QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

Quantitative research is a collection and analysis of numerical data to describe,

explain, predict or control phenomena of interest.

- quantitative research approach entails more than just the use of numerical
data.
- State the hypotheses to be examined and specify the research procedures
that will be used to carry out the study.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH METHOD

This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why”
of the research subject.

Descriptive research is an innovative tool for researchers as it presents an

opportunity to fuse both quantitative and qualitative data as a means to reconstruct
the “what is” of a topic.

Descriptive research is commonly used in the social sciences to study

characteristics or phenomena. Also known as statistical research, researchers look
into frequency, average or other qualitative methods to understand a subject that is
being studied.

Definition:

 Descriptive research involves the description, recording, analysis and

interpretation of the present nature, composition or process of phenomena.
The focus on prevailing conditions or how a person or group or thing behaves
or functions in the present. (Manuel and Mede p. 25)

 Descriptive research is fact-finding with adequate interpretation. (Aquino pp.

7-8)

 Descriptive research describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with

conditions of relationships that exist; practices that prevails; beliefs, processes
that are going on; effects that are being felt, or trends that is developing.
(Best)

 Comparison and Contrast involving measurement, classifications,

interpretations and evaluation. (cited by Sanchez, p. 83)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

1. Qualitative or quantitative – descriptive research uses a quantitative research

method by collecting quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis
of the population sample. It also uses qualitative research method to properly
describe the research problem. This is because descriptive research is more
explanatory than exploratory or experimental.
2. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.
3. Uncontrolled variables - none of the variables are influenced in any way. This
uses observational methods to conduct the research. The nature of the
variables is not in the hands on the researcher.
4. Cross-sectional study - different aspects or sections of a single group are
studied and compared to gain a different insight into the group. Comparisons
of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be made to determine their
similarities or differences.

5. The basis for further research - Studies on prevailing conditions may or can
be repeated for purposes of verification and comparison. Study of conditions
at different periods of time may be made and the change or progress that took
place between the periods may be noted or evaluated for any value it gives.

ADVANTAGES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

1. Contributes to the formulation of principle and generalization of behavioral

sciences.
2. Contributes to the establishment of standard norms of conduct, behavior or
performance.
3. Reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that remedial measures may be
instituted.
4. Makes possible the prediction of the future on the basis of findings on
prevailing conditions, correlations, and on the basis of reactions of people
toward certain issues.
5. Gives better and deeper understanding of a phenomenon on the basis of an
in-depth study of the phenomenon.
6. Provides basis for decision-making.
7. Helps in the development of data-gathering devices such as rating scales,
scorecards or schecklist.

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 CATEGORIES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

A. SELF-REPORT RESEARCH

This is the most common method to collect data. Self-report research is when
people respond to questions about themselves regarding a wide variety of issues
such as personality traits, moods, thoughts, attitudes, preferences, and
behaviors.

SURVEY RESEARCH

A survey research design involves collecting data to test hypotheses or to answer

questions about people’s opinion on some topic or issue. It requires the collection
of standardize, quantifiable information from all members of a population sample.

Survey Research Designs

1. Cross-Sectional Surveys

A cross-sectional Survey is one which data are collected from selected

individuals at a single point in time. It is single, stand-alone study. Cross-
sectional designs are effective for providing a snapshot of the current behaviors,
attitudes, and beliefs in a population.

2. Longitudinal Survey

In a longitudinal Survey study, data are collected at two or more times. These
survey extremely useful for studying the dynamics of a topic or issue over time.
Longitudinal studies require an extended commitment by the researcher and the
participant- some difficulties in conducting longitudinal studies include keeping
track of sample members’ willingness to participate in the study.

Four Basic Types of Longitudinal Survey

1. Trend Survey examines changes over time in a particular population defined

by some particular trait, behavior, attitude or beliefs.
2. Cohort Survey involves one population selected at a particular period of time.
3. A panel Survey involves a sample in which the same individuals are studied
over a period of time.
4. A Follow-up Survey addresses development or change in a previously studied
population, some time after the original survey was given.

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CONDUCTING A QUESTIONNAIRE STUDY

A questionnaire is efficient; it requires little time and expense and permits collection
of data from large sample.

