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Notes

Objectives

36.1 Radiations and Radioactivity decay

RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION

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In the previous lesson we have discussed the harmful effects of some heavy metals and how to
reduce these effects. In this lesson we will discuss about the radiations which are the
cause of radioactive pollution. These radiations are emitted by radioactive decay of
unstable heavy atoms nuclei. Exposure of these radiations can cause damage to living
cells and environment.
Concern for radioactive pollution increased after the discovery of artificial radioactivity,
development of nuclear weapons and installation of nuclear reactors for generating
electricity. In this lesson, we shall discuss the possible threat to human health and
environment due to nuclear radiations both from natural and anthropogenic (man-made)
sources. Methods for the safe disposal of nuclear waste materials will also be discussed.

After reading this lesson, you will be able to :

 list various radioactive sources;
 account for the release of radioactive products resulting from nuclear waste and
nuclear accidents;
 enumerate the ill-effects of radioactive radiation on human body;
 list the various preventive measures of radioactive pollution and
 list the various regulations regarding safety measures for radiation exposure.

Radiation is energy travelling through space. Energy can be transported either in form of
electromagnetic waves (radiations) or a stream of energetic particles, which can be
electrically charged or neutral.
These radiations are of two types :
(1) Non-ionizing radiations
(2) Ionizing radiations

Non-ionizing radiations are the electromagnetic waves of longer wavelength from near
ultraviolet rays to radiowaves. These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms
and molecules of the medium through which they are moving, causing them to vibrate
faster. These do not have enough energy to ionize them.

Ionizing radiations are the electromagnetic radiations having high energy, such as short
wavelength ultra violet radiations, x-rays and gamma rays. The energetic rays like (, 
and  etc.) produced in radiocative decay can cause ionization of atoms and molecules
of the medium through which they pass and convert them into charged ions.
For example in water molecule, it can induce reaction that can break bonds in proteins,
DNA and or other importants molecules.

Alpha (), beta () and gamma () radiations are produced by the process called
radioactive decay. The unstable nuclei decay spontaneously and emit these radiations.
These rays (radiations) can affect
5436.2 Radioactive Pollution and their Sources
 OPTIONAL MODULE - 1 Environmental Chemistry
some other
non-radioactive atoms to become radioactive (unstable) and give out radioactive radiations.

Living organisms are continuously exposed to a variety of radiations called background radiations.
If the level of the radioactive radiations increases above a certain limit it causes harmful effects to
living beings. This harmful level of radiations emitted by radioactive elements is called radioactive
pollution.
There are two sources of radiation pollution, namely natural sources and arthropogenic sources.

36.2.1 Natural Sources of Radiation

(i) Atomic radioactive minerals are one of natural sources of radioactive pollution.During mining
of uranium, radon gas is constantly released into the air. The parent of radon222 (t ½ = 3.82 days)
is radium 226 which has a half-life of 1602 years. Radium-226 is widely distributed in rocks,
sediments and soils along with isotopes of uranium. Radioactive radiations from these natural
sources are known as natural or background radiation.

(ii) Cosmic rays are high energy ionizing electromagnetic radiation. The cosmic rays originate from
the stars in our galaxy by virtue of nuclear reactions primarily in their cores. The cosmic rays
are constantly reaching the earth from outer space.

(iii) Naturally occurring radioisotopes such as radon-222 found in soil in small quantity is another
source of radioactive radiations.

(iv) Radioactive elements which like uranium, thorium, radium, isotopes of potassium (K-40) and
carbon (C-40) occur in the lithosphere.Potassium-40 contributes radioactivity to all potassium
containing systems in the soil. Crops grown on such soil contain radioactive elements like
carbon-14 and potassium-40. Water gets contaminated with various radionuclides
when it runs through soils and rocks containing radioactive minerals.
We live in an environment of natural radiations there is a certain amount of radioactive
radiations almost everywhere on the earth. These are only rarely harmful as the
radiation level is generally quite low. This small level of radioactive radiation which is
present everywhere is called the background radiation.

36.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Radiation

The following human activites add to the source of radioactive pollution:

(i) Diagnostic medical applications : Radiations are employed for diagnostic and Notes
therapeutic applications. X-rays are used in general radiology and CT scan.
Gamma rays are used in treatment of cancer. In all these procedures we are
exposed to varying doses of radiations.

