15.8 Teachers' Manual For Freehand Drawing in Intermediate Schools

&.
x mm
TEACHERS’ MANUAL
FOR
FREEHAND DRAWING
IN
'
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS.
BY
Prof. WALTER SMITH,
State Director of Art Education for Massachusetts.
maaui Curves . 133

'
Intended to accompa-"'
PART II.
AUCTION 153
.METgv, Conventionalization, and Repetition. . . 161
«)NVE]J^50NALIZATION AND APPLIED DESIGN . . . .175

Conventionalization, Historical Ornament, &c. . . .189
Object Drawing and Historical Forms .: ... 200
Decorative Art.— Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Moresque

Styles 224
PART III.
Model and Object Drawing. — Its General Features

and Principles explained . .241 . . . . .
Exercises in Model and Object Drawing .269 . . .

'
vs';, •
2683042
CONTENTS,
PART I.
page
Introduction . 5
General Directions, and Principles and Methods of

teaching Drawing
Straight Lines defined. — How to draw them. — Judging
Distances .
Straight Lines combined. — Angles. — Triangles. —Quad

rilaterals. — Polygons
Right Line Geometrical Designs
Plane Curves and Plane Curved Figures. — Designs com
posed of Straight and Curved Lines ....
Reversed Curves, and Applications. — Abstract Curves
PART II.
Introduction
Symmetry, Conventionalization, and Repetition
Conventionalization and Applied Design
Conventionalization, Historical Ornament, &c.
Object Drawing and Historical Forms . :
Decorative Art.— Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Moresque

Styles 224
PART III.
Model and Object Drawing. — Its General Features

and Principles explained . .241
. . . . .
)
Exercises in Model and Object Drawing .269 . . .
'
vVi .
2683042
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The size and arrangement of the books belonging

to this Intermediate Course are such, it is believed,
that the transition from slate-work to drawing in
the book will not prove difficult for the young
learner. If he has, during the Primary Course
of cards and slates, drawn somewhat on practice-
paper, then he will be, in a measure, prepared for
the severer exactions of drawing systematically on
paper in a book.
Even the smallest pupils can easily handle the
Intermediate drawing-books, the size so well adapting
the books to their hands and desks. Then the earlier
exercises require the drawing of no long lines. As
a part, too, of these exercises have been taken from
the cards, in order to graduate the difficulties in the
transition from slate- work to books, the pupil is not
obliged to learn, at the same time, both the manipu-
lation of new material, and the drawing of new
forms. But, after a little, the exercises are almost
wholly different from those on the cards, even when
they illustrate the same principles of design ;
while,
as facility in the use of the pencil is gained by
practice, the drawings are required to be done on a
§
6 TEACHERS' MANUAL.
much larger scale, for the purpose of more fully

testing and training the powers of the learner.
THE FIRST BOOK.

The first book, after attending to the drawing of
straight lines, to their division, and to the judging
of distances, concerns itself with plane geometrical
figures, with geometrical patterns, or designs, for
woven fabrics, for covering surfaces, for borders and
mouldings, and with objects produced b} the potter, r
the silversmith, and the like. The principles of

design, as thus applied., were touched upon in the
Primary Course, but are more fully explained in this
Manual.
The drawing-book, which goes into the hands of
the pupil, contains copies illustrating all the princi-
ples explained in the Manual, which is specially
designed for the teacher. Some of the copies the
pupil is to reproduce of the same size ;
but others
to enlarge, that he may thus be trained in pro-
portional enlargement. Then the Manual contains a
great number of additional copies for dictation and
blackboard lessons, — the latter to teach proportional
reduction, as the pupil must reproduce them in his
book on a much' smaller scale ;
the former to serve
for reviews, for developing the imagination, and for
training the pupil to close attention. From time to
time the pupil is draw a form from
also required to
memory. Finally, he must quite often produce an
original design according to the principles he has
been taught, —-best of all proofs that the principles
—
INTRODUCTION. 7
are understood, and that the knowledge acquired is
of real worth. Thus the learner, from these five
different modes of drawing, cannot fail to obtain a

varied and most valuable discipline. The same
features are adhered to throughout the three books.
The paper required for the blackboard, dictation,
and memory exercises, and for the original designs,
is afforded b} the blank pages found in each of the
7
books. Detailed directions are given for filling each

blank page.
THE SECOND BOOK.

The second book, after a fuller explanation than
is given in the Primary Course, of conventional
forms and of the principles of design, as derived
from nature, and employed in decoration, takes up
historic ornament, —
takes it up in such a way that
the learner acquires a clear notion of what is meant
by style , a matter of prime importance in art educa-
tion. Some of the leading features which charac-
terize the three ancient styles of decorative art,
Eg} ptian, Greek, Roman,
T
— and distinguish them
from one another, are pointed out and illustrated.
Something is also said of the Moresque.
There is nothing in all this, when properly done,
beyond the ready comprehension of the young
learner. Indeed, he can as well be made acquainted
with the forms, the thoughts, and the principles
which the ancients embodied in their decorative art,
as with their religious myths, their heroic legends,
and military exploits. Even the little that is here
'
given will enable the learner to discriminate, in
8 TEACHERS' MANUAL.
several important features, between the three historic

styles named, and to make original designs charac-
teristic of either, instead of mingling their features
in one nondescript mass, a thing which has been
not infrequently done by practical designers. With
these three ancient styles is laid the foundation for
the study of all T
st3 les, ancient, mediaeval, and
modern. Unless we possess a knowledge of what
has been done, and how it has been done, we cannot
work intelligently or with confidence in any new
direction, in developing a new style.
THE THIRD BOOK.

The third book is devoted mainly to model and
object drawing. Up to this point the pupil has
dealt with only two dimensions, — length and breadth.
He now begins to draw models and objects perspec-
tively, representing their three dimensions, — length,
breadth, and thickness. If he simply reproduces the
copies in the drawing-book, then it will still be flat
drawing, and not drawing from the solid. The

copies must be used, when properly used, in connec-
tion with models and objects such as the pub-
lishers of this system of drawing have had made to
accompany the books. By using, at first, both flat
copies,and solid models and objects, the former to —
show what should be the appearance of the latter
when properly drawn, —
the pupil more readily ap-
prehends the principles which he must observe in
-representing solids. Thus the difficulties are gradu-
ated both for him and for the teacher. But his
work is not confined to a reproduction, with the aid
INTRODUCTION. 9
of models and objects, of the given flat copies : on

the blank pages he is to make drawings of models
and objects, the same as already used, but placed in
different positions, or of other solids, artificial or
natural. This will be drawing from the solid, pure
and simple.
The models and objects to be drawn consist of
regular geometrical solids, or they have marked
geometrical features. As the learner who pursues
this system begins, in flat drawing, with plane
geometrical figures, followed by forms having
marked geometrical outlines, so he proceeds in a
similar manner when he begins to draw from the
solid. Thus he takes the regular before the irregu-
lar, the simple before the complex. Unless he can
first properly draw regular geometrical solids, he
should by no means be set at work upon natural or
artificial objects, whose general forms are pretty
certain to be geometrical, to which are added nume-
rous irregular details. The irregular details are
more difficult to draw than the regular general
forms, yet are of no consequence, unless the latter
are correctly rendered. The best possible introduc-
tion to drawing from nature and from the human
figure is the model and object drawing here de-
scribed.
This whole course of drawing, from the primary
school onwards, is based upon geometry ;
b}T which
it is not simply meant that the pupil is to draw
plane and solid geometrical figures as exercises in
themselves, but is drawn to regular
to refer all things
geometrical forms. Nature follows such forms in
0
1 TEA CEERS ’
MAN UAL .
all her works, and so does man, either wittingly or

unwittingly, in all that he constructs. The percep-
tion of these general forms greatly assists in drawing
the specific forms with all their variable details.
The most successful art instruction, whether an in-
dustrial or a purely aesthetic result was sought, has
always proceeded upon this geometrical basis.
The drawing from models and objects in this
Intermediate Course is all outline. There is no
shading to consume the time, and waste the energies,
of the pupils. A dozen objects can be drawn in
outline, where a single object can be drawn and
properly shaded. No amount of shading can make
a good drawing, when the outline is defective. The
outline is of the first importance. Therefore, until
solids can be readily represented in outline, it is
worse than useless to attempt light and shade.

Everywhere good instruction recognizes this fact
in the education of young children.
Freehand drawing from the solid requires some
knowledge of the principles of perspective. The
little that is required in this Intermediate Course
can be easily illustrated, and is of such simple char-

acter, that quite young pupils can master it without
much difficulty. Faithful instruction on the part of
the teacher, with the flat copies and models and
objects combined, will soon enable the pupils to
work understanding^ and with good effect. It will
be seen that circular forms are taken before rectan-

gular forms, because they involve less of perspec-
tive difficulties, and are usually more pleasing for
children to draw.
INTRODUCTION. 11
CHARACTER OF THE MODELS AND OBJECTS.

One of the educational ends to be attained by
drawing from the solid is the development of the
imagination, the training of the pupil to “ see in

space,” as it is termed, — to make a clear mental
image of a solid, with its lines all in their right
positions. The great value of this power is unques-
tionable and no other study is so well calculated
;
to develop it as model and object drawing. Now,

so far as this development of the imagination is
concerned, it matters little whether the forms of the
models and objects be graceful or homely. But as
the development of the taste, of the power to dis-
criminate between that which is beautiful and that
which is not, must never be overlooked in drawing,
itbecomes absolutely essential that the models and

objects, like the prints, which are placed before the
pupils, should be of the most beautiful character
possible. The taste cannot be developed, while the
eyes are always looking at things that have no
beaut}’.
THE PRIMARY COURSE REVIEWED.