Stating the Problem

The problem or topic studied and the contents of the questionnaire must be of
sufficient significance to both to motivate potential respondents to respond and to
justify the research effort in the first place.

Constructing a questionnaire

1. A questionnaire should be attractive, brief, and easy to respond to. No. item
should be included that does not directly relate to the objectives of the study.
2. Structured or closed-ended items should be used if possible because they are
easier for participants to score and analyse.
3. Unstructured item or open-ended questions format, the respondents has a
complete freedom of response.
4. Define or explain ambiguous terms.
5. Include a point of reference to guide respondents in answering questions.
6. Avoid Leading questions which suggest that one response may be more
appropriate than another.
7. Avoid sensitive questions to which the respondent may avoid or not answer
honestly.
8. Include only items related to the study.

Pilot Testing of the Questionnaire

 The questionnaire should be tested by a few respondents who are similar to

those in the sample study.
 Pilot testing the questionnaire provides information about the instrument
deficiencies as well as suggestions for improvement. Omissions of unclear or
irrelevant items should be revised.
 Pilot testing or review by colleagues can provide a measure of content
validity.

Preparing a Cover Letter

Every mailed or emailed questionnaire must be accompanied by a cover letter that

explains what is being asked of the respondent and why.

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Selecting Participants

Participants should be selected using an appropriate sampling technique and

identified participants must be a persons who have the desired information and
willing to give it.
Distributing questionnaires

o Questionnaires are usually distributed via one of five approaches: mail, email,
telephone, personal administration and interview.

Conducting Follow-up Activities

o If your percentage of return is low, the validity of your conclusions may be

weak. An initial follow-up strategy is to simply send a reminder postcard.
o Full-scales follow-up activities, such as sending additional copies of
questionnaire are usually begun shortly after the deadline for responding has
passed.

Dealing with Nonresponse

-Rule of Thumb: Survey Response Rate based on a good sample is 50%.

If your total response is low, you may have a problem with the generalizability of your
results. You should try to determine if the persons who did not respond are similar to
the persons who did not respond by randomly selecting a small subsample of none
respondents and interviewing them either in person or by phone.

Tabulating Questionnaire Responses

 The easiest way to tabulate questionnaire responses is to have participants

mark responses to closed-ended questions on scannable answer sheet.
 The simplest way to present the result is to indicate percentage of
respondents who selected each alternative for each items.
 You can investigate comparisons in your data by examining the responses of
different sub-groups in the sample.
 Many online providers support the development, implementation and analysis
of the survey.

CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW STUDY

The interview is one of the major techniques in gathering data or information. It is

defined as a purposeful face to face relationship between two persons. An interview
is generally a qualitative research technique which involves asking open-ended
questions to converse with respondents and collect elicit data about a subject. The
interviewer in most cases is the subject matter expert who intends to understand
respondent opinions in a well-planned and executed series of questions and

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answers. Interviews are similar to focus groups and surveys when it comes to
garnering information from the target market but are entirely different in their
operation – focus groups are restricted to a small group of 6-10 individuals
whereas surveys are quantitative in nature. Interviews are conducted with a sample
from a population and the key characteristic they exhibit is their conversational tone.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

1. Standardized interview or Structured Interview - Structured interviews are

defined as research tools that are extremely rigid in their operations are
allows very little or no scope of prompting the participants to obtain and
analyze results. It is thus also known as a standardized interview and is
significantly quantitative in its approach. Questions in this interview are pre-
decided according to the required detail of information.
2. Semistructured Interview or Semi-standardized Interview - Semi-structured
interviews offer a considerable amount of leeway to the researcher to probe
the respondents along with maintaining basic interview structure. Even if it is a
guided conversation between researchers and interviewees – an appreciable
flexibility is offered to the researchers. A researcher can be assured that
multiple interview rounds will not be required in the presence of structure in
this type of research interview.
3. Unstructured Interview - Also called as in-depth interviews, unstructured
interviews are usually described as conversations held with a purpose in mind
– to gather data about the research study. These interviews have the least
number of questions as they lean more towards a normal conversation but
with an underlying subject. The main objective of most researchers using
unstructured interviews is to build a bond with the respondents due to which
there are high chances that the respondents will be 100% truthful with their
answers. There are no guidelines for the researchers to follow and so, they
can approach the participants in any ethical manner to gain as much
information as they possibly can for their research topic.