(ii) Nuclear Tests : Nuclear explosion tests especially when carried out in the
atmosphere are a major cause of radiation pollution. It is responsible for
increasing the background level of radiation throughout the world. During
atmospheric nuclear explosion tests, a number of long-lived radionuclides are
released into the atmosphere. This radioactive dust (also known as radioactive
fall out) gets suspended in air at a height of 6 to 7 km above the earth’s surface
and is dispersed over long distances by winds from the test site. These

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radionuclides often settle down by rain and get mixed with soil and water. From there they can
easily enter the food chain and finally get deposited in the human body where they cause
serious health hazards. Some of the radioactive isotopes given off during nuclear
test affect the human body.
India exploded its nuclear device (equivalent to 12 kilotons of Tri Nitro Toluene) in
an underground tunnel at a depth of 107 meters in the Thar desert near Pokharan in
1974. No radioactivity is said to have been released into the surroundings. Again in
May, 1998 India conducted nuclear tests without any fall out of radioactivity into
the surroundings.

(iii) Nuclear Reactors : Radiations may leak from nuclear reactors and other nuclear
facilities even when they are operating normally. It is often feared that even with
the best design, proper handling and techniques, some radioactivity is routinely
released into the air and water.
However, dangers of radiation leakage are from possibility of accidents that could result
in the release of radioactive material which raises the level of radioactive (ionizing)
radiations. Such accidents took place at the ‘Chernobyl nuclear power plant’ in USSR in
1986 and at the ‘Three Mile Island Power Plant’ in USA in 1979.
The accidents of ‘Three Mile Island’ plant in Middletown (U.S.A.) in 1979 and at
Chernobyl
nuclear power plant (U.S.S.R.) in 1986 were the worst disasters in the history of nuclear
power industry. In both incidents, a series of mishaps and errors resulted in the
overheating of the nuclear core. In both cases radiation was released in the atmosphere.
The leakage from the ‘Three Mile Island’ nuclear reactor has been claimed to be very
low with no
immediate injuries to workers or people. But the leakage at Chernobyl was very heavy
causing death to many workers and radiation was spread over large areas spread all over
Europe.
Nuclear fission converts some tadioactive fuel in the reactors to some other radioactive
fragments. These reactions produce a lot of heat and therefore the core of the reactor
containing fuel rods cooled by water circulation to avoid a meltdown of the fuel rods. If
a meltdown happens by accident, it will release a large quantities of highly dangerous
radioactive materials into the environment. In order to avoid this type of very serious
mishap nuclear reactors are designed to have a number of safety features and it is very
unlikely that a reactor would blow up.
Although a core meltdown is highly unlikely, but it is possible. For example, the loss of
coolant due to some material failure, would allow the reactor core to overheat and
eventually meltdown the fuel rods. Another possibility is the build up of some gas or
steam inside the reactor vessel which would blow off the top and release large clouds of
radioactive materials in the atmosphere resulting in death and injury to thousands of
people.

(iv) Nuclear explosions : Nuclear explosions are a serious source of radiations hazard.
The effects of atomic explosions in Nagasaki and Hiroshima are still not forgotten.

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(v) Nucle
ar Wastes
When uranium-235 nuclei split in a nuclear reactor, they break into fission products

235U  01n14156Ba  9236Kr 310n  Energy

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which are also highly radioactive.Since one uranium atom splits into two radioactive products,
there is a doubling of the number of radioactive atoms on the earth. Furthermore. uranium-235
has a half-life of more than 700 million years. Some of its fission products have shorter half-
lives and decompose much faster than uranium and emit higher levels of radiations. There is no
method by which we can increase or decrease the rate of decay of these products. The wastes of
nuclear reactor emit dangerous radiations for thousands and thousands of years. Since it is not
possible to destroy these radionuclides, they must be stored somewhere on this earth in order to
ensure least harm to humans.
Plutonium-239 is another nuclear waste. The plutonium-239 isotope is produced as a by-product
during uranium fission. It is an alpha particle emitter and has a long half-life of 24000 years.
After about 1000 years or more, the main radioactivity from fuel rods of the nuclear reactors
will be from plutonium and other such heavy elements, since by then most of the other nuclides
produced in fission and having much shorter half-life will have decayed to a large extent.
Plutonium is one of the deadliest poisons known. Plutonium does not occur naturally on earth.
This element is produced either in nuclear reactors or in nuclear weapons programme. The
plutonium produced today will have to be taken care of for thousands of years by future
generations. The general approach in dealing with radioactive wastes is to concentrate and
contain as much radioactivity as possible. Effluents containing only very low level of
radioactivity are allowed to be discharged into the environment.
Radon can diffuse through rocks and soils into the atmosphere. Once the radon reaches the
atmosphere it can be breathed in. The transformation into lead is very significant because the
solid radioactive particles are trapped in the lungs and are acutely harmful.