The first two Intermediate books review the
Primary Course. The}' do much more than this,
indeed. The third book deals with features almost
wholly new. Hence those who have never drawn
at all, but are old enough to draw in a book, can
begin with the Intermediate Course. They will lose
nothing in the way of principles, but will need to
work much harder. Thus there are two places where
12 TEACHERS' MANUAL.
pupils, according to age, can begin this system of

drawing : the}- can begin with the Primary cards or
with the Intermediate drawing-books.
GRADATION.
One of the marked features of this course of draw-
ing is its logical and systematic gradation from the
primary to the high school. As it is a comprehensive
course, embracing five general departments, — Flat
Outline Drawing and Designing (freehand), Model
and Object Drawing (freehand) Plane Geometrical,
Drawing (instrumental), Perspective Drawing (in-

strumental), Mechanical Projection and Working-
Drawings (instrumental), —
the gradation is de-
termined, (1) by the relation which these general
departments bear to one another (2) by the relation
;
which the leading features and minor details of each

department bear to one another (3) by the difficulties
;
which the principles present to the understanding (4) ;
by the quality of the manual execution demanded at

different stages of progress. The whole arrangement
is believed to be according to reason and the best I
experience.
But it is impossible to judge it correctly from I
any one feature alone. Thus, to say that the

gradation is bad, because many of the exercises
in the Intermediate books are no more difficult to
draw than others on the Primary cards, simply shows
an ignorance of one of the things —
the quality of
the manual execution at different stages of progress
— which have had an influence in determining the
gradation. In the Intermediate Course the drawings
INTRODUCTION. 13
are to be much better executed than in the Primary

Course. It is deemed of chief importance that the
general features of the gradation be right : errors of
detail, indeed, there should not be ;
but they are of
secondary consequence.
In a certain sense, even the Primary Course is com-
plete by itself ;
that is, the pupil who goes no farther
acquires a good amount of clear-cut knowledge of
drawing and design, which, taken alone, is both
available and useful. The same may be said of the
Intermediate Course, and of the Grammar Course, —
said with more emphasis. This results from the
fact that the gradation is, in a measure, according
to cycles, and not wholly on a straight line.
CERTAIN FEATURES WHICH CHARACTERIZE

THE INSTRUCTION.
There is no inculcation of arbitrary processes,
with the claim that they are the best for all pupils, and
under all circumstances. Those methods are pre-

ferred which the experience of the practical draughts-
man has shown to be best. Precedence is always
given to knowledge, and not to manual execution.
The teacher who has, at the end, nothing to show but
finely drawn lines, has given poor instruction. His
class should be able to sustain a thorough examina-
tion, based on the principles which the Manual so
fully explains, and which he should impart to his
class as they proceed with their drawings. Again :
it is regarded as a matter of vital importance, that

the pupils, from the outset, and always, draw with con-
siderable rapidity, though they draw rudely other- :
wise spirit and boldness, as well as knowledge, will

be sacrificed to delicate, laborious finish. This is
the rule of the best schools.
IMPROPER USE OF THE BLACKBOARD.

The
uses which can be properly made, and should
be made, of the blackboard in teaching drawing are
described in the body of the Manual ;
but nothing
,
is said of the improper use to which the blackboard
is often put, where the nature of drawing is not well
understood. We refer to its employment simply for
the purpose of providing the pupils with copies,
while they are drawing in blank drawing-books.
Now, there are three serious objections to this :
—
1. As one of the leading objects to be attained
by drawing is development of the taste, and as this
cannot be developed unless the pupils are provided
with beautiful copies and objects to draw (the more
beautiful the better) ,
it becomes absolutely essential
for every teacher of drawing, who is obliged to
work without beautiful printed copies in the hands
of his pupils, to be an expert draughtsman, or he
cannot provide on the blackboard copies having
the requisite beauty for even the most elementary
instruction. Now, drawing in the public schools
must be mainly taught by the regular teachers, or not
taught at all. Most of these teachers are not expert
draughtsmen, and so cannot teach without printed
copies but, with such copies in the hands of their
;
can do good work, and do it easily.

pupils, they
2. if the regular teachers were all expert
But, even
draughtsmen, it would still be insufficient. In the
INTRODUCTION. 15
first place, they would have neither the time nor the
strength to make ,
all the drawings required. In the
second place, even if the drawings were beautifully
made on the blackboard, it would not suffice for the
development of taste in class instruction. Only the

four or five pupils who might chance to sit directly
in front of the blackboard drawing would get a
proper view of it all the others would look at it
:
more or less obliquely and so for them nearly every

;
line would be distorted, the whole figure losing its

beauty, and becoming a teacher of ugliness. There-
fore, all good schools of art, where class instruction
is given, prohibit the use both of the blackboard
and of wall-charts, if the purpose is simply to provide
the pupils with drawing-copies.
As a rule, the amount of time spent by the teacher
at the blackboard in general explanation and sketch-
ing should not exceed one-tenth of the whole time
given to a lesson. The remaining nine-tenths should
be devoted to the individual instruction of the pupils.
-This precludes the average teacher from making
beautiful drawings on the blackboard, which, as
already stated, are not necessary when the pupils
are provided with accurately drawn copies in their
books before them. Indeed, it cannot be too often
repeated, that the blackboard should only be used to
explain principles, and to illustrate right and wrong
methods of work. Its use for pictorial purposes is
always to be avoided.
3. Every methodical person will perceive, at a
glance, that it is impossible suitably to grade the

instruction in drawing, and make it effective, without
— ;
jA
16 - TEACHERS' MANUAL.
a suitable series of text-books. When such books

are lacking, there will be waste of effort on the part
of teachers, waste of time on the part of pupils, and
good results here and there only by chance.
DRAWING MATERIAL, AND ITS CARE.
In addition to suitable books and models, the

pupils should be provided with the best of pencils
and rubbers. The best work cannot be done with' ;
poor materials. The best pencil is the cheapest. |
No instruments are needed for this Intermediate

Course, beyond a cheap rule, such as the school-
square prepared for this purpose by the author.
Books, pencils, and rubbers should be in charge of
the teacher, when the drawing lesson is not in prog-
ress. The pencils should all be carefully sharpened
by some one appointed to do this work between the
lessons and the rubbers should be examined as to
;
their cleanliness, a thin shaving being removed from

their surface, if that is found to be dirty. Not more
than one minute should ever be consumed in distrib-
uting or collecting the books, pencils, and rubbers
for a class of forty.
THIS MANUAL.
The teacher will find in this Manual all needed

explanation of principles and of methods of work.
The drawings have a black background, as when
drawn on the blackboard, where the teacher, for one
purpose or another, will have occasion to draw
. ;
TNTROD TJCTION. 17
many of them. The drawings are small ;

but they
will serve just as well the purpose for which the
Manual is intended ;
that is, to aid the teacher in
the instruction of pupils who use the drawing-books
containing larger copies. It is expected that the
teacher will thoroughly instruct his pupils in the
methods of work, in the definitions of terms, and in
the principles of design, which are given in the
Manual, —a thing that cannot be done without
frequent reviews.
INSTRUCTION BY THE REGULAR TEACHERS.

If the introduction of drawing into the public
schools is and successful, it must
to be at all speedy
be taught in the ungraded schools, and in the graded
schools below the high, by the regular teachers
that is, by the teachers who give instruction in the
other branches. Except where the departmental
plan is adopted, it is now the custom for a single
teacher to attend to several things at the same time,
— to reading, arithmetic, geography, grammar, for
example. As it is not deemed necessary, certainly
is not deemed practicable, to have special teachers
for instructing pupils inany of these studies so it ;
is no more necessary or practicable to have special

teachers to instruct the pupils in drawing. There
may, indeed, be special teachers to instruct the
regular teachers, and to inspect their work ;
but
the latter must, and they can best, instruct the
pupils.
Elementary drawing, when treated in a rational,
systematic manner, is one of the easiest and one of
2
the most delightful things to teach children. This

is the almost universal testimony of those who have
fairly tested the matter. But it can be successfully
introduced into the public schools only upon certain
conditions. Like other studies, it must be made
compulsory, and not be left to the decision of the
teacher and pupil. There must be examination and
promotion, as in other branches.Both the practical
and educational value of drawing entitle it to such
treatment, which every one considers essential to
success in all other studies.
Satisfactory results in drawing are no more de-
pendent upon special artistic gifts on the part of
the pupils, than satisfactoiy results in arithmetic
are dependent upon special mathematical gifts.
It is only necessary that the pupils set about the

study of drawing as the}' set about the study of
arithmetic, geography, grammar. Nor are special
gifts requiredon the part of the teacher. It is by
no means imperative that he should be an expert
with the pencil or crayon in order to teach with
success elementary drawing, as presented in this
system ;
but he should be a good teacher in general,
well acquainted with the best,principles and methods
of instruction. It is presubaed that every regular
teacher possesses this general knowledge, to which,
with a reasonable amount of effort, the special
knowledge demanded by elementary drawing can
soon be added.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS, AND PRINCIPLES AND

METHODS OF TEACHING DRAWING.
Pupils who have drawn on the slate only, and

have learned to do quite good work with that, are
first attempts at drawing
often discouraged by their
on paper. due to difference in material
This is
used. Yet pupils who have used the cards of the

Primary Course, drawing on the slate, possess a
decided advantage over those, who, never having
drawn at all, begin at this stage with paper. The
advantage consists partly in manual skill, but much
more in the training which the eye has received,
in a knowledge of how to go to work, and in a knowl-
edge of the principles of drawing and of design.
Economizing Instruction.
When pupils of these-two grades are thrown to-

gether in the same school, they can be taught draw-
ing together, though at some disadvantage. As
you never expect all^the members of a class to show
equal proficiency in any other study, so never look
for it in drawing. Unless, therefore, the differences
in attainment be very marked, require all the pupils
in the school, not only to execute the same drawing
19
20 TEACHERS MAN UAL. ’
at the same time, but require them, when you give

the description, to execute the same part at the
same time. By thus keeping the pupils together,
you will be able to teach all at once, instead of
teaching each separate^, and so will economize
instruction. But you must, of course, give each
more or less of individual attention, as opportunity
serves ;
while each should be required, at regular
intervals, to draw on the blackboard on a large
scale, for such practice is productive of that freedom
which should be obtained from freehand drawing.
Those who draw badly under this class treatment,
nevertheless, can be made to draw rapidty, which, in
itself, is a thing of prime importance from the out-
set of one’s drawing career. Fineness of execution

comes with practice it should never be made the
:
leading feature when one is beginning to draw. If

it is, then those much more valuable features —
freedom, spirit, knowledge are usually rendered —
subordinate, the final result being lifeless art and a
slow workman. Keep it, indeed, always in mind,
that drawing, when properly taught, is much more
an exhibition of knowledge than of mere dexterity
in the use of the pencil.
Body. — Hand. — Pencil. — Book.