Preparation for Interview

 Choose a setting with the least distraction.

 Explain the purpose of the interview.
 Address terms of confidentiality.
 Explain the format of the interview.
 Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
 Provide contact information of the interviewer.
 Allow interviewee to clarify any doubts about the interview.
 Prepare a method for recording data, e.g., take notes.

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METHODS OF INTERVIEW

Personal Interview

Personal interviews are one of the most used types of interviews, where the
questions are asked personally directly to the respondent. For this, a researcher can
have a guide online surveys to take note of the answers. A researcher can design
his/her survey in such a way that they take notes of the comments or points of view
that stands out from the interviewee.

Telephonic Interview

Telephonic interviews are widely used and easy to combine with online surveys to
carry out research effectively.

Email or Web Interview

Online research is growing more and more because consumers are migrating to a
more virtual world and it is best for each researcher to adapt to this change. The
increase in people with Internet access has made it popular that interviews via email
or web page stand out among the types of interviews most used today. For this
nothing better than an online survey.

B. OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

Observation, as the name implies, is a way of collecting data through observing.

Observation data collection method is classified as a participatory study, because
the researcher has to immerse herself in the setting where her respondents are,
while taking notes and/or recording
Observational research is a social research technique that involves the direct
observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from
experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for
spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of
the experiment.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

1. Participant Observation
2. Nonparticipant Observation

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 3. Meta-Analysis

Participant Observation

The participant observation method, also known as ethnographic research, is when a

sociologist actually becomes a part of the group they are studying in order to  collect
data and understand a social phenomenon or problem. During participant
observation, the researcher works to play two separate roles at the same time:
subjective participant and objective observer. Sometimes, though not always, the
group is aware that the sociologist is studying them.
The goal of participant observation is to gain a deep understanding and familiarity
with a certain group of individuals, their values, beliefs, and way of life. Often the
group in focus is a subculture of a greater society, like a religious, occupational, or
particular community group. To conduct participant observation, the researcher often
lives within the group, becomes a part of it, and lives as a group member for an
extended period of time, allowing them access to the intimate details and goings-on
of the group and their community.

Nonparticipant Observation
When the observer observes the group passively from a distance without
participating in the group activities, it is known as non-participant observation. Here
he does not try to influence them or take part in the group activities.
However, purely non-participant observation is extremely difficult. One cannot
penetrate into the heart of a matter without proper participation in it. One really
cannot imagine a kind of relationship, when the researcher is always present but
never participates. This situation is hardly conducive for both the observer and the
group. A combination of both participant and non-participant method is sometimes
selected.

Meta-Analysis
Meta-analysis is the statistical procedure for combining data from multiple studies.
When the treatment effect (or effect size) is consistent from one study to the next,
meta-analysis can be used to identify this common effect. When the effect varies
from one study to the next, meta-analysis may be used to identify the reason for the
variation.
Why perform a meta-analysis?

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Decisions about the utility of an intervention or the validity of a hypothesis cannot be
based on the results of a single study, because results typically vary from one study
to the next. Rather, a mechanism is needed to synthesize data across studies.
Narrative reviews had been used for this purpose, but the narrative review is largely
subjective (different experts can come to different conclusions) and becomes
impossibly difficult when there are more than a few studies involved. Meta-analysis,
by contrast, applies objective formulas (much as one would apply statistics to data
within a single study), and can be used with any number of studies.
Meta-analysis in applied and basic research
Pharmaceutical companies use meta-analysis to gain approval for new drugs, with
regulatory agencies sometimes requiring a meta-analysis as part of the approval
process. Clinicians and applied researchers in medicine, education, psychology,
criminal justice, and a host of other fields use meta-analysis to determine which
interventions work, and which ones work best. Meta-analysis is also widely used in
basic research to evaluate the evidence in areas as diverse as sociology, social
psychology, sex differences, finance and economics, political science, marketing,
ecology and genetics, among others.