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Table
36.1 :Effects of
Type of radiation Effect on the body radioactive
radiation on
-particles Generally they cannot penetrate the skin. But living beings
if their sources is inside the body, they can
cause damage to bones or lungs. The biological
damage
-particles Can penetrate the skin but cannot damage the
caused by the
tissues. They can cause damage to skin and
eyes (cataract). radiation
depends upon
-radiation Can easily penetrate the body and pass through the following
it. They cause damage to cell structure. factors :

X-rays (i) Can travel very far and pass through the body the time of
tissues except bones. They can cause damage exposure
to the cells.
(ii) the intensity of
radiation
36.4 Radiation Doses and Radiation Effects
(iii) the type of ionizing radiation (i.e. its
penetration power)
(iv) whether the radiation is emanating from outside or inside the human
body.
On account of these factors the absorbed (or simply doses dose) designated
as D, of the radiation to be the amount of energy deposited into a region of
the body divided by the mass of the portion of the body that absorbed the
radiation.
The MKS unit of absorbed dose is ‘gray’ (Gy), thus one gray is one joule of
energy
deposited per kg of mass. More traditional unit of absorbed doses is
radiation absorbed dose (rad). One rad is equivalent to 0.01 Gy.
Biological damage caused by a particle depends not only on the total energy
deposited but also on the rate of energy loss per unit distance traversed by
the particle. For example, alpha particles do much more damage per unit
energy deposited than do electron (-particles). This effect is represented
by the quality factor Q taken 0 for electron and 20 for alpha particle.
The biological impact is specified by the human equivalent dose H, which
is the product of the absorbed dose D and the quality factor Q : H = QD.
The MKS unit of the human equivalent dose is called the sievert, Sv.
A traditional unit of human equivalent dose is the rem, which stands for
radiation equivalent in man, 1 rem = 0.01 Sv.
At low doses such as what we receive every day from background radiation
(< 1m rem), the cells repairs the damage rapidly, At higher doses (upto 100
rem), the cell might not be able to repair the damage, the cell may either be

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changed permanently or die. Cells changed permanently may go on produce abnormal cells when
they divide and may become canerous.
Table 36.1 shows the effects of different radiations on the body. These radiations reach
human system from natural and anthropogenic sources.

Alpha () and beta () particles can cause burns to skin on high level of exposure from
outside but they cannot penetrate the skin to cause internal damage. However, if a
radioactive isotope which can emit alpha or beta particles is inhaled or ingested in the body the
particles can then cause serious damage to nearby tissues. They may affect the Notes
replication of cells and induce tumor formation. The damage inside the body from beta
particles is lower than that from the alpha particles of the same energy. Gamma ( )
rays and high energy neutrons are so much penetrating that they pass through the body
easily and can cause cellular damage both from outside or inside the body.
Rapidly growing tissues of embryo are very sensitive and therefore pregnant women
should avoid exposure to radioactivity andX-rays unless they are very essential.
Although the medical use of X-rays may involve very low levels of radiation but even
such exposures if carried out frequently can result in a significant increase in the dose
of ionizing radiation and involves definite risks. The use of radio-isotopes and gamma
ray irradiation for cancer treatment can lead to fairly high dosages of radioactivity.
An increase in the altitude, where an individual lives determines the dose received from
cosmic radiation. For example, an increase in an altitude of 2000 meters doubles the
dose of radiation due to cosmic rays from outer space. The effect of radiation may be
immediate or delayed.

Intext Questions 36.2

1. What is radiation absorbed dose (rad)?
...................................................................................................................................
2. What as the effect of radiations on human body?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What are the factors or which the biological damage by radioactive radiations depends?
...................................................................................................................................

36.5 Preventive Measures from Nuclear Radiation

The following preventive measures my be adopted to reduce the effects due to both natural
and artificial radiations:
(i) Atomic explosions should not be carried out in the atmosphere.
(ii) In nuclear reactors, closed cycle coolant system may be employed, so that no
radiation leakage through coolant can take place.