There is no one way in which it is always best to
sit, to place the hand, hold the pencil, and keep the
book. As a rule, it may be assumed that the pupil
who takes an interest in his work, and is anxious to
do it, will be likely, influenced by this feeling,
to put his body in the position that will best enable

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 21
him to do as his mind desires. There can be given,

however, a few useful general directions.
Whatever the position of the body, it should al-
ways be easy and healthy, the eye never any nearer
the paper than is essential for a clear view of the
lines. Neither the arm nor the fingers should be
constrained or cramped, but at all times perfectly
free, that the pencil may be readily moved, and the
drawing continued for hours, if necessary, without
special fatigue of the muscles. The pencil should
be held with the fingers about an inch and a half
from the point. The smaller the pupils, however,
the nearer the point of the pencil should the fingers
come thus accommodating the pencil to the fingers.
;
For a horizontal line, hold the pencil as a pen is

usually held in writing ;
for all other lines, change
its position as required in order to draw the differ-
ent lines with ease. When lining in a drawing, hold

it more nearly upright than when making the sketch.
As a rule, the book should lie square in front of
the pupil, whether he sits directly facing the desk, or
not, —a matter to be determined by comfort, —
since that position of the book affords a better view
of the drawing than one gets when the book is partly
turned. There must, however, always be an un-
obstructed view of the space where the line is to be
drawn. This is a prime condition, which can be
secured in two ways by changing the position of
:
the hand and pencil, as already recommended, or by

turning the book. It takes more time, and is more
trouble, to do the latter than the former and so the ;
former, when it will answer the purpose, is to be

preferred. But, when you are drawing a curve line,

the concave, and not the convex side should be
towards the hand ;
for this affords much the best
view of the line. In order to have it thus, turn
the book if necessary. There is no other time when
it is decidedly best to turn the book simply for the
purpose of drawing a line, since we soon learn to

draw lines readily in different directions by so draw-
ing them. If, however, any pupil fails to acquire
such power after a reasonable amount of practice,
permit him to turn his book as he chooses.
While, as a rule, the book need not be turned
simply for the purpose of drawing lines in different
directions, yet it should be turned in order to
examine and correct a drawing at different stages in
it's progress since errors can be more easily dis-
;
covered when the drawing is viewed on all sides.

For the purpose of examination, it is best to hold a
drawing vertically before the e} e, and far enough T
off -to afford a good view of the whole at once.

tendency of }'Oung pupils, at first, to turn
It is the
their books when they need not that is, to turn them
;
for the purpose of drawing all lines one way, hori-

zontally for example. At the same time the}' neg-
lect to turn them when they should that ;
is, for the
purpose of deliberately, critically viewing the draw-
ing on all sides, in order to detect errors.
There should be nothing arbitral')' about the
methods of the schoolroom they should, in a word,
:
be those which the practical draughtsman has found

it best to employ in the execution of his work, those
which will enable the pupils to execute their draw-

ings with the greatest ease and rapidity according to

the nature of the work to be done.
Lines of Different Lengths.
Length of line is a thing always to be con-

sidered. Long and short lines cannot be drawn
with ease in the same manner ;
but it is impossi-
ble to indicate just the length of line that can be
best drawn in one way, and just the length of line
that can be best drawn in another way. This
much may be said, however, with advantage to the
learner :
—
Draw the shortest lines with a movement of the
fingers alone ;
the next longer with a movement of
the hand at the wrist ;
the next with a movement
of the forearm at the elbow ;
the next with a move-
ment of the whole arm. When drawing very long
horizontal lines on the blackboard, carry thebody
forward with the hand. When
drawing vertical
lines on the blackboard, stand far enough from the
board to allow the extended arm to drop easily
downwards. Thus we have five movements the :
finger, hand, forearm, whole arm, and body move-

ments. At the outset the pupils need to be in-
structed quite carefully in these movements : after
a little they will employ, even without thought, just
the right movement for each line.
Trial Lines. — Sketching. — Lining in. — Erasing.

Commence to draw a line by making it so faint
that it can just be seen. This trial line may be
continuous or discontinuous. If it is found to be in

the wrong position, then, without erasing, draw a
second similar faint and a third, and a fourth,
line,
if necessary. When, you have a trial line

at last,
in the right position, finish it by going over it again
— —
;
and drawing it dark not black, but gray and of

the required thickness .
1
Now,-rind not before, erase

the erroneous lines. Sometimes, however, when the
lines are numerous, it is well to erase the erroneous
ones in part, if not wholly, before finishing, or
“lining in” as it is called. Again: if the trial
lines have been made a little too dark, use the rub-
ber freely before lining in, rendering the lines just
visible, as the drawing can then be more readily and
neatly finished.
If it is a combination of lines that is to be drawn,
as in the case of a design, draw all the lines faint
before making any one heavy, thus producing what
is called a sketch. Having got a satisfactory
sketch, line in, that is, finish the whole in a line of
the requisite character. When this has been done,
use the rubber freely, and thus give the drawing a
clean appearance. With practice the pupils will
consume less and less time in making the prelimi-
nary sketch, and, after a while, will often be able to
execute their drawings without many erasures.
Teachers sometimes find, that, if they permit their
pupils to erase erroneous lines, man } 7
will draw so
heedlessly that they will consume a large part of
their time in erasing. The result is, of course,
very slow drawing, and not necessarily good. So
they prohibit all erasing whatever, preferring to
take the first line sketched ;

or, permitting a second
to be sketched, have the better one lined in, with no
erasure of the other line. The whole figure is left
as thus drawn. If your pupils make an injudicious
use of the rubber, give them this heroic treatment
for a season, when they will learn that only thought-
ful drawing can be rapid and good drawing.
If you permit erasing, always see that the rubber
has a straight and clean edge before the lesson
begins, and that the pupil does not moisten and soil
this edge by holding the rubber in his hand while
drawing. If he does, then he will make dirty work
of his erasing. Look carefully after this matter.
Delicacy of Touch. — Firmness of Line.
When your pupils begin to draw on paper, one of

the first things they need carefully to cultivate is
delicacy of touch. The inexperienced are apt to

make their first lines altogether too heavy, and so,
if they are -wrong, much time is lost in erasing,
while the appearance of the drawing-book is marred.
Then, too, the point of the pencil is frequently bro-
ken off. On a slate such lines are less objection-
able, since they can be readily removed.
Do not mistake the application of what is said
about delicacy of touch. It does not mean that
such a touch is specially needed to produce delicate
lines when you are finishing a drawing
it means, :
rather, that needed to produce the first lines,

it is
which constitute the sketch, and which should be

drawn so faintly as to be just fairly visible. When
the drawing is lined in, finished, then the line should
always be firm and not weak, bold and not waver-

ing and timid. A firm, bold line can be had only
when the pupil knows just what he is to do, and
then firmly and boldly does it. Look well after
this.
In order to secure this firmness and boldness of

line, which is of so great value, some of the best
schools of art require their students to begin to
draw with charcoal. But this is found impracticable
when children are to be taught in class. They can
manage the lead pencil much more easily, and secure
much better results. Require your pupils constantly
to act upon the suggestion here given, and not waste
their efforts in trying to secure a fine, delicate result
when lining in their work, instead of that which is
firm and bold, even though it may be somewhat
rough.
Management of the Eye.
Do not look directly at the point of the pencil

when drawing an original line, as you look at the
point of the pen when writing. With inexperienced
pupils there is a tendency to keep the eye fixed upon
the point of the pencil ;
and so you must instruct
them otherwise. Not onl} are there different varie-
T
ties of lines, but, when they are drawn freehand, it

is commonly under one of three conditions, each of
which demands a somewhat different management

of the eye.
1. When a line is to be drawn to hit a given
point, as is usually the case, keep this point always
in view, or you can never know whither you are
going. Imitate the carpenter, who does not look

at his hammer, but at the head of the nail he
desires to hit. So far as possible, keep the whole
space where the line is to be drawn, with the point
to be hit, in the field of vision at the same time.
2. When a line is to be drawn without reference
to hitting a given point, keep the whole line, as it
is drawn, in view. In this way mistakes can be

prevented, which is much better than correcting
them after they have been made.
3. When one line is to bedrawn parallel to an-
other, keep both lines — the drawn and the line
line
being drawn —
in view at the same time. By practice
you will learn how to do this.
These directions hold good only when you are
drawing a line for the first time, not when finishing
a line already faintly drawn. In the latter case the
eye accompanies the point of the pencil.
Rate of Motion of the Pencil.