OBSERVATIONAL VARIABLE

Observation variable is anything that can take on different values. A variable refers

to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be
measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being
studied (Creswell, 2007a). Variables are distinguished in two characteristics:
temporal order and their measurement (observation). Temporal order means that
one variable precedes another in time. Because of this time ordering, it is said that
one variable affects or causes another variable, though a more accurate statement
would be that one variable probably causes another.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

1. Independent variables are those that (probably) cause, influence, or affect

outcomes. They are also called treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or
predictor variables.
2. Dependent variables are those that depend on the independent variables;
they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables.
Other names for dependent variables are criterion, outcome, and effect
variables.
3. Intervening or mediating variables stand between the independent and
dependent variables, and they mediate the effects of the independent variable
on the dependent variable. For example, if students do well on are search
methods test (dependent variable), that result may be due to (a) their study
preparation (independent variable) and/or (b) their organization of study ideas

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 into a framework (intervening variable) that influenced their performance on
the test.
4. The mediating variable, the organization of study, stands between the
independent and dependent variables.
5. Moderating variables are new variables constructed by a researcher by taking
one variable and multiplying it by another to determine the joint impact of both
(e. g. age X attitudes toward quality of life). These variables are typically
found in experiments.
6. Controlled variables play an active role in quantitative studies. These are a
special type of independent variable that researchers measure because they
potentially influence the dependent variable.
7. Confounding (or spurious) variable, is not actually measured or observed in a
study. It exists, but its influence cannot be directly detected. Researchers
comment on the influence of confounding variables after the study has been
completed, because these variables may have operated to explain the
relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable, but
they were not or could not be easily assessed (e. g. discriminatory attitudes).

RECORDING OF OBSERVATIONS

Generally, the results of observation should be recorded immediately. Some forms

of recording are as follows:

1. Checklist – a device which contain the items observed and a space for
number or checkmarks or short verbal entries.
2. Rating scales - A checklist with an evaluation standard. Examples are:
Always, Very Often, Often, Usually, Seldom
3. Anecdotal Forms or Records - a checklist that provides for less breakdown of
dimensions or factor hence, much space is provided for writing. It minimizes
the use of highly subjective impressions in recording and obtains description
of behavior.
4. Mechanical Recording - the use of mechanical devices inn observation entails
some expense, but if the observer can afford, it assures more accurate
recording.
5. Steneographic recording - Some observers resort to stenographic recording
when they to record aspects to be observe as fast as they occur.

MAKING OBSERVATIONS MORE VALID AND RELIABLE

Reliability is refers to the consistency of a measure. Although the term reliability is

usually used to refer to instruments and test in quantitative research, researchers
can also consider reliability in their studies, in particular the reliability in techniques
they are using in gathering data. For example, a qualitative researchers examine the
results of their inquiry, they should consider whether data would be collected
consistently if the same techniques were utilized over time. The following must be
consider to make observation more valid and reliable

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 1. Use appropriate observation forms.
2. Record immediately.
3. Be as objective as possible
4. Base evaluation on several observation.

TECHNIQUES OF DECRIPTIVE RESEARCH

SURVEY OR NORMATIVE SURVEY

Survey, otherwise known as normative survey, is a fact-finding study with a

adequate and accurate interpretation. It is used to collect demographic data about
people’s behavior, practices, intentions, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, judgments,
interest, perceptions and the like and then such data are analyzed, organized and
interpreted.

CASE STUDY

Case study is a comprehensive, complete, detailed and in-depth study and analysis
of an individual, institution, group or community. Case study involves a
comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual or group or
situation over a period of time. (Mckee and Robertson, 1975)

A case study is a story about something unique, special, or interesting—stories can

be about individuals, organizations, processes, programs, neighbourhood,
institutions, and even events. The case study gives the story behind the result by
capturing what happened to bring it about, and can be a good opportunity to highlight
a project’s success, or to bring attention to a particular challenge or difficulty in a
project. Cases might be selected because they are highly effective, not effective,
representative, typical, or of special interest.