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(iii) Radioactive wastes generated by nuclear reactors or from nuclear weapons
programme must be disposed in a manner that they will do the least harm. First,
the wastes may be stored at some place temporarily to allow for the initial, very
intense, radioactivity to die down by natural decay. Nuclear wastes should
always be sealed
in double-walled tanks so that no leaks may take place. In the second stage,
some useful isotopes generated during fission in the reactors may be recycled in
reprocessing plants. Finally, a permanent storage space for the wastes in
geologically stable underground deep mines should be established It has been
suggested that these wastes may be stored till the wastes are reduced to the same
radioactivity level as that of a natural uranium mine.
(iv) Production and use of radioisotopes should be minimum and only for very
essential use because radioisotopes once produced cannot be destroyed by any
means except
Notes by the passage of time.
(v) The number of nuclear installations should be minimised so as to limit the
emission of radio-pollutants.
(vi) Fission reactions should be minimized.
(vii) In nuclear mines, wet drilling may be used and tailings properly sealed and
protected for radiation leakage.
(viii) Industrial wastes contaminated with radionuclides be disposed off carefully in
specially built tanks.
(ix) Working places where radioactive emissions are possible should have high
chimneys and good ventillation system.
(x) In areas where there is a risk of radon leakage from underground. radon
concentrations be monitored and protection measures be installed in buildings and
homes.

36.6 Regulations Regarding Safety Measures

The executive agency for all activities related to atomic anergy is Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) which was established in 1954. The sites for nuclear
installations are chosen with safety parameters in view. A number of physical barriers
are designed which checks any significant escape of radiation from the reactor. The
radiation dosage received by workers are monitored on a monthly basis. The Atomic
Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) has fixed the dose limit to 30 millisievert (mSv) for
workers. This is in agreement with the limit set up by International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP).
The atomic Energy Regulatory Board, an autonomous body of Atomic Energy
Commission, carries out all regulatory and safety functions as envisaged under the
Atomic Energy Act, 1962 covering all establishments of Department of Atomic Energy.
It is also empowered to take decision with regard to site selection, design, construction
and commissioning, operation, etc. of all nuclear installations.

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Intext Questions 36.3
1. How the radioactive waste management should be done?
...................................................................................................................................
2. How can we safeguard ourselves from radiation originating from
tailings?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What the dose limit is
fixed for the workers of
nuclear installations?
What You Have Learnt
...................................................................................................................................
• Nuclear radiations are emitted in the atmosphere through natural sources and man
made sources.

• Radiations due to natural sources are due to uranium and other radioactive
elements which occur in nature and on disintegration may yield other radioactive
isotopes. The prominent amongst them is radon-222 gas.  Man-made sources of Notes
radiation include :
(i) medical diagnostic tests using radioisotopes
(ii) nuclear tests conducted in the atmosphere
(iii) nuclear reactors for research and power
(iv) nuclear accidents
(v) nuclear explosion
(vi) nuclear waste
(vii) production and handling of nuclear material.

• Ionising radiations can cause mild to very serious effects on the health of humans
on exposure and may even lead to death. Some ill effects continue to pass on to
future generations.

• Various steps have been suggested by

which radiation leakage can be
Terminal Exercise minimized.

1. Do the cosmic rays act as radioactive pollutant?

2. Which type of radiations are damaging for human health?

3. Define the term ‘Background Radiation’?

4. What are the different man-made sources of radiation pollution?

5. What are the effects of ionizing radiation on human health?

6. What are the preventive measures for radiations?

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Answers to Intext Questions
36.1
1. These are the electromagnetic radiations of short wavelength or
charged particles (like  and -particles) which can cause ionization
of atoms or molecules.
2. Weathering of minerals, cosmic rays from outer space, radioactive
elements occurring in nature. (Any two)
3. Nuclear waste, nuclear reactors, nuclear accidents.
4. The accident of ‘three mile Island’ in Middle Town (U.S.A) in 1979
and at Chernobyl nuclear power plant (U.S.S.R) in 1986.
5. Uranium-235 splits into two fission products with the production of
three neutrons and lot of energy. The split products are also
radioactive. The reaction is known as a nuclear fission reaction.

U  01n14156Ba  9236Kr 310n  Energy

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36.2
1. Radiation absorbed dose (rad) is the unit of adsorbed dose. It is defined
as the amount of energy deposited into a region of the body divided by
the mass of the portion of the body that absorbed the radiations.

2. Both the effects are observed on human body : (i) gentic and (ii) non-
genetic (body damgage). In genertic effects are observed in offsprings.
In non-genetic effects harms are visible as burns, miscarriages,
leukemia, cancer, etc.

3. Biological damage by radiatins depends upon :

(i) the time of exposure;
(ii) the intensity of radiation;
(iii) the type of ionizing radiations and
(iv) radiations emanating from outside or inside of body.

36.3
1. Radioactive waste should be disposed of properly and storing should be
done carefully in double walled tanks, storing of these waste should be
done till it comes to its natural level of radioactivity.

2. Refer to section 36.5.

3. Dose limit fixed for workers is 30 m Sv.

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