The motion of the pencil may be as rapid as the
eye can distinguish clearly ;
but it should not be
more rapid, for then the line will be right only by
chance. Hand and eye must always work together,
the latter directing the former. Again, the motion
should always be steady, uniform, from the begin-
ning of the line to its end, never hesitating or jerky.
Give particular attention to this matter, observing
how each pupil handles his pencil.
It is expected that these general directions will
be given to the pupils, not all at once, but as re-
quired, and that they will be repeated until the
::
pupils have learned to follow them from habit

when a certain way of thinking or doing has be-
come a habit, then, indeed, it is thoroughly mas-
tered, and not before. Be very watchful of T
3 our
pupils when they begin and keep them, if
to draw,
possible, from acquiring any bad habit, which they
must afterwards unlearn. To unlearn is the hardest
sort of learning.
A Clear Understanding of Technical Terms.
Perhaps it may be thought, as you advance, that

undue stress, for drawing, is laid upon the definition
of technical terms. But the work of the teacher is
at all times twofold, — to impart positive knowl-
edge, and to train the mind. Even if we regard
only the first, we find, that the clearer the under-
standing which the learner has of the limitations
of the terms used in any study, — arithmetic,
in
grammar, drawing, for example, — the more readily
he will master the study. Without this clear under-
standing, his knowledge must always be vague, un-
certain. If we regard the second, we find that the
habit of loose learning, instead of the habit of
critical discrimination, once acquired, hinders him
in all his other studies, plagues all his subsequent
life.
All technical terms do not present the same ob-

stacles to the learner. To make a comparison
The technical terms of grammar seldom or never
have clear-cut limitations when applied, but are
subject to numerous exceptions : again, it is diffi-
cult, or quite impossible, to exemplify them with

ocular illustrations ;
and so, never becoming other
than mere abstractions of the mind, it is exceeding-
ly hard for young learners to comprehend and apply
them. Now, just the reverse is true of the greater
part of the many technical terms employed in draw-
ing. They are clear-cut in their limitations they ;
can be exemplified b} ocular illustrations, and so do

T
not remain mere abstractions of the mind : hence,

quite young pupils, when taught in the right way,
come quickly to understand their proper use.
Ocular and Verbal Instruction.
For all, but especially for children, ocular illus-
tration is vety much better than verbal explanation.

Remember this in your attempts to teach children
the exact force of the technical terms used in
drawing. It is far from enough for them to learn
the definitions of these terms by heart, and to repeat
them glibly. This most children can easily do, with-
out understanding one of the terms : it is only what
so frequently happens in the case of geograph} ,
arithmetic, grammar. The pupils must see the defi-

nitions illustrated again and again : they will then
understand them ;
and, provided they do clearly
understand them, it is of little consequence whether
they can repeat them word for word.
Learning by Use.
We best learn the use of words by using them,

and so make no attempt to avoid the use of technical
words when they would be appropriate. Do not, for

example, use “ level” for “ horizontal,” “ upright”
for “ vertical,” with the thought that your pupils will
more readily comprehend what they are doing, if it
is described by the former words instead of the lat-
ter. Repeated use will make the latter, and all

technical terms, just as expressive as any possible
substitutes, just as instantaneously suggestive to
the child-mind, while they commonly have the ad-
vantage of meaning one thing only. Expect of your
pupils, at all times, correct usage of terms.
The two principal objections that will be made,
if an}' are made, against carefully teaching the tech-
nical terms of drawing, are these: 1. They are
hard to understand. This objection will be founded

on the erroneous belief that the length of a word, or
the infrequency of its use, makes its meaning hard
to understand. —a thing which depends wholly on the
meaning itself, as it is not a question of mouth, but
of mind. Thus the meaning of the word “ wheelbar-
row,” with all its length, is as easily comprehended
as the meaning of the word “cart;” while it is in-

comparably more difficult for a child to understand the
meaning of the word “ verb,” because it is a mere
abstraction, than of the word “ circumference,”
which can be fully exemplified by ocular illustration.
2. These terms will not often he used even if under-
,
stood ; more popular though less exact words being sub-

stituted for them. But this is a good reason why they
should be thoroughly taught in school, since there
are many occasions, out of school as well as in, when
their employment becomes absolutely essential.
Looking Beyond To-day.
In each study the earliest things even should be

be taught with reference to all there is to follow,
also with reference to the bearing upon other
branches of knowledge. The teacher who fails to
look beyond just what he is doing to-day must ever

fail to give the best instruction. It is in drawing,
perhaps, earlier than in any other study, that chil-
dren can be reasonably required to consider the
exact force and limitation of words. See, therefore,
that your pupils, in the outset of their drawing
career, acquire, if possible, a habit of critical verbal
discrimination, —a habit that will be of so much
value to them, not only in the subsequent stages of
drawing, but in all other studies. Aside from this
habit, the exactknowledge itself of many of the
terms employed in drawing will also be of use in
various other studies, especially in those based upon
geometry, because drawing, when taught according
to the plan followed in this system, is itself based
upon geometry.
Misjudging the Capacity of Children.
When we find that children learn certain things

with great difficult}7 , we are too apt to conclude,
without trial, that they cannot learn certain other
things any better, if at all. In the first case the
things to be learnedma} not be adapted to the age
r
or natural development of the children, and so can-

not be easily learned ;
but, in the latter case, the
opposite may be true, and so, upon trial, the learn-
(
ing would be found easy. Not having duly medi-

tated upon the “fitness of things,” we judge that
failure at one point argues failure at all points.
Thus, for example, when man}’ children find it
a tedious task, as they do, to master the alphabet,

with its arbitrary forms and names, all meaningless
to them, it is concluded that they cannot profitably
use their eyes in the study of botany even, nor
profitably use both hands and eyes in the study of
drawing. The children having grown somewhat
older, the technical terms, the logical abstractions,
of grammar, not at all adapted to their age or nat-
ural development, confuse and confound them ;
and
so it is concluded they can do no better with the
definitions belonging to any other study, however
unlike grammar. It may be that they fail, when
beginning to draw, to niake beautiful lines and so ;
it is concluded they will never do well in any de-
partment of drawing, although success in some of

the departments, as in original design, one of the
most valuable, depends very little upon expert use
of the pencil. Thus, by judging from failure in one
direction, we are too apt to underrate the capacity
of children in other directions.
Seeing and Doing.
First of all things children love to see and to do.

Drawing is both seeing and doing : hence, in its
earlier stages, it is better adapted than almost any

other study to immature minds. At the outset it
makes very slight demand upon the reasoning pow-

;
ers : there is no call for connected chains of thought

while the peculiar force of the technical terms which
itemploys can be exemplified by ocular illustrations,
and thus the eye be made to help the mind.
It is hoped that the points presented in this little
discourse upon the great art of teaching will be
remembered and practised through all the stages of
drawing.
Dictation, Blackboard, and Memory Lessons. — Pre-

liminary Analysis. — Original Design.
Further along, as you have occasion to give your

pupils dictation, blackboard, and memory lessons,
these lessons, which constitute important features
in this course of drawing, will be duly explained.
Explanation will also be given of preliminary analy-
sis, and of the different progressive steps to be taken
for training your pupils in original design.
Use of this Manual.
Unless you are already familiar with drawing,

and have also had much experience in teaching
it, your success will depend almost wholly upon
a proper use of this Manual. Before beginning to
instruct a class, go through it, if possible, by your-
self, carefully studying the text, and executing the
drawings, part on the blackboard, part in the draw-
ing-books. With the difficulties and the capabilities
of each, you will have thus familiarized yourself
somewhat before beginning class-instruction. If
you have not time to do so much, then keep
3
ahead of your pupils as far as you can, and be sure

to draw the lesson for the day two or three times
before taking the class in hand. These drawings,
for preparation, may be rudely and quickly done,
but should be done exactly in accordance with the
printed directions, unless you can improve upon
them.
Before your class begin to draw, read to them the
directions which go with the copies in their books.
Read these directions slowly, and at each step re-
quest each member of the class to raise his hand,
thus signifying that he perceives in the drawing-book
beforehim what it is that he is required to do.
When you have finished the description, call upon
some one of the class to repeat it, looking at the
drawing in his book. See that all the class follow
him, to discover if he makes a mistake. If he does
make a mistake, request the one who discovers it to
continue the description. And so on until the de-
scription has been finished. When you are satisfied
that the class understand the figure to be drawn,
proceed to draw They are now wide awake and
it. ;
they have learned so much about the drawing to be

executed that they will save, in its execution, much
more time than has been thus expended, while they
will have been taught to deliberate upon what they
are about to do which is one of the best of lessons,
;
and one of the hardest for children, young or old, to

learn well.
Carefully study the questions at the end of each
chapter ;
for they refer to the principal points which
have been explained in the chapter. They indicate
the general character of the questions which you

should put to your pupils every day, and which they
should be able to answer understandingly when they
have completed their drawing-books.
Questions. — What is said of teaching pupils together!*

Of drawing rapidly ? Of the position of the body ? Of the
position of the pencil? Of turning the hand? Of turning
the book ? Describe the five movements for drawing lines of
|
j
different lengths. What is said of delicacy of touch? Of
j
firmness of line ? Of sketching and lining in ? Of using the
rubber ? Of the management of the eye in drawing different
lines ? Of the motion of the pencil ? Of the use of technical
terms? Of ocular and verbal instruction? Of learning the
I
meaning of words by using them ? Of critical verbal discrim-
ination? Of misjudging the capacity of children? Of seeing
and doing? Of the use of the Manual? Of teaching pupils
the steps to be taken before they begin to draw a copy ?
CHAPTER II.
STRAIGHT LINES DEFINED. -HOW TO DRAW

THEM.- JUDGING DISTANCES.
Every department of learning employs certain
terms and they must be clearly understood, or sat-
;
isfactory progress cannot be made in mastering that

to which they relate. Some of these terms not only
have their strictly technical meaning, but popular
usage also gives them a meaning somewhat differ-
ent. Between the two we must learn to distinguish
with the utmost precision. Unless your pupils learn
to do this in drawing, they will fail, to say nothing
of other loss, in two of the best things, — prelimi-
nary analysis of forms to be drawn, and dictation
lessons.
A Point. — Lines. — Surfaces. — Solids.

which follow by drawings
Illustrate the definitions
on the blackboard, and by all other available means.
Require your pupils not only to repeat the defini-
tions, but, above all, to illustrate them. Do not
dwell upon them long at any one time but, as you ;
advance through the book, often turn back to them,

by way of review.
A Point. — A point is position only: therefore it
has no length breadth or thickness.