Process of Case Studies

1. Plan
• Identify stakeholders who will be involved.
• Brainstorm a case study topic, considering types of cases and why they are
unique or of interest.
• Identify what information is needed and from whom (see “What are Potential
Sources of Information?” and “What are the Elements of a Case Study?”).
• Identify any documents needed for review.
• List stakeholders to be interviewed or surveyed (national, facility, and
beneficiary levels) and determine sample if necessary.

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 • Ensure research will follow international and national ethical research
standards, including review by ethical research committees.
2. Develop Instruments
• Develop interview/survey protocols—the rules that guide the administration
and implementation of the interview/survey. Put simply, these are the
instructions that are followed to ensure consistency across interviews/surveys,
and thus increase the reliability of the findings. The following instructions for
the should be included in the protocol:
• What to say to interviewees when setting up the interview/survey;
• What to say to interviewees when beginning the interview/survey, including
ensuring informed consent of the respondent • What to say to respondent in
concluding the interview;
• What to do during the interview
• What to do following the interview
• Develop an interview guide/survey that lists the questions or issues to be
explored and includes an informed consent form. Please note that you will
likely need interview guides/surveys for each group of stakeholders, as
questions may differ. • Where necessary, translate guides into local
languages and test translation

3. Train Data Collectors

 Identify and train data collectors
 Training Tips for Data Collectors
Staff, youth program participants, or professional interviewers may be
involved in data collection. Regardless of what experience data collectors
have, training should include:
• An introduction to the evaluation objectives,
• A review of data collection techniques,
• A thorough review of the data collection items and instruments,
• Practice in the use of the instruments,
•Skill-building exercises on interviewing and interpersonal
communication, and
• Discussion of ethical issues.
4. Collect Data
• Gather all relevant documents.
• Set up interviews/surveys with stakeholders (be sure to explain the purpose,
why the stakeholder has been chosen, and the expected duration).
• Seek informed consent of each respondent (written or documented oral).
Re-explain purpose of interview, why the stakeholder has been chosen,
expected duration of, whether and how the information will be kept
confidential, and the use of a note taker/tape recorder.
• If the respondent has consented, conduct the interview/survey.

5. Analyze Data

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 • Review all relevant documents.
• Review all interview/survey data.

6. Disseminate Findings
• Write report (see “What are the Elements of a Case Study?”).
• Solicit feedback.
• Revise
• Disseminate

ELEMENTS OF A CASE STUDY

1. The Problem
a. Identify the problem
b. Explain why the problem is important
c. How was the problem identified?
d. Was the process for identifying the problem effective?
2. Steps taken to address the problem
3. Results
4. Challenges and how they were met
5. Beyond Results
6. Lessons Learned

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content Analysis as a research technique deals with documentary materials that are
already existing and available.

Three different definition of content analysis are provided below.

 Definition 1: “Any technique for making inferences by systematically and

objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.” (from Holsti, 1968)
 Definition 2: “An interpretive and naturalistic approach. It is both observational
and narrative in nature and relies less on the experimental elements normally
associated with scientific research (reliability, validity and generalizability)
(from Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry, 1994-
2012).
 Definition 3: “A research technique for the objective, systematic and
quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.” (from
Berelson, 1952)

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Steps in Content Analysis

1. Recognizing the problem

2. Forming hypotheses
3. Doing library research
4. Designing the study
5. Developing the instrument

Uses of Content Analysis

 Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group

or institution
 Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications
 Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups
 Reveal international differences in communication content
 Reveal patterns in communication content
 Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch
 Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to complement
quantitative data

REFERENCES:

BOOKS

Jose F. Calderon Ed.D., Expectacion C.Gonzales (1993), Methods of Research

and Thesis Writing, page 61to 83

Gay,L.R., Mills, Geoffrey E, Airasian, Peter (2012), Educational Research,

Competencies for Analysis and Applications 10 th Edition, page 183-200, 319-340

WEBSITES

Descriptive Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods (formpl.us)

Observational Research - Definition, Methods & Examples | ATLAS.ti
Qualitative Research Pros & Cons (synonym.com)
Types and Methods of Interviews in Research | QuestionPro
Observational Research – Research Methods in Psychology (pressbooks.pub)
Participant Observation -- Definition (thoughtco.com)
Why Perform a Meta-Analysis (meta-analysis.com)

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