who are knowledgeable about the topic for questions about it that they have
thought of.
b. Seek out those who hold opinions that differ from yours on the topic and discuss
possible research questions with them.

3. Relate the topic to as specific context.

a. Focus the topic on a specific historical period or time period.
b. Narrow the topic to a specific society or geographic unit.
c. Consider which subgroups or categories of people/units are involved and whether there
are differences among them.

 Formulating a Research Problem

 Any question that we want answered and any assumption or assertion that we want to
challenge or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for our study.
 However, it is important to remember that not all questions can be transformed into research
problems and some may prove to be extremely difficult to study.
 As a newcomer it might seem easy to formulate a problem but it requires considerable
knowledge of both the subject area and research methodology.
 Once we examine a question more closely we will soon realize the complexity of formulating
an idea into a problem which is researchable.
 It is essential for the problem we formulate to be able to withstand scrutiny in terms of the
procedures required to be undertaken. Hence we should spend considerable time in thinking
it through.
 Formulation of research problem is the first and important step of research process. It is like
the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey.
  A research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the building
are dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well designed and strong you can
expect the building to be also.

 The research problem serves as the foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated,
you can expect a good study to follow.

 A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very complex.

 The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows:

I. The type of study design that can be used.

II. The type of sampling strategy that can be employed.

III. The research instrument that can be used or developed

IV. The type of analysis that can be undertaken

 Consideration in Selecting a Research Problem

 When selecting a research problem there are a number of considerations

to keep in mind which will help to ensure that your study will be
manageable and that you remain motivated

 These considerations are:

 Interest
 Magnitude
 Measurement of concepts
 Level of expertise
 Relevance
 Availability of data
 Ethical issues

 The formulation of a research problem is the most crucial part of the research journey as the
quality and relevance of your research project entirely depends upon it. The process of formulating a
research problem consists of a number of steps. Working through these steps presupposes a
reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study is to be undertaken
and the research methodology itself.

 The steps (7) in formulating a research problem are as follows:

Step 1: Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.

 It is a good idea to think about the field in which we would like to work after graduation.

 This will help us to find an interesting topic, and one which may be of use to us in the future it
is a good idea to think about the field in which we would like to work after graduation.

 This will help us to find an interesting topic, and one which may be of use to us in the future.

 Example: As a student of public health, intending to work with patients who have HIV/AIDS,
you might like to conduct research on a subject area relating to HIV/AIDS.

Step 2: Dissect the broad areas into subareas

 We can select any subject area from the field such as community health or consumer
research and go through the dissection process.
  In preparing this list of subareas we should also consult others who have some knowledge of
the area and the literature in our subject area.

 Once we have developed an exhaustive list of the subareas from various sources, we
proceed to the next stage where we select what will become the basis of your enquiry.

Step 3: Select what is of most interest to you.

 It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all subareas. Out of this list, we should select
issues or subareas about which we are passionate.

 This is because our interest should be the most important determinant for selection. • One
way to decide what interests us most is to start with the process of elimination. We should go
through our list and delete all those subareas in which we are not very interested.

 We need to continue until we are left with something that is manageable considering the time
available to us, our level of expertise and other resources needed to undertake the study.

 Once we are confident that we have selected an issue we are passionate about and can
manage, we are ready to go to the next step.

Step 4: Raise research questions

 At this step we ask ourselves, ‘What is it that I want to find out about in this subarea?’

 We should make a list of whatever questions come to our mind relating to our chosen
subarea and if we think there are too many to be manageable, go through the process of
elimination, as we did in Step 3.

Step 5: Formulate objectives

 Both our main objectives and our sub-objectives now need to be formulated, which grow out
of our research questions. The main difference between objectives and research questions is
the way in which they are written.

 Research questions are obviously that – questions. Objectives transform these questions
into behavioral aims by using action-oriented words such as ‘to find out’, ‘to determine’, ‘to
ascertain’ and ‘to examine’.

 Some researchers prefer to reverse the process; that is, they start from objectives and
formulate research questions from them.

 Some researchers are satisfied only with research questions, and do not formulate objectives
at all.

 If we prefer to have only research questions or only objectives, this is fine, but we should
keep in mind the requirements of our institution for research proposals.

Step 6: Assess your objectives

 Now, we examine our objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving them through our
research endeavor. Consider them in the light of the time, resources (financial and human)
and technical expertise at your disposal.

Step 7: Double-check

 We should go back and give final consideration to whether or not we are sufficiently
interested in the study, and have adequate resources to undertake it.
  We should ask ourselves, ‘Am I really enthusiastic about this study?’ and ‘Do I really have
enough resources to undertake it?’ Answer these questions thoughtfully and realistically.

If we answer to one of them is ‘no’, reassess your objectives.

 Formulation of Research Objectives

 Objectives are the goals we set out to attain in our study. Since these objectives inform us of
what we want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them clearly and
specifically.
 Objectives should be listed under two headings:

 Main objectives- The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of our study. It is
also a statement of the main associations and relationships that we seek to discover or
establish.

 Sub objectives - The sub objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that we want to
investigate within the main framework of our study.

 Developing research question

Formulation of research question (RQ) is an essentiality before starting any research. It aims to
explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern and points to a need for deliberate investigation.
It is likely that at some point during your degree you will be required to create your own research
question. The research question states the specific issue or problem that your assignment will focus
on. It also outlines the task that you will need to complete.

There is no universal set of criteria for a good research question. Different disciplines have different
priorities and requirements. A good research question for a history paper will differ from a good
research question for a biology paper.

In general, however, a good research question should be:

1. Clear and focused. In other words, the question should clearly state what the writer needs
to do.
2. Not too broad and not too narrow. The question should have an appropriate scope. If
the question is too broad it will not be possible to answer it thoroughly within the word limit.
If it is too narrow you will not have enough to write about and you will struggle to develop a
strong argument (see the activity below for examples).
3. Not too easy to answer. For example, the question should require more than a simple
yes or no answer.
4. Not too difficult to answer. You must be able to answer the question thoroughly within
the given timeframe and word limit.
5. Researchable. You must have access to a suitable amount of quality research materials,
such as academic books and refereed journal articles.
6. Analytical rather than descriptive. In other words, your research question should allow
you to produce an analysis of an issue or problem rather than a simple description of it.

How to create a research question

1. Determine the requirements- Before you can construct a good research question you will
need to determine the requirements of your assignment. What is the purpose of this
assignment? Is it to test a proposition? Is it to evaluate a set of data? Is it to state and defend
an argument? Check the assignment instructions and discuss the purpose with your tutor or
lecturer. Determining the purpose will help you to choose the most appropriate topic and
word your question in the most useful way.
 2. Choose a topic- Have you been given a list of topics to choose from or can you choose your
own? Check the assignment instructions and if you are still in doubt discuss the requirements
with your tutor or lecturer. The best approach is to choose a topic that you are interested in. If
you are interested in your topic you are more likely to invest more time, effort, and creativity
into your research and writing. The greater your interest, the more likely it is that you will
produce an assignment that is interesting to read.

3. Conduct preliminary research- Before you write your question it is advisable to read a small
number of relevant academic sources. Limit your reading to recently published material and
perhaps one or two influential works on the topic. The goal here is to familiarize yourself with
the key debates in academic writing on the topic. Reading in order to develop a research
question is different from reading in order to answer it. Focus on the main ideas and
arguments (these are usually found in the introduction and the conclusion). You don’t need to
read every word or take down extensive notes at this stage, as you will probably come back
to the text at a later date.

4. Narrow down your topic- Having conducted some preliminary research you should now be
in a position to narrow down your topic. In most cases you will need to narrow down your
focus to a specific issue or debate within the broader topic. This is because it is much more
effective to cover a single issue or dimension of a topic in depth than to skim the surface of
several.

There are several ways that you might go about narrowing down your topic:

 Think about the subtopics, specific issues, and key debates that exist within the broader
topic.

 Think about the value of focusing on a particular period of time, a particular geographical
location, a particular organization, or a particular group of people.

 Think about what you want to say in your assignment. What are the key points and
arguments that you want to get across? Which subtopic, timeframe or other limitation
would allow you to make these points in the most effective way?

5. Write your question- Now that you have narrowed down your topic you can turn your
attention to the wording of your research question.

As mentioned previously, the research question must outline a clear task that you will need to
complete. Remember that you will need to keep the purpose of your assignment in mind when
thinking about the wording of your question and that the purpose will differ from discipline to
discipline. In general, however, a good research question requires you to analyze an issue or
problem. How and why questions are therefore more useful than what or describe questions. Other
useful words that you might use are critique, argue, examine and evaluate.

 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

 The problem statement sets the direction of the study. It is the verbalization of the “question”
which the study proposes to answer. This is divided into the main problem and the subsidiary
problems. These can be stated in declarative or interrogative form.
 The main problem is the whole focus of the study. This is reflected in the title of the study.
The sub problems are the breakdown of the main variables into their components. When the
answers to the sub problems are put together, they answer the main question.
 Characteristics of Researchable Problem
While problem is the beginning of a research undertaking, not all problems are researchable, that is,
they do not require research in order for them to be eradicated or done away with, or for their impact
to be minimized. What then is a research problem? How would one determine whether a problem is
researchable or not? The problem is researchable when any of the following five conditions is true
when:

1. there is no known answer or solution to the problem such that gap in knowledge exists;
2. there are possible solutions to it but the effectiveness of which is untested or unknown yet;
3. there are answers or solutions but the possible results of which may seem or factually
contradictory;
4. there are several possible and plausible explanations for the undesirable condition; and
5. the existence of a phenomenon requires explanation.

Moreover, a problem is researchable when it meets three conditions.

1. the concept must be clear enough so that one can specify in words exactly what the question is.
2. the concepts must be such that they can be represented by some sort of evidence which is
obtainable through direct observation or other less direct activities.
3. it must be feasible to carry out such operations or activities (Selltiz and others, 1976).

Characteristics of a Research Problem

Specific. The problem should be specifically stated;
Measurable. It is easy to measure by using research instruments (questionnaire, tests, ) in collecting
data;
Achievable. The data are achievable using correct statistical techniques to arrive at precise results;
Realistic. Results are not manipulated.
Time-bound. Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the activity
the better.

 Criteria of a Good Research Problem

1. Relevant to the needs of the people (must keep in mind that they work not for themselves but
for the people).
2. Investigator’s interest in the problem (attracts the attention of the investigator to study the
problem further and makes him determined to work on it until its completion).
3. Practical value of the problem (Cost Effective). The 4 Ms (Man, Money, Materials and
Machinery) are needed in conducting research. Economic and effective in solving the
problems of the society which should augment social, economical and health conditions of the
people and many others.
4. Innovative – May not necessarily new. It may be restatement and a restructuring of an old
problem to make it new but the results will be more relevant and useful to a greater number of
people.
5. Measurable and time-bound – measurable by using research instruments, like tests,
questionnaires, rating scales, observation, schedules or interviews and statistical treatment to
arrive at scientific and meaningful results. Can be completed within a time frame stated. The
shorter completion of the project, the better.

 Sources of Research Problem

 One possible reason why a graduate student, cited earlier, has no problem to research on is
that he does not have any idea where to look for it. There are actually various sources from
which a researcher may draw a problem to be investigated. One of these sources is his
personal experience. There is a lot of happenings in the world for a person not to notice.
One has only to listen to the radio or television or read the daily newspaper to know the
difficulty or tragedy that many individuals or peoples encounter or suffer from. What is
required of a would-be researcher is keenness and sensitivity to what is occurring around him.
A sensitive person can easily discern the hardship and abnormalities that afflict people, the
environment and some system of living.
 Another source of a research problem is the body of knowledge called common sense, that is,
the things we all believe as true. Researchers are likely to work on ideas that do not conform
with what common sense dictates. However, there is value in testing common-sense ideas
because not all of them may turn out to be valid.
 Theories are good source of a research problem. A theory is a tentative or hypothesized
statement of relationships that exist between and among concepts or things. It usually
presents some generalizations and conclusions which need to be validated by a study.
Theories serve two important functions, particularly in the understanding of human behavior
(Cozby, 1985). First, theories organize and explain a variety of facts. By themselves, specific
facts about behavior are less meaningful, and so theories are constructed to impose a
framework by which they can be analyzed. This framework facilitates better understanding of
the world by providing a few abstracts around which one can organize and explain various
forms of behavior. Second, theories generate new knowledge by focusing our thinking so that
we notice new aspects of behavior. Theories guide our observation of the world. Cozby
explains:
 New knowledge is generated by theory-testing research. The theory generates
hypotheses about behavior, and the researcher conducts research to see if these are
correct. If the studies confirm the hypotheses, the theory, is supported. A theory is
never proven though; researchers can 'provide support for the correctness of a theory
but research also reveals weakness in a theory and forces researchers to modify the
theory or develop a better one.
 Another good source of research problems are past researches. The academe, the
government agencies (like the Department of Health, the National Economic Development
Authority, the Commission on Population, the Department of Science and Technology, and
the Department of Agriculture and private research outfits are repositories of past researches.
Out of the findings of some researches, articles are written and published in professional
journals. These articles often stimulate others to do further research on the topics.
 Research may be stimulated by practical problems that require immediate solutions. For
example, the government may fund researches that will determine the reasons why some
persons indulge in the use of prohibited drugs, why some people leave the rural areas and
migrate to overcrowded cities, why certain illnesses continue to afflict many people in spite of
the programs to check them, and why a substantial proportion of college students do poorly in
their academic work or drop out from schooling. Many researches have been conducted with
the ultimate goal of solving practical problems.
 Journals, books, theses and dissertation, and the mass media - radio, television, movies,
newspapers, and magazines - are rich sources of research problems. From any of these
sources an investigator can draw research issues or problems which require a scientific study.
Authors of researches and articles usually and explicitly recommend topics or problems/for
other researchers to look into.
 Technological changes bring forth new problems and opportunities for research. High-speed
communication and transportation facilities, for example, while they are blessings to humanity
created problems never encountered by society before. The new rice varieties which are
themselves results of painstaking experimental researches may have improved rice
production but at the same time exposed the farmers to new problems like water, fertilizer,
 pesticide, drying and storage requirements. Educational innovations require new knowledge,
skills, strategies and technical devices in teaching lessons.
 Friends, colleagues, professors, consultants may prove helpful in coming up with a good
research problem. Asking questions or their opinions on certain issues may lead to realizing
that there is a gap in knowledge which needs to be filled, that what has been decided on by a
body left many questions unanswered, or that the means by which a goal has been achieved
is being questioned for its moral and legal implications.
 Other good sources of research problem are conferences, symposia, dialogues, or even
ordinary meetings. In any of these activities, it is likely that problems will just crop up or be
brought to the attention of participants. What researcher needs to do is to reformulate the
statement of the problem into one which satisfactorily meets the requirements of a good
research problem.

 Good Research Problem

 It is not uncommon that a researcher finds himself in a situation when he has to choose
among a number of researchable problems or topics. He is it a dilemma as to which he
should give his attention and interest considering that with his limited time and resources he
can only study one problem at a time. To some persons choosing a good research problem is
not an easy task. This is particularly true to inexperienced researchers who do not know on
what bases or criteria a research problem should be judged as good. In the light of the
experience of this writer and of other researchers, the following criteria proved useful in
making a decision as to which among the probable research problems or topics should be
given priority. A research problem should:

1. be of great interest to the researcher. To have met this important criterion is to have already
"won half of the battle," so they say. With much interest on the topic the researcher is
motivated and determined to work on it for months or even years until it completion,
disregarding or tackling whatever difficulty or obstacle that coma his way. Working on a topic
which a person likes very much is a lark, that is, it is something he enjoys to do because it
affords him fun and adventure.

2. be relevant and useful to a specific group of people. Researches are usually undertaken with
the end in view of improving the lot of a specific group of people. This social group could be
mothers, the underprivileged children, migrant workers, farmers, fishers, drivers, construction
workers, and school dropouts and under-achievers. Any of these and other social groups may
have manifested or expressed certain problem which the researcher deemed researchable.
The idea that the result of one's investigation will be of much use to a group of people provides
the researcher an impetus to pursue the conduct of research on the problem as well as a drive
to bring it to completion.

3. is good when it is novel in that it possesses the element of newness or freshness. This implies
avoiding doing a study on topics which have been subjects of many investigations and
pursuing those which were not studied before, or if they were, they were not thoroughly studied.
With regard to the latter, it is always the case that while a study is focused on a specific topic
not all aspects or areas of this topic have been covered by the investigation. The parameter of
the study can be gleaned from the definition or in a section where the scope of the study is
presented. To study, therefore, the same research topic but focusing on areas not covered by
previous researches is novel.

4. be well-defined or specified. Problem definition includes clear statements of key concepts in

me study and specification of its scope or coverage vis-a-vis issues or concerns, area
coverage, subjects, time requirement and type of data needed. Unless the researcher has all
the time, money, manpower and expertise to cover all aspects of social problems, it is deemed
realistic and practical that he sets the scope of his study.
5. be measurable. If the concepts or variables covered by the research problem do not allow
measurement, the researcher will have an impossible task of coming up with the result or
findings of the study. Somehow, some quantification and statistical analysis, however basic or
elementary, are needed in a study. This is true even in qualitative studies where figures or
numbers are not of much use and given less emphasis.
6. is time-bound. This means that a study of a research problem or topic can be completed within
a specific period of time. A study which can be finished within a short period of time is more
attractive and useful than that which can be completed in an indefinite or longer period of time.
A study which is meant to contribute to solving i problem but lasts longer than six months or a
year may be overtaken by events which will render its results useless. The shorter the time
allotment for the study of a problem the more practical it is, although there are some studies
that because of the nature of their problems may require a longer period of time.

7. is good if it does not cause ethical or moral violations. A study which violates the privacy,
dignity, self-respect and freedom of the target population should not be pursued. The same is
true with researches which expose people to physical harm, psychological and emotional
stress and those which deprive benefits from some groups involved in a study. In cases where
the study cannot be conducted without violating some moral ideals, the researcher should
weigh the ethical costs and the research benefit but with the welfare and good of the target
population always given more weight in the balance.

8. is good if the study of it will contribute to the refinement of certain important concepts, creation
or improvement of research instruments and analytical systems, and will permit generalizations.
All these are deemed invaluable to future researches and to understanding certain conditions
or situational problems. This criterion acquires more significance if we consider the fact that
things are changing, that problem become more and more complicated as society moves from
one level to another level of growth. Therefore, research concepts, instruments, and strategies
should be continuously reviewed and updated to meet the demand of new conditions,
otherwise research will lose its reason for existence.

9. is good if it is manageable. Manageability implies that the investigator has what it requires:
expertise, skilled manpower, money and time. What is conceptually and socially good research
problem may not be good at all if the researcher does not have the required expertise nor
resources to carry out the study. A study which requires a million of pesos and a period of one
year because of the strategies and the nature and the number of subjects involved, when it is
conducted in only three months with a few thousands pesos budget will surely suffer in
coverage of population and concerns and in quality of results. Poor quality of result will be the
outcome of a study when the researcher embarks on an experimental research when his
expertise is restricted to the descriptive type of research
 Defining the Research Problem
 It is common for a researcher, particularly the beginner, to select a research topic or problem
so broad that he does not know where to start or, worse, it appears overwhelming and a
dreadful task to take that he unceremoniously drops it. Instead of being discouraged what he
should do is to define his research topic or problem because in so doing he narrows it down
to a scope and sophistication that is not formidable but rather manageable.
 How does one go about defining his research problem? The first step is for the researcher to
see to it that the major concepts or terms and variables in the study are clearly defined. The
concepts/terms/variables must be such that they mean according to how the researcher
wants them to be understood and .they can be represented by some evidence which can be
obtained through direct or indirect activities which are feasible to carry out. The next step is
for the researcher to limit the scope of the study in terms of (1) issues, concerns or subjects,
(2) area coverage, (3) target population and/or sample population, (4) source of data or
respondents, (5) time allotment, and (6) data requirement - qualitative or quantitative, or both.
 To illustrate, supposing Researcher X wishes to do a study on health condition of a poverty
group. The topic is so broad that he decided to narrow it down to something manageable and
workable. He defined the major concepts/variables which are "health condition" and "poverty
group": "health condition" as the state of being free from physical and mental illness, and
"poverty" to refer to families with six members whose total monthly income is less than
P6,000. He then specified the concerns or objectives of the study which are (1) to find out
how many members of the family had been sick in the past year, (2) what illness was suffered
by those who had been sick, (3) what health-seeking response was made, and (4) how much
was spent for the treatment of the illness until the health was restored. He included among his
research concerns (5) the types of food which the family members usually eat, (6) the work
that they do, and (7) the recreational activities engaged in by the family members since he
assumed that these factors have direct effects on the health condition of the person. For area
coverage, he specified that the study will be confined in the City Proper of the Province of
Iloilo and the slum dwellers as the target population. He identified the respondents as the
 heads of families or, if not available during the conduct of the study, any mature member of
the family. The study is to be completed in seven months, and the data required are
quantitative.
 To facilitate the task of defining the research problem, Researcher was advised to read
literature, local or foreign, on health and poverty groups. In the case of research literature, he
is to give particular attention to the research objectives, design and procedures used and to
findings that air closely related to the concerns of his own study. He is to interview health
professionals such as medical doctors, nurses and midwives. He should visit the communities
of poverty groups to fill up the gap of his knowledge about them through observations and
random interviews. It was suggested that he obtains more information about the poor from
members of government and non-government organizations which have development
projects for the poor. Finally, Researcher X was advised to be resourceful in looking for other
ways and means that will help him refine and make more specific his research problem.

 Justifying the Research Problem

 Having defined clearly the problem of the study, the next task of the researcher is to
rationalize or explain why he selected a certain problem over other probable ones. Whether
the study is intended to meet an academic requirement (such as term paper, thesis or
dissertation) or propose it to a funding body for financial support, it is most likely that he will
be asked not only to explain why he chose it but to convince the members of the approving
committee about the possible important contributions of the study to the welfare and
development of a specific group of people or the society as a whole.
 The choice of a research problem or topic can be justified by citing various reasons. It would
be to the advantage of a researcher to cite or utilize as many reasons as he can think of and
to present all supporting evidence so as to convince the members of the approving panel that
the study of the problem is a must and, in the case of funding institutions, that they should
provide the needed financial assistance. To come up with persuasive arguments on the value
of studying the problem the following guide questions will be helpful.

1. Is the problem a current and timely one?

2. Is it pervasive or widespread?
3. Does it affect a special group of people such as mothers, children, farmers, fishers,
drivers, domestic helpers, construction workers, etc.
4. Does it relate to ongoing programs such as land reform, family planning, tuberculosis
control program, child immunization, skill training, etc?
5. Does it relate to broad social, economic, and health issues such as unemployment,
malnutrition, immigration, graft and corruption aggression, etc.?
6. Who else is concerned about the problems - top government officials, medical doctors,
school administrators, or other professionals?
7. What are its direct and indirect, short- and long-range impact of the welfare of a group
of people or the society as a whole?

 The researcher should review his answers to these questions, write a paragraph or two for each
answer, substantiate his contentions with supporting quotations and statistics, and arrange them
in logical order. The tone of his presentation or arguments should be assertive and persuasive.
To say " this study may be useful to school administrators in that ..." is weak; he should rather say
" this study will be useful to school administrators in that ..." On will not get approval or funding for
a proposed project the usefulness o which is uncertain.

 THE VARIABLES
The meaning of Variables

A variable is defined as a quantity or a “characteristic that two or more mutually exclusive values of
properties.” (Sevilla, et.al.). It is a characteristics possessed by an object, situation, or people.
(Adanza et al., 2002). It refers to "a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or
properties" (Kerlinger, 1986). Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and
femaleness. The ages of different persons have different values; so with their size, height, weight,
color of their hair and eyes, and skin complexion. The phenomenon of variety, of being different is
what makes life colorful and interesting; it is one motivating factor which initiates the undertaking of a
research project. There are situations though that a characteristic is not a variable although by nature
it has more than one property or value. Sex, for instance, is not a variable in a study where the target
population is all women. Race is not a variable in a study where only Filipinos are involved.

Personal variables are in terms of age, gender, civil status, educational attainment.

Types of Variables
Variables are not only characteristics but conditions as well which the researcher manipulates,
controls or observes. There are five types of variables, namely; independent, dependent, moderate,
control and intervening variable.

1. The independent variables are the conditions or characteristics which are the presumed cause
or influence of the existence or non- existence or change in certain phenomena. They are the
object of manipulation control by the researcher in the attempt to determine their relationship to
the observed phenomena. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to
determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. It is the x-variable. They are
considered as the "predictors" of the factors or variables which are the focus of the study - the
dependent variables.
Example No. 1. A researcher wants to determine the effect of drinking coffee on the memory
retention among BSN students of USPF. In this example, coffee is the independent variable
because it is the stimulus variable that is manipulated.
Example No. 2 (Descriptive Research)
Suppose the researcher wishes to correlate between Mathematics scores and number of
hours of study in Mathematics to sophomore secondary students at the private schools in
Cebu City. The independent variable is number of hours of study in Mathematics because it is
the stimulus variable that is manipulated.

Independent variables are categorized into two types: treatments and attribute variables.
a. Treatment variables are those factors that the researcher manipulates and to which he
assigns subjects.
b. Attribute variables are those characteristics that cannot be changed by the researcher such
as age, sex and intelligence level but as independent variables they can be included or
excluded as study variables.

2. The dependent variables are the conditions or characteristics which are influenced by the
independent variables. This is the response variable which is observed and measured to
determine the effect of the independent variable. It is the y-variable. The dependent variables
are the outcomes, effects or results which are the focus of the investigation; their behavior or
status as influenced by independent variables is what a researcher will try to explain. Learning,
for instance, is a dependent variable the status of which - either satisfactory or unsatisfactory -
could be influenced or explained by sex, age, students’ economic status, self esteem, teaching
strategy and the teacher factor.
Ex. Taking the previous example, memory retention is the dependent variable because it
changes as a result of variations in drinking coffee.
Ex. 2. For instance, the researcher wishes to correlate between Mathematics scores and
number of hours of study in Mathematics to sophomore secondary students at the private
schools in Cebu City. The dependent variable is Mathematics scores because it is the
response variable where ot changes when the independent variable, number of hours in study,
varies.
Aside from the independent and dependent variables, there is another type of variables which
may affect the measurement of the relationship between the independent and the dependent
variables.

3. Moderate variable. This is a secondary or special type of variable chosen by the researcher to
determine of it alters or modifies the relationships between the independent and dependent
variables.
Example. Suppose the researcher wishes to conduct a study on the effects of the independent
variable A on the dependent variable B, but suspects that a third factor C, alters or modifies
the relationship between A and B, then C is considered as moderator variable.
4. Control variable. This is a variable controlled by the research in which the effects can be
neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.
Example. Suppose the researcher wishes to determine the effect of A (independent variable)
on B (dependent variable). He may control D (control variable) because he cannot do many
variables simultaneously. In other words, he may remove or eliminate D to neutralize the
effects. Control variable guarantees to have no moderating effect on the relationship between
A and B.

5. dependent variable but its effects can either reinforce or weaken the independent and
dependent variables. This variable cannot be controlled and measured directly but which may
have an important effect upon the outcome of measurement. They are called modifying
variables because they intervene between the cause and the effect. They can either
strengthen, weaken or eliminate the influence or effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable.
In the study on the effect of new teaching strategy on the study of values, the
researcher may suspect that other than the independent variable - the new teaching strategy,
there may be factors or variables that influence the result although these variables cannot be
observed directly. Factors like motivation, anxiety and fatigue may act as intervening variables.
They cannot be ignored; as much as possible, they should be controlled with the use of
appropriate research design. If this cannot be done, the researcher should caution the reader
about the conclusiveness of his findings on the relationship between the independent and the
dependent variables.

Example. Suppose the researcher wishes to correlate between Mathematics scores and
number of hours of study in Mathematics to sophomore secondary students at the private
schools in Cebu City. But it is possible that age, gender, socio-economic status and attitudes
toward study might have an effect on Mathematics scores. Figure 1 shows the paradigm of
independent variable, intervening variables and dependent variable on correlate between
Mathematics scores and number of hours of study in Mathematics as perceived by sophomore
secondary students in private schools in Cebu City.

Independent Variable Intervening Variables Dependent Variable

Number of Hours of Age, gender, socio-economic Mathematics Scores
Study status, attitudes toward study

Figure 1. Paradigm of Independent Variable, Intervening Variables and Dependent Variable

on Correlation Between Mathematics Scores and Number of Hours of Study in
Mathematics as Perceived by Sophomore Secondary Students in Private Schools in
Cebu City.
a. Extraneous variables are those variables which are not controlled or manipulated by the
researcher but which may have a significant influence on the result of a study. They are
also known as exogenous variables. As much as possible, the researcher has to have
control over them; if beyond control, they should be taken into account in the analysis and
interpretation of study result.
Best and Kahn (1989) noted that "in order for an extraneous variable to confound the result of
a study, it must be correlated strongly enough with both the independent and the dependent
variables that its influence can be mistaken for that of the independent variables."
Relationship Between Variables
To say that variables X and Y are related implies that they vary together, that is, a change in X
is accompanied by a change in Y and vice versa. This variation is known as concomitant variation or
correlation. For instance, if one finds that as education increases, income also increases; then the
variables education and income are related or correlated. However, if education increases but there is
no recognizable pattern of change in income level, one can conclude that education and income are
not correlated.
Operational Definitions and Indicators

For study variables to be measurable they should be defined operationally that is, as they are used in
a particular study. Operational definitions of variables are usually given under section of "Definition of
Terms." There are some studies however which do not only contain operational definition of variables
but stipulate the indicator or indicators of each study variables on the basis of which they are
measured. Indicators of study variables should be determined and defined clearly at the early stage
of the research process because failure to do so will create problems in the generation, processing,
and analysis of data. Below are the variables and their corresponding indicator of the study by
Ardales (1990) on the community and household profile selected Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP) areas in Negros Occidental and process documentation of community organizing
activities.

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK/ PARADIGM

Variables Indicators
Household type Household composition
Household size Absolute number
Number of Children Absolute number
Dependent burden Ratio of non-working to working members
Sources of Income NEDA employment categories
Income Total monthly earnings, in cash and kind
Education Highest level completed
Skill Possessed and aspired proficiency or ability
Type of dwelling Housing type on the basis of materials
Home lot ownership Owned, not owned
House ownership Owned, not owned
Distance from town/city Absolute figure (in km.)
Means of transportation Jeepney, bus, tricycle, etc.
Road condition Dirt, asphalt, cemented
Land classification Mountainous, hilly, plain sloping, etc
Crops grown Specific crops
Production Absolute monetary value
Farm Facilities Specific production and storage facilities
Rainfall pattern Rainy, dry months
Soil condition Productive, unproductive
Welfare facilities Specific community infrastructures

Chapter 4: Reviewing and Evaluating Literature

 A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The
literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a
particular area of research. The review should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively
evaluate and clarify this previous research. It should give a theoretical base for the research and
help you (the author) determine the nature of your research. The literature review acknowledges
the work of previous researchers, and in so doing, assures the reader that your work has been
well conceived. It is assumed that by mentioning a previous work in the field of study, that the
author has read, evaluated, and assimilated that work into the work at hand.
 A literature review creates a "landscape" for the reader, giving her or him a full understanding of
the developments in the field. This landscape informs the reader that the author has indeed
assimilated all (or the vast majority of) previous, significant works in the field into her or his
research.
 "In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas
have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. The literature
review must be defined by a guiding concept (eg. your research objective, the problem or issue
you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material
available, or a set of summaries.
 Review of related studies are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which
the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually
unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.
 Purposes of a Literature Review
Hart (1998) identifies the following purposes, which are not ranked in order of importance, since no
one purpose is seen as being of greater significance than another:

1. distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done;

2. discovering important variables relevant to the topic;
3. synthesizing and gaining a new perspective;
4. identifying relationships between ideas and practice;
5. establishing the context of the topic or problem;
6. rationalizing the significance of the problem;
7. enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary;
8. understanding the structure of the subject;
9. relating ideas and theory to applications;
10. identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used;
11. placing the research in a historical context to show familiarlity with state-of-the-art developments.

What Your Literature Review Should Include:

 Overview of the subject and the objective(s) of the review.
 Analysis of works in favor, works against, and works with neutral views on the subject.
These should be clearly divided.
 Explanations of the similarities and differences between the works.
 Comparison of different views held by other authors.
 Critique of the methodology.
 Examination of gaps in the research.
 Evaluation of how each study contributes to the argument in question.
 Conclusion that summarizes the literature review.

There are different types of literature reviews.

 A stand-alone literature review can be a single work in its own right. Examples include
 A class assignment/essay.
 A review article
 Literature reviews can also form a part of larger bodies of work. Examples include
 A thesis / dissertation/ final year project.
 An academic journal article introduction
Literature Review Guidelines
Developed by James O'Neill with assistance from Ronald Levant, Rod Watts, Andrew Smiler, Michael
Addis, and Stephen Wester.

General Considerations
 A good review should summarize the state of knowledge on a well-defined topic in the
psychology of men and masculinity in concise and clear ways. This means that the review is
written with exceptional clarity, cohesiveness, conciseness, and comprehensiveness.
 A good review should describe in detail the systematic process or method that was used in
doing the literature review. There are articulated ways to do "narrative reviews" just as there
are ways of doing experiments or meta-analyses (Baumeister & Leary, 1997; Bem, 1995).
Essential Elements for a Review
 Focus on an important, relevant, and operationally defined topic in the psychology of men and
masculinity, and make a strong case for why a literature review of this topic is important
 Include a critical and inclusive review of previous theory related to the relevant topic. "Critical"
means that the literature review reveals problems, contradictions, controversies, strengths,
next steps, and potentials in the theories. "Inclusive" means that there is an active evaluation
of all of the theory relevant to the topic
 Include a critical and inclusive review of previous empirical research related to the relevant
topic
 Critically analyze the distinction between authors' interpretation of their data and the actual
empirical evidence presented. A good review critically analyses how accurately previous
authors have reported their findings and whether they have refrained from asserting
conclusions not supported by data
 Discuss the methodological diversity of studies reported in the literature review and the
implications of this diversity for new knowledge or future research
 Raise provocative and innovative questions on the topic not discussed before in the literature
 Write the review so that theoretical knowledge and empirical research is significantly
advanced in the psychology of men and masculinity, and that there is an overall contribution
to the field's theory, research, and clinical practice
 Include many "take home messages" (Sternberg, 1991) that generate new theories and
empirical research
Sections That Might Be Included in a Review
 Provide a historical account or background of the development of the theory or research
program reviewed
 Include persuasive arguments and articulated points of view on the topic from both theoretical
and empirical perspectives
 Propose novel conceptualizations or theories based on reviews of previous theories and
empirical research
 Propose new research paradigms or testable hypotheses that advance future research
 Propose new therapeutic paradigms or testable hypotheses that advance clinical
practice/psychoeducational programming with men
 Address the frequent gap between reporting theory/research and interpreting the meaning of
the theory and research
It is not expected that reviews will be able to meet all of the above-listed criteria but authors should
meet many of them.

TIPS TO EVALUATE SOURCES

Criteria to evaluate sources:
 Authority: Who is the author? what is his/her credentials--what university he/she is affliliated?
Is his/her area of expertise?
 Usefulness: How this source related to your topic? How current or relevant it is to your topic?
 Reliability: Does the information comes from a reliable, trusted source such as an academic
journal?
Criterion #1: AUTHORITY

1. Is it clear what organization, company, or individual is sponsoring or responsible for the page?
2. Is there a link to a page describing the goals or purpose of the organization? If it is a company, is
there a link to a page where you can find out the nature of the company, who owns it, or what its
products are?
3. Is there a way of verifying legitimacy? That is, is there a phone number or postal address to
contact for more information? (An email address is not enough). Is there a way of verifying the
legitimacy of an individual? (Because it is difficult to verify the legitimacy of an individual, personal
home pages may be a useful source for personal opinion, but use extreme caution when using them
as a source for factual information).
4. Is there a statement that the content of the page has the official approval of the company or
organization?
5. If it is an organization, is it clear whether this is a page from the national or local chapter of the
organization?
6. If it is a company, is there a way to determine the stability of the company?
7. Is there a statement giving the organization or company name as copyright holder?
8. For news pages:
 Is there a non-Web equivalent version of this material that would provide a way of verifying its
legitimacy?
 If the page contains an individual article, do you know who wrote the article and what his or
her qualifications are for writing on this topic?
 Is it clear who is ultimately responsible for the content of the material?
9. For informational and individual pages:
 Is it clear who wrote the material and are the author's qualifications for writing on this topic
clearly stated?
 If the material is protected by copyright, is the name of the copyright holder given?

Criterion #2: ACCURACY

1. Are the sources for factual information clearly listed so they can be verified in another source? (If
not, the page may still be useful to you as an example of the ideas of the organization, company, etc.
but it is not useful as a source of factual information).
2. Is the information free of grammatical, spelling, and other typographical errors? (These kinds of
errors not only indicate a lack of quality control, but also can produce inaccurate information).
3. If the page belongs to a company, does the page provide a link to outside sources such as product
reviews or reports filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission that can be used to verify
company claims?
4. For news pages, are there editors monitoring the accuracy of the information being published?
5. For informational pages: is it clear who has the ultimate responsibility for the accuracy of the
content of the material?
6. If there are charts or graphs containing statistical data, are the charts or graphs clearly labeled and
easy to read?

Criterion #3: OBJECTIVITY

1. Are the biases of the organization or individual clearly stated?
2. If there is any advertising on the page, is it separate from the informational or opinion content?
3. Is the company's motivation for the information clear?
4. For news pages, are the editorials and opinion pieces clearly labeled?
5. For informational pages: is the information provided as a public service?
6. Is the information free of advertising?

Criterion #4: CURRENCY

1. Are there dates on the page to indicate
 when the page was written, and/or
 when the page was last revised?

Criterion #5: COVERAGE

1. Is there an indication that the page has been completed and is not still under construction?
2. Is it clear what topics the page intends to address?
3. Does the page succeed in addressing these topics or has something significant been left out?
4. Is the point of view of the organization or company presented in a clear manner with well
supported arguments?
5. For a company:
 Does the page include an adequately detailed description of any product?
 Are all of the company's products described with an adequate level of detail?
 Is the same level of information provided for all sections or divisions of the company?
6. For news pages:
 Is there a link to an informational page that describes the coverage of the source?
  If you are evaluating a newspaper page and there is a print equivalent, is there an indication
of whether the Web coverage is more or less extensive than the print version?
7. For informational pages:
 If there is a print equivalent to the Web page, is there a clear indication of whether the entire
work is available on the Web?
8. If the material is from a work with an expired copyright, has there been an effort to update the
material to make it more current?

PART 2: PLAGIARISM OVERVIEW

Plagiarism is using someone else’s ideas or words without giving them proper credit. Plagiarism can
range from unintentional (forgetting to include a source in a bibliography) to intentional (buying a
paper online, using another writer’s ideas as your own to make your work sound smarter). Beginning
writers and expert writers alike can all plagiarize. Understand that plagiarism is a serious charge in
academia, but also in professional settings.

If you are...
a student — consequences can include failing grades on assignments or classes, academic
probation, and even expulsion.
a researcher — plagiarism can cause a loss of credibility, legal consequences, and other
professional consequences.
an employee in a corporate or similar setting — you can receive a reprimand or lose your job.

It is important to recognize that standards and conventions for citing sources vary from the classroom
to scholarly publishing to the professional sphere, sometimes very widely, but in all situations, we
must attribute other people’s words and ideas to their appropriate source.

Intellectual Challenges in Academic Writing

There are some intellectual challenges that all students are faced with when writing. Sometimes
these challenges can almost seem like contradictions, particularly when addressing them within a
single paper.

For example, teachers often instruct students to:

 Develop a topic based on what has already been said and written, BUT write something new
and original.
 Rely on experts’ and authorities’ opinions BUT build upon and/or disagree with those opinions.
 Give credit to previous researchers BUT make your own significant contribution.
 Improve your English to fit into a discourse community by building upon what you hear and
read BUT use your own words and your own voices.

This may sound confusing, however, something simple to keep in mind when it comes to research is:

You are not reinventing the wheel, you are simply contributing in a significant way. For beginners, this
can be a challenge, but once you start to see that there is a pattern that is unique to you, you will find
that plagiarism is not needed. Remember — your professor or your supervisor want your ideas to
what is already established or familiar and NOT to simply repurpose someone else’s ideas and calling
it your own.
Why is understanding this so important? Plagiarism is not a victimless crime. Someone, including
yourself, will get hurt.

PART 3. PURPOSE OF CITATIONS, WHEN AND WHAT TO CITE

Why Cite?
There are four main reasons:

 To acknowledge the author(s) of the work that you used to write your paper.
 To provide context to your research and demonstrate that your paper is well-researched.
 To allow readers to find the original source and learn more about some aspect that you
mentioned only briefly in the document.
 To enable further research by letting others discover what has already been explored and
written about on a given topic.
What and When to Cite?
You should always cite other people's words, ideas and other intellectual property that you use in
your papers or that influence your ideas. This includes but isn't limited to books, journal articles, web
pages, reports, data, statistics, speeches, lectures, personal interviews, etc. You should cite
whenever you:
 use a direct quote
 paraphrase
 summarize
 use facts or statistics that are relatively less known or relate directly to your argument.

Stable Links
With so many sources available only online, it is important to find the right link to use in your
citations' bibliography/reference list/worked cited.

A stable link is a web address that will consistently point to a specific information source such as an
e-book, an article, a record in the catalog, a video, or a database. A stable link may also be called a
permalink, document URL, persistent URL, or durable URL depending on the resource. You may also
use a DOI (digital object identifier) found in many databases.

When citing online references your citation should look something like this:
Rivera Villegas, Carmen M. "La loca de la casa" de Marta Aponte Alsina: Reinvenciones romanticas
de un canon fundacional.” Confluencia: Revista Hispanica de Cultura y Literatura, vol. 23, no. 1, 2007,
p. 62, www.jstor.org/stable/27923253. Accessed 20 May 2009.

or

Rivera Villegas, Carmen M. "La loca de la casa" de Marta Aponte Alsina: Reinvenciones romanticas
de un canon fundacional.” Confluencia: Revista Hispanica de Cultura y Literatura, vol. 23, no. 1, 2007,
p. 62, JSTOR, doi:10.1353/mfs.1997.0056.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Sometimes people confuse Literature Reviews with Annotated Bibliographies but they are quite
different in format but they are similar in purpose, to survey the literature.

So what is an annotated bibliography? "... is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents.
Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph,
the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and
quality of the sources cited.”

To write a good annotated bibliography you need to be:

 Concise: Get to the point of what the book/article is about, in few words, summarize.
 Evaluative: Determine who is the author, what is his/her expertise in the topic, how
reliable is the information
 Critical: Reflect on what is the strength and weakness of the work, what is missing, etc.
 Comparative: Describe how the book/article compares to other similar works

WHAT IS APA STYLE?

APA Style establishes standards of written communication concerning:
 the organization of content
 writing style
 citing references
 and how to prepare a manuscript for publication in certain disciplines.

WHY USE APA?

Aside from simplifying the work of editors by having everyone use the same format for a given
publication, using APA Style makes it easier for readers to understand a text by providing a familiar
structure they can follow. Abiding by APA's standards as a writer will allow you to:

 provide readers with cues they can use to follow your ideas more efficiently and to locate
information of interest to them
 allow readers to focus more on your ideas by not distracting them with unfamiliar formatting
  and establish your credibility or ethos in the field by demonstrating an awareness of your
audience and their needs as fellow researchers.

WHO SHOULD USE APA?

APA Style provides fairly comprehensive guidelines for writing academic papers regardless of subject
or discipline. However, traditionally, APA is most frequently used by writers and students in:
 Social Sciences, such as Psychology, Linguistics, Sociology, Economics, Education
andCriminology
 Business
 Nursing

If you are a student, consult with an instructor to learn what style your discipline uses before using
APA Style in your work. If APA Style is appropriate for your writing project, use the links below to
learn more about APA and how to follow its rules correctly in your own work

Citation and reference page guideline changes:

 The label “DOI:” is no longer required in online resource/website citations, and DOIs
can now be represented as URLS (htttps://doi.org)

 For an APA in-text citation for a work with three or more authors/contributors, only
write the first author’s name and then include the abbreviation “et al.” for the rest.
Example: (Johnson et al., 2019)

 The label “Retrieved from” no longer needs to come before URLs in an APA website
citation.
  You no longer need to include the location of a source’s publisher.
Example: “Atlanta: Random House” would just become “Random House.”

 The format of an ebook (e.g., Kindle, Nook, etc.) is no longer needed in citations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY/ WORKS CITED/REFERENCES/LIST

All the cited books, periodicals and newspapers, and documents that are used in the preparation of a
research paper are listed separately at the end portion of the paper. Traditionally, this list of sources
of information, when using footnotes, is called BIBLIOGRAPHY, but when using the MLA (Modern
Language Association) citations, this is called WORKS CITED and when using the APA (American
Psychological Society) citations, this is called REFERENCES (Pesirla, 2003).

Persirla (2003) gave the following samples of bibliography using the MLA format of WORKS CITED
and the APA
format of REFERENCES

REFERENCES (APA Format)

Gonzales, A.B., F.S.C. (1985). Bilingual Communities: national/regional profiles and verbal
repertories.
Annual review of applied linguistics, 6
Lingan, A. (1980, May 9). Sociolinguistic survey on the effects of the implementation of bilingual
education in region 11, SY 1979-1980. Annual convention, linguistic society of the Philippines, Manila.

MacFarland, C. (1994). Subgrouping and number of the Philippine languages or how many
languages are there? Philippine journal of linguistics 25, 1-2: 75-84.

Otanes, F. & Sibayan, B. (1969). Language policy survey of the Philippines. Manila: LSC, PNU.

Pascasio, E. (1978, Amy 29-June 3). Where is sociolinguistics now and in the Philippines and what is
its direction?” First Philippine linguistic congress, U.P. Diliman, Quezon City