, ,
LINES DEFINED. 37
This is a scientific definition, but is as readily

comprehended by a child as by a philosopher. It is
common usage to speak of the point of a pencil,

and to call a dot a point, though both have size.
They may be regarded as indicating points.
A Line. —A line has length ,

hut no breadth or
thickness.
Think of a point as moving, and its path will

form a line. In common usage, the mark made by
the point of a pencil is called a line ;
but this has
breadth, and so does not conform to the scientific
definition.
Lines are right or straight, as 1 ;
curved, as 2
and broken, as 3. Straight
lines are horizontal, oblique,
or vertical. Curved lines are
circular, elliptical, &c. Lines
are said to be continuous, as
1 and 2 ;
or discontinuous, as
4. Two lines are said to be
parallel, when they lie side
by and have the same
side,
I
direction as 1 and 1, 2 and 2. They are, therefore,

;
at the same distance apart throughout their whole

length. It will be seen that a broken line consists
of a series of lines, united, but having different
directions.
Surface. —Space enclosed by lines is called sur-

face: it has ,
therefore ,
length and breadth but no ,
thickness.
Think of a line as moving sidewise, and its path

will form a surface. Illustrate by using a piece of
wire, straight or curved, to represent a line mov- ;
ing it sidewise through the air. The surface may

be a plane, to all parts of which a straight rule can
be applied exactly ;
or it may be concave, that is,
hollow like the inside of a bowl ;

or convex, that is,
bulging like the outside of a bowl or ball.

With a rectangular piece of stiff paper, or card-
board, you can illustrate the three definitions which
have been given. The angles, or corners, where the
edges meet, will represent points; the edges them-
selves will represent lines; and the surface of the
paper will show what is meant by a, plane.
A Solid. — Space enclosed by surfaces is called a
solid : it has length breadth and thickness.
, ,
Observe that the word “ solid,” as thus defined, has

no reference whatever to hardness, as it has in pop-
ular usage, but only to magnitude, volume, capacity.
Different varieties of the solid will be described to-
wards the end of this Intermediate Course.
Thus there is (1) the point which has no dimen- ,
sion (2) the Zme, which has one dimension, length

; ;
(3) surface which is bounded by lines, and has two

,
dimensions, length and breadth ; (4) the solid which

,
is bounded by surfaces, and has three dimensions,

length, breadth, height or depth. All these things
can be illustrated with a cube.
A Horizontal Line.
It has already been said that there are three kinds

of straight lines, — horizontal, vertical, and oblique.
HORIZONTAL LINES. 39
A Horizontal Line. — A horizontal line is a straight

line which inclines neither up nor down.
A line is said to be horizontal when every part

of it has the same level. The floor of the school-
room is horizontal ;
that is, level. A line either
straight or crooked, drawn in any direction on a
level floor, is horizontal in an absolute sense, be-
cause the floor on which it is drawn is horizontal.
But in general usage, and in drawing, the terms hor-
izontal, vertical, oblique, are applied only to straight
lines as drawn on an upright even surface, like that
of a blackboard, against the wall of the schoolroom.
Therefore, when drawing in the drawing-book,
imagine it to be in the position, not of the floor, but
of an upright blackboard, the upper edge of the
book representing the upper edge of the blackboard.
A line on the blackboard is said to be horizontal
when it runs right and left, keeping the same level
throughout its whole length. A line in the drawing-
book is said to be horizontal when it has the same
direction as the upper edge of the book.
Lines may usually be regarded and described in
four ways. 1. According to their general appear-
ance they are straight, curved, broken, continuous,
or discontinuous. 2. According to the relation they
bear to one another they are perpendicular, oblique,
or parallel. 3. According to their position with
reference to the centre of the earth they are horizon-
tal, vertical, or oblique. 4. The definitions may be
modified somewhat, according to the surface upon
which the lines are drawn.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE I.
Horizontal Lines.
Directions. — Here we have six horizontal lines to be drawn

in a given space, and at the
same distance apart. On the
left-hand side of the space, make
six dots, just large enough to he
seen, to indicate the left ends of
the required lines. Since all the
lines are to be drawn
horizontal
and parallel, no points are needed
at the right. Beginning at the
points on the left, first draw faint
trial lines. When these faint lines
have been got in the right posi-
tion, and of the right length, line them Do not wet the
in.
pencil, else the lines, which should be gray, will be too black.
Endeavor to make the lines of uniform thickness.
These horizontal lines cannot be drawn to fill the allotted
space in the drawing-book by the use of the fingers alone.
To draw them with ease, the smaller pupils will need to use
the forearm and all will need to move the hand.
;
The teacher should draw on the blackboard to illustrate,

while the pupils draw in the books.
When drawing horizontal lines, hold the pencil as

a pen is usually held, with the arm close to the side
of the body. When finishing a line, hold the pencil
more nearly upright than when first drawing the line
faintly. In this way uniform thickness can be more
readily secured. See that the line isfirm and bold.
As the pencil-point grows blunt, making the last
lines thicker than the first, rub the sides of the lead
point on a piece of paper, which should always be
kept at hand for this purpose.
VERTICAL LINES. 41
A Vertical Line.
A Vertical Line .
—A vertical line is a straight
line which extends up and down and does not incline
,
in any direction.
All vertical lines have the same direction, as do

all horizontal lines. But this must be understood
as only practically true, — true when the lines are
drawn on the black-board or on paper, and not true
absolutely.
A vertical line, as truly indicated by a cord with a
weight suspended from the lower end, while the
upper is held in the hand, always points directly to
the centre of the earth.No two absolutely vertical
have exactly the same direction.
lines can, therefore,
There must be a minute difference, however near to
each other they may be drawn. The farther apart
they are drawn, the greater must be the differ-
ence in direction. Suppose a vertical line, drawn
at one place, to be continued to the earth’s cen-
tre then suppose a similar line to be drawn at
;
another place, one-quarter of the wa} T

round the
earth from the first place : these two lines would
meet each other at the centre of the earth, just as
two pins stuck into an orange in the same manner
would meet at the centre of the orange. Illustrate,
and thus give a lesson in geography, as well as in
drawing.
A line in the drawing-book is said to be vertical,
when it has the same direction as the right-hand
edge of the book, let the position of the book be
what it may.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE II.
Vertical Lines.
Directions. — At the top of the given space in the drawing-

book, make six very small dots,
equidistant, to indicate the upper
ends of the required vertical
lines. Draw downwards, begin-
ning with the line farthest to
the left. In order to draw the
lines easily, throw the elbow out
from the side, and turn the hand
somewhat. The larger pupils can
draw the lines with the hand
movement, but better with use of
the forearm.
Having drawn the lines, divide five of them as indicated,
— the second line from the left into halves, the next into
thirds, the next into fourths, the next into fifths, and the last
into sixths. The division of a line into thirds is more difficult
than the division into halves or fourths. To divide a line
into four equal parts, first divide it into two equal parts, and
then each of these into two equal parts. To divide a line into
six equal parts, first divide it into two equal parts, and then
each of these into three equal parts.
Proceed in like manner when a larger number of

equal parts is required. If it is a composite num-
ber, as, nine, twelve, fifteen, begin with the largest
divisions that the case will admit, as, halves, thirds,
fifths, and then subdivide these until the required
number of equal parts has been obtained. Thus,
for twelve equal parts, first divide the line into
halves, and then each half into halves, giving fourths,
and, lastly, each fourth into thirds, giving twelfths.
If the number of parts required is prime, as, five,
OBLIQUE LINES. 43
seven, eleven, this process cannot be followed :

you
must then begin one end of the line. Frequently
at
ask your pupils how they would divide a line into
a certain number of equal parts ;
as, ten, fifteen,
eighteen, twenty-four. This will be a good exercise

in arithmetic, as well as in drawing.
An Oblique Line.
An Oblique Line. — An oblique line is a straight

line which inclines more or less.
All horizontal and vertical lines, as drawn on

the blackboard or on paper, have the same direc-
tion ;
but all oblique lines have not, since the de-
grees of inclination are numberless. All straight
lines drawn in the drawing-book, and not parallel
to either edge, are to be regarded as oblique lines.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE III.
Oblique Lines.
Directions. — To draw these eleven oblique lines, first

make seven dots, at equal distances
apart, on the left side of the given
space, and six additional dots at
the bottom, to indicate the start-
ing-points. Beginning at these
points, draw very faint lines up-
wards ;
the longest first, and all
the others parallel to that. This
properly done, finish the lines,
commencing at the upper left-
hand corner. If you commence
at the lower right-hand corner,
then you will be apt, while drawing the last lines, to rub the
first-drawn lines, and so soil the paper.
The lines forming this exercise, when drawn in the allotted
space in the book, call for the finger and hand movements
alone, unless the pupils are quite small, when they will need
to make some use of the forearm in order to draw the longer
lines with ease,
When lining in, — that is finishing drawing after

it has been sketched in light line, — observe this
general rule : Work rather from the left towards the
right, than from the right towards the left, unless
you draw with the left hand, when the reverse would
be better and work rather from the top towards the
;
bottom, than from the bottom towards the top.

When drawing oblique lines that incline to the
right, as do the ones in this exercise, place the elbow
away from the body, turn the hand somewhat, and
begin at the lower ends of the lines. When drawing
oblique lines that incline to the left, place the elbow
still farther from the body, turn the hand, 'turn the —
bod}' also, if necessary, in order to draw with ease, —
and begin at the upper ends of the lines. You need
not turn the book, as you can soon learn to draw
such lines without doing so, and thus will save time
afterwards.
If you find, however, after a fair trial, that an}’ of
your pupils cannot draw w'ell and rapidly the differ-
ent kinds of straight lines without turning their

books, then permit them to turn the books, provided
the}' can thus draw their lines, better and quicker.
It is only a question of time and ease, remember.
Judging Distances.
This is a matter of importance ;

and you should
frequently exercise your pupils in dividing lines
JUDGING DISTANCES. 45
drawn on their slates or” on paper, and also longer

linesdrawn on the blackboard. There are two
ways :
—
The first will teach the pupils to judge of com-
parative distances ;
that is, to determine one distance
by comparing it with another. Exercise No. 2
illustrated this, since the several parts of the di-
vided line were to be made equal by comparing one
with another. The second will teach the pupils to
judge of definite distances ;
that is, to determine
when a line is one inch long, three inches, a foot, &c.
After the lines have been divided by judgment of
eye alone, require your pupils to test their work with
the square, that the exact amount of error may be as-
certained. In the second case, especially, this must
be done since no progress can be made in acquiring
;
power to judge of definite distances, without a final

appeal to a fixed standard. This appeal is best
made by actual measurement. do not
Briefly, then,
first divide the line by aid of the square, but by judg-
ment of eye alone : use the square to test and correct
the divisions.
When any thing of importance depends on the
line being of definite length, imitate the draughts-
man, and use the scale at once. It is for the teacher,
however, to consider, first of all, educational results.
The must be trained to judge distances, propor-
e}T e
tions and the scale should be employed only when

;
it helps to give this training. Thus to train the eye

is vastly more important, as school- work, than to
get the drawing of right proportions in the least

possible time.
In judging distances along a given line, the eye

is influenced somewhat by position. Thus a verti-
cal line will appear shorter than a horizontal line
of the same length. It will be well to remember
this.
The following modes of procedure will be found

useful in training the eye to judge distances. Others
can be readily devised.
Directions. — 1. Draw on
the blackboard two parallel
horizontal lines of the same length. Divide the upper one,
by judgment of eye, into any number of equal parts as, two,
;
three, four, eight, ten. Divide the lower one, by aid of a

scale, into the same number of equal parts. The two can
thus be compared.
2. Draw on the blackboard two parallel horizontal lines of
the same length. Beginning at the left, divide the upper

line, by judgment of eye, into feet. Then, with- a rule, begin-
ning also at the left, divide the lower line into feet. Compare
the results of the two divisions.
3. Draw on the blackboard two parallel horizontal lines of
equal length. Beginning at the left end of the upper line,

mark off, by judgment of eye, one foot, then eight inches.
Proceed thus, marking off first one foot, and then eight inches,
until the right end of the line has been reached. In a similar
manner divide the lower line by the aid of a scale. Repeat,
changing, from time to time, the distances marked off.
4. Draw on the blackboard a horizontal line of any length.
Halve it. From the point of division, draw a vertical line up-
wards, equal to one-half of the horizontal line. Extend it the
same distance below. In each of the four angles thus formed,
draw two oblique lines, each line starting from the point of
intersection, and each equal to one-half of the horizontal line.
Test them by applying the scale. Now divide each, by judg-
ment of eye, into halves and thirds, and then test the result
by actual measurement. This will train the eye to judge dis-
tances along lines having different directions.
—
LINES IN ALL DIRECTIONS. 47
Having shown your pupils what you desire to

first
have done, by doing it yourself on the blackboard,
frequently require Shell of them to do the same on

the blackboard*^ Do not, however, confine- this
drill to the blackboard, but also use the slate and
|
practice-paper. When using the latter, direct. the
class, causing do the same thing at the same
all to
time. As circumstances require, you will, of bourse,
vary the length of the line to be drawn ;
making it
inches on tHe slate, or paper, rather than feet, as on

the blackboard.
Drawing Lines in all Directions. — Delicacy of Touch.

Uniform Motion.
Directions. — The following drill-exercise on the slate

is’ excellent for quite
young or unskilful pu-
pils. See that the pen-
cils and well
are long,
sharpened; that the slate
is kept in the same po-
sition throughout the

exercise, — the side, and
not the end, towards the
pupil.
All the members of
the elass being in readiness, require them, working together,
first to make a dot, indicating the middle of the left end of
the slate, then another dot, indicating the middle of the right
end; and in like manner indicate the middle of the upper
side, then of the lower side. Now require them to hold the
point of the pencil directly over the left-hand dot, keeping it
there until you say, One, when they must carry the pencil
steadily forward, without touching the slate, to the right-
hand dot. Eequire them to hold the point of the pencil just
over the right-hand dot, until you say, Two, when they must
move the pencil steadily across the slate, without touching it,
to the left-hand dot again. Repeat this a half-dozen times,

more or less, requiring the pupils to bring the point of the
pencil nearer to the slate, without quite touching it, at each
repetition. When you think the pupils have thus got the
direction of the required line, say, Draw. They must touch
the slate lightly, and move the pencil from point to point
with a uniform rate of speed.
Require them to draw a vertical line in the same way,
uniting the upper with the lower dot. Require them, also, to
draw a left oblique line in the same way, connecting the
upper left-hand corner of the slate with the lower right-hand
corner; and then a right oblique line connecting the other two
corners. Finally, require them to draw the lines in any
order, as you dictate, with considerable rapidity, that they
may learn to distinguish with ease one line from another,
and to change the position of pencil, hand, and arm, as de-
manded by the different lines.
After a few exercises of this kind, make an addition to it.
When the lines have been drawn, as already described, re-
quire your pupils to divide the end and side halves of the
slate by dots indicating the centres of these halves; and then
to connect these points so as to cover the slate with horizon-
tal, vertical, and oblique parallel lines. The given illustra-
tion shows the result.
This exercise may be profitably repeated at fre-

quent intervals, until your pupils have acquired
delicacy of touch, which is of so much service when
one is drawing on paper, and which they will soon
acquire, if you rigidly insist upon their carrying the
pencil many times across the slate before drawing

the line, with the pencil-point as near the slate as
they can get it without touching.
If you find some inclined todraw too rapidly,
others too slowly, have them draw now and then by
count ;
have them, for example, draw a line across
the slate while you count four.
CROSS-HATCHING. 49
Parallel Lines. — Cross-Hatching.

Directions. — Draw two parallel lines, as 1 and 1, at some
distance apart. Halve the space between them by a third
parallel line as ;
2. Halve the two spaces by two other paral-
lel lines; as 3, and
3. Halve the four
spaces by four other
parallel lines. Con-
tinue thus. When
the breadth of the
lines is equal to the
breadth of the
spaces between
them, you will have
what is called
“half- tint.” In a
similar manner draw the lines obliquely across the first lines.
This will produce what is called “hatching,” and sometimes
. “cross-hatching.”
Much shading is done in this way it is called :
“shading with the point.” It is a laborious pro-

cess hence easier methods are frequently used in
:
its stead.
For certain purposes, cross-hatching is an excel-
lent drill-exercise, if rightly practised, and should
receive attention from time to time. It gives quick-
ness of eye, and steadiness of hand. The lines
should always be parallel, never touching, however
closely drawn, if the children can attain to this.
Neither upon this nor upon any drill-exercise
should the pupils be kept engaged more than a few
minutes at any one time ;
for they will soon grow
weary, as such exercises do not, like a design,
represent thought. But occasionally revert to them,
as you advance through the book.
4
The Three Historic Lines.
Apelles, who more than twenty-one hun-

lived
dred years ago, was the most distinguished of
Greek painters. Protogenes, living at the same
time, was also a famous Greek painter. The two
were fast friends. On a certain occasion Apelles
paid a visit to Protogenes, who was then dwelling
at Rhodes. When Apelles entered the studio of
his friend,he found only a servant there. Taking
up a brush, he drew a straight line across a canvas
on the easel. As he was about to leave, he said to
the servant, “ Tell your master, when he comes in,
that that man” (here he pointed to the line he had
drawn) “ wishes to see him.” After a little, Protoge-
nes returned and his servant gave an account of
;
what had happened. Looking at the line, Protoge-

nes perceived that his friend Apelles had come to
see him ;
for he knew there was no other man in
Greece who could draw so beautiful a line. He
took up the brush, and drew a second straight line
beside the first, and, going out, said to his servant,
‘ ‘
Tell that man ” (here he pointed to the line drawn
by Apelles), “when he comes in, that that man”
(here he pointed to the line drawn b}’ himself) “ will
be very happy to see him.” Upon the return of Apel-
les, the servant did as he was directed. Apelles
looked at the line drawn by his friend, and saw that
he was surpassed. He took the brush again, and,
putting his whole soul into the effort, drew a third
line between the first two, and more beautiful than
either. When Protogenes saw this line, he felt it
would be vain to attempt to excel it. Thus runs
THE THREE HISTORIC LINES. 51
the story. But it is further related that the canvas

bearing these three lines of such marvellous beauty
was carefully preserved for centuries at Rome. It
is proper to add, however, that it is a matter of dis-
pute whether the line, in this anecdote, meant a mere
abstract line, or a sketch of some subject.
An art-students’ association, of which the author
was a member, took for its motto, —
Nullus dies sine linea;
and each member bound himself to comply with it

strictly. The association interpreted the motto to
mean, that no day was to be regarded as finished
until the drawing or sketch of some subject had been
made. He who retired to rest without having made
his line —
that is, drawing or sketch (it might be no
larger than his thumb-nail) —
was deemed to have
broken his pledge. In this case a line meant many
lines, —
a picture of some sort.
Every person, in whatever he does, no matter
how slight the thing, gives some indication of his
quality. Unless he can draw a beautiful line by
itself, he cannot draw beautiful lines in. combination
for a design or for a picture. But do not infer, from
the anecdote of the two Greek painters, that any
amount of time and labor can be profitably spent in
drawing nought but meaningless lines. There are
teachers who tell their pupils that at least an hour
should be given to the freehand drawing of a square,
—a fearful waste of time and labor ! When a per-
fect square is required, instruments must be used to
draw it. When the object sought is the power to
judge of proportion, that can be as well acquired in

the execution of drawings which impartknowledge
and improve the taste. Avoid all needless con-
sumption of time and labor.
Hear what Apelles himself has to say about the
matter :
‘ 4
My friencl Protogenes excels me in all
things but one : he never knows when to take his

hand from the canvas.” By this the great painter
implied that laborious finish is not the thing of first
importance. Do not, however, conclude that care-

less, slovenlywork is ever to be tolerated ;
for it is
not. Shun extremes.
Questions. —
Wliat is a point? a line? Describe the differ-
ent kinds of lines. When are lines parallel? What is a sur-
face? Describe a plane. Other kinds of surfaces. AVhat is
a solid? How many dimensions has a line? a surface? a sol-
id? Name the three kinds of straight lines. AVhat is a hori-
zontal line? a vertical line? an oblique line? How are all
these lines regarded as drawn? How is the drawing-book to
be regarded? How should you work when linishing a draw-
ing? What is said of judging distances?
CHAPTER III.
STRAIGHT LINES COMBINED. - ANGLES. - TRI-

ANGLES. - QUADRILATERALS. - POLYGONS.
We now come to those combinations of straight
lines which produce angles and plane geometrical
figures. Perchance your pupils will not regard the
drawing of these as delightful work but experience;
has shown that such work cannot be safely omitted.

In ‘
‘
The Primary Manual ” it was explained and illus-
trated, to some extent, and will be further explained
and illustrated, that Nature, whatever she produces,
follows, in a general way, regular geometrical forms,
deviating from these only in details and that good
;
art, especially industrial art, employs only the gen-

eral forms of Nature, and follows her general laws
of growth. The eye that can readily distinguish the
general form of an object can also, with that as a
basis for judgment, more readily distinguish its
particular form, with its regular or irregular details ;
while the hand that can draw the former can more
draw the
readil}7 latter. Indeed, unless it can first
draw the former, cannot draw the latter with any

it
reasonable approach to accuracy. Therefore, in

drawing the simple, severe forms of geometry, we
are taking the first and a most important step to-
wards learning to draw any object whatever, natural
or artificial.
For a long time the elementary schools in Eng-

land have been largely under the control of the dif-
ferent religious sects. It is some twenty-five years
since the education of the working-people in art
began to receive special attention throughout that
country. The very first to give drawing a conspicu-
ous place in the schools under their direction were
the Friends, or Quakers. It ma} 7
strike one as
strange, at the first thought, that they, with their
plain, practical views of life, should be found among
the leaders in English art education. But, when we
consider the important industrial bearings of such
an education, there is no longer room for wonder.
It was not for the sake of beautiful pictures or stat-
uary, but for the sake of better and more thrifty
laborers, that the Friends emphasized art instruc-
tion in their schools. As they aimed only at in-
dustrial results, so the}7 began with the severe course
of training essential to secure such results ;
ignoring
the picture element, which was made the leading
feature in so many other schools. But while the
Friends, in their elementary work, aimed wholly at
practical ends, the result showed that they did just
the things essential to secure the highest artistic
ends ;
for when the boys and girls trained in their
schools entered the art-schools wholly under the
supervision of the government, where the end sought |
was both practical and artistic, they almost invaria-

bly outstripped those students who had come from
schools where drawing began with Nature and the
cast, and not with geometrical forms, conventional
ornament, and the use of instruments.
ANGLES DEFINED. 55
Thus it was demonstrated by this English experi-

ence, as it has been demonstrated again and again
by the continental experience of Europe, that the
plan followed in this system of drawing for American
schools is the best for producing either an industrial
or purely artistic result. God never intended that
the useful and the beautiful should be separated, or
sought in different ways.
Angles.
An Angle. — An angle is the difference in direc-

tion of two straight lines which meet as a and b, or
, ,
only tend towards each other as c and d. ,
Observe the exact force of this definition. It is not

meet
essential that the lines
in order to form an angle.
An angle is not, strictly
speaking, a corner : it is not

the space between the two
lines : it is the difference in
their direction. The size of an angle, therefore,
does not depend at upon the length of the lines
all
forming it. Nor does the name of an angle depend

at all upon the position of the lines.
Though it is not mathematically correct, yet it is
popular usage, to apply the name “ angle ” to the ver-

tex, or point where the two lines meet. For con-
venience, we shall frequently use the word in this
way. But see that the pupil also understands the
usage: otherwise he will not get a
strictly scientific
clear comprehension of some things.
A Right Angle. — When a vertical line meets a

horizontal line, or only tends toivards it, the angle
formed is called a right angle.
If the vertical line meets the end of the horizon-

tal line, then one right angle is
formed ;
but if the lines meet as
in the cut, then a right angle is
formed on each side of the ver-
tical line, cd.
It will be well, sometimes, to
use other definitions for the pur-
pose of illustration. Thus, when one straight line,
ab, crosses another straight line, cd, making four

equal angles, each is called a right
angle. Again : the angle formed by
the meeting of any two straight lines
perpendicular to each other is called
a right angle.
When we simply say that a line is
perpendicular, we mean that it is vertical ;
but when
w e say
r
that a line, as ab, is perpendicular to an-
other line, as cd, we mean that the two lines form
right angles ;
and the perpendicular line may be,
in an absolute sense, vertical, oblique, or horizontal.
See that your pupils clearly understand the two uses
of the word “perpendicular.”
Geometry proper does not emplo} the terms hori- r ‘
‘
zontal” or “ vertical,” as it knows no up and down,

no right and left. It deals with lines only in their re-
lations to each other, and hence its straight lines
must be either perpendicular or oblique ;
the former
ANGLES DEFINED. 57
when they are at right angles to each other, the lat-

ter when they are at any other angle to each other.
An Acute Angle. — Any angle less than a right
angle is called an acute angle. (See p. 59.)
An Obtuse Angle. — Any angle greater than a right

angle is called an obtuse angle. (See p. 59.)
While a right angle is always the same, the size of

an acute or an obtuse angle
is always indefinite. If we
wish to give the exact size of
any angle, except a right
angle, it must be done in de-
grees. To illustrate : Draw
two straight lines, ab and cd,
perpendicular to each other.
From the point of intersec-
tion, o, as a centre, strike two circles. The two in-
tersecting straight lines, which form four right angles,

will divide each circle into four equal parts. Thus
the opening of a right angle is equal to one-fourth of
a circle, large or small. People have agreed to divide
a right angle into ninety equal parts, called degrees,
and indicated thus, 90° (ninety degrees) An acute .
angle is any angle less than 90°. The angle formed

by the lines eo and bo being one-third of a right
,
angle, is an acute angle of 30° (thirty degrees). An

obtuse angle any angle larger than 90°, but less
is
than 180°. The angle formed by the lines ao and

eo, being equal to one right angle and two-thirds
of another, is an angle of 150°.
But the opening of a right angle is equal to one-
,
fourth of any circle as, cic large or small

; hence :
any whole circle has 360 degrees. When a degree

measures the difference in direction of any two
straight lines, it always means the ninetieth part of
a right angle ;
when applied to a circle, it always
means the three hundred and sixtieth part of the
circle, and so designates a less or greater absolute
distance, according to the size of the circle. Thus a

degree of the distance around the earth is about 69^
miles ;
while a degree of the distance around an
orange or a pencil is only the fraction of an inch.
The number 360 was fixed upon to designate the
degrees into which a circle should be divided, be-
cause, being the common multiple of so many num-
bers, but few fractions occur when it is used in mak-
ing actual calculations ;
thus, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9,
10, 12, 15, 18, 20, &c. ,
will divide 360 without a
remainder.
If your pupils have not yet learned, in connection
with geography, measurement by degrees, they may
as well learn it now and here. A judicious employ-
ment of familiar illustrations will enable young
pupils to comprehend the subject readily. Take it
up at different times, but do not dwell long upon
it at any one time.
The angle formed by the meeting of two planes,

as by the floor and wall of the room, is called a dihe-
dral angle. All angles may be divided into two
classes, —
right angles, or those which are formed
by lines or planes perpendicular to each other and ;
oblique angles, or those which are formed by lines

or planes oblique to each other.
TRIANGLES DEFINED . 59
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE IV.
Lines forming Angles.
Directions. — After what has been said about drawing

straight lines, the pupil will need
very few or no directions for
drawing the lines which form
these angles. The lines should
he firm, not wavering gray, not ;
black and of equal size through-

;
out their whole length. See that

they are neatly drawn where
they meet. Remember that the
name of an angle depends upon
the relation which the two lines
forming it bear to one another,
and not at all upon the position in which they may be drawn.
Triangles.
A Triangle. — Any plane surface or figure bounded

by three straight lines is called a triangle.
Triangles have different names according to the

character of their angles. While the comparative
sizes of the three angles of the triangle vary as
the comparative lengths of the sides vary, 3’et the
combined size of the three angles is always equal to
two right angles, or 180°. Show your pupils that
this is so.
A Right Triangle. —
A triangle containing one
a right-angled triangle or right
right angle is called ,
triangle. (See p. 63.)
The longest side of this triangle is called the

hypotenuse ;
the two shorter are called, the one the
base, the other the perpendicular. There some-

thing very curious
about
this kind of triangle. If
you construct a square on
each of its sides, whatever
may be their comparative
lengths, the square on the
longest side will always be
just as large as both of the
other squares. If, as shown
in the cut, the shortest side, 6c, is three feet long, and
the next, a6, is four feet long, then the side ac will
be five feet long ;
for the square of three (that is
3 X 3) is nine, the square of four is sixteen, and the
sum of both (9 —}— 16) is 25 while the square of
;
five is also twenty-five. Multiply these sides by

any number, giving sides six, eight, and ten feet long,
or twelve, sixteen, and twenty feet long, &c., the
figure will remain a right triangle, the squares of
whose sides can be expressed in whole numbers.
Carpenters, when putting up buildings, frequently
make use of this fact in order to place their timbers
so as to give a square corner. You can easily illus-
trate. Draw a line, «6, on the floor, or on the
ground, four feet long. At one end (a) of this line
fix one end of a cord five feet long ;
swing the cord
around, keeping and on the floor, until its
it straight,
movable end is three feet from the end (5) of the
drawn line. Draw a straight line from the end of
the cord to the end (6) of the first line, and you will
have a right angle, or square corner, where the two
lines meet. If your first line is drawn eight feet long,
TRIANGLES DEFINED. 61
then your cord will need to be ten feet, and the

second line six feet long.
This is worth knowing ;
and children will take
pleasure in learning it, if you will only require them
to do the work of illustration for themselves. All
such illustrations, rude as they may be, serve to
stamp on the mind the definitions and facts you
desire never to be forgotten. There are many we
have not space to describe, which maj' be emploj'ed
in teaching geometrical forms. Use, from time to
time, all of which you may have knowledge.
An Equilateral Triangle. —A triangle having three

equal sides and three equal angles is called an equi-
lateral triangle. (See p. 63.)
In any triangle, equal sides are opposite equal

angles. If all three angles are equal, then all three
sides are equal ;
and the converse. As the three
angles of a triangle are alwaj’s equal to two right
angles, each angle in an equilateral triangle must
have 60°.
An Isosceles Triangle. —A triangle having two

equal sides and two equal angles is called an isosceles
triangle. (See p. 63.)
This triangle is always supposed to be standing

on its unequal side, the equal sides being the legs.
The word “ isosceles” means having equal legs.
A Scalene Triangle. —A triangle having all its
sides and all its angles unequal ,

but having no right
angle, is called a scalene triangle. (See p. 63.)
Place this triangle upon am- one of its sides, hori-
zontally, and it will appear to lean to the right or to

the left, as the right or the left leg is the shorter.
The word “ scalene” implies this, as it means limp-
ing, and, therefore, leaning, as a limping man leans.
All kinds of triangles are embraced under the
names which have been given. Sometimes, how-
ever, the term “ acute-angled meaning
triangle,”
that all of the angles are acute, and some-
is used ;
times the term ^ obtuse-angled triangle,” meaning

that one of the angles is obtuse.
Two triangles, however much they may differ in
size, are said to be similar when they have the same
shape and they have the same shape when their

;
corresponding angles are equal. Various important

things can be done by means of similar triangles.
To mention a simple matter : it is by similarit}' of
triangles that one can measure the height of a tree
or church-steeple, using only his cane or his shadow ;
or the width of a river, without crossing it, using

two or three little sticks. Learn how these things
are done, if you do not already know then please ;
and profit your pupils by teaching them.

Any two triangles, however much they may differ
in shape, indeed, any two plane geometrical figures,
are said to be equal when they have the same area.
They are, also, said to be isoperimetrical when they
have the same distance around. Of any number of
isoperimetrical figures, the circle has the largest area ;
the next largest area is that of the figure which

comes nearest to the circle in shape while the fig- ;
ure that is farthest from the circle in shape has the

TRIANGLES DRAWN. 63
smallest area. Exercise your pupils in making

isoperimetrical figures of different kinds with a cord
having its two ends tied together.
The triangle is the strongest of all figures, since
you cannot change its form without changing the
comparative lengths of its sides not so with a;
quadrilateral, pentagon, and other figures hence :
carpenters frequently put braces into buildings, which

cut the sides into triangles, and so greatly strengthen
the buildings.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE V.
Triangles.
Directions. — The pupil will need very few or no direc-

tions for drawing these
triangles. In the case
of the equilateral
and isosceles triangles,
draw the horizontal
base-line first from
;
the centre of this draw

upwards a vertical
line, by the aid of
which it will be an
easy matter to make
the side lines of the
required length and slope. Draw all the corners neatly.
It is quite easy to discover an error in form or

proportion, when you view a drawing from all sides.
Hence, always your pupils examine their
insist that
sketches in this way before they line in their forms.
But they should hold the book in a vertical position,
and directly in front of the eye otherwise the draw-
;
ing will be viewed obliquely, and so appear distorted.

—
Quadrilaterals.
A Quadrilateral. — Any plane figure having four

straight sides is called a quadrilateral.
If it lias four right angles, it is also called a rectan-

gle. The term “ rectangle,” therefore, embraces less
than the term “ quadrilateral.”
A Square. —A plane figure having four equal

straight sides and four equal angles is called a square.
(See p. 66.)
Doubtless some of your pupils, through careless-

ness, if not through ignorance, will define a square
simply as a figure having four equal straight sides,
which is just as true of the rhombus ;
or simply as a
figure having four right angles, which is just as true
of the oblong. Show them that the definition of a
square is incomplete, unless it describes both sides
and angles. Sharpen their wits with these geomet-
rical definitions it will do them good, and will
:
make them say what they mean when they say any
thing. You can do no greater kindness to a pupil
than by encouraging this habit.
Diameter of a Square. A straight line drawn

through the centre of a square parallel ,
totwo of its
sides, is called a diameter of the square. (Seep. 66.)
According to this definition, a square has two

diameters only. This is not strictly accurate, since
theword “ diameter ” means “ a measure through ,”
and other straight lines besides these two can be
drawn through the centre of the square. But in
—
QUADRILATERALS. 65
drawing we have frequent occasion to use the two

lines which are here called the diameters of the
!
square. They are thus designated for the lack of
some more specific and appropriate word.
Diagonal of a Square. A straight line connecting
opposite corners , or angles , of a square ,
is called a
diagonal. (See p. 66.)
A square has two diagonals. They are of equal

length, cross each other at the centre of the square,
and each divides the square into two equal, similar
parts. The diagonal of anj- figure is a line connect-
ing any two corners, or angles, not adjacent.
A Rhombus. —A plane figure having four equal

straight sides , hut unequal angles ,
is called a rhom-
bus. (See p. 66.)
An Oblong. —A plane figure having four right
angles , with only its opposite sides equal , is called, an
oblong. (See p. 66.)
A Rhomboid .
—
A plane figure having only opposite
angles and opposite sides equal is called a rhomboid.
(See p. 66.)
The oblong and the rhomboid are called parallelo-

grams, because their opposite sides are parallel.
You can very soon give a clear and permanent
knowledge of the different geometrical figures, and
all their features, by requiring your pupils to
1,
name them as you rapidly
draw on the blackboard ;
2, by requiring your pupils to draw rapidly on their

slates, or on the blackboard, as you designate, the
forms and their parts.
5
—
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE VI.
Quadrilaterals.
Directions. — The pupil needs but little instruction as to

the best way to draw these
quadrilaterals. In the case of
the square, first draw the hor-
izontal diameter, then the ver-
tical diameter. When these
are right, draw the sides of
the square. Lastly, draw the
diagonals, which will cross
where the diameters intersect,
if the square has been cor-
rectly drawn. Do not draw
the sides of the square in
heavy line, until all the lines have been drawn faintly, and
in the right position, with about one-eightli of an inch for
margin.
Leave the pupils to draw the other quadrilaterals accord-
ing to their own judgment. From time to time they should
thus be left to work by themselves.
Polygons.
A Polygon. Any plane figure having more than

four straight sides and, consequently more than
, ,
four angles is called a polygon which means “ hav-

, ,
ing many angles.”
A Regular Pentagon. — A plane figure having five

equal straight sides, and five equal angles ,
is called
a regular pentagon. (See p. 67.)
A Regular Hexagon. —A plane figure having six

equal straight sides and six equal angles,
,
is called
a regular hexagon. (See p. 68.)

—
PENTAGON. 67
A Regular Octagon. A plane figure having eight

equal straight sides, and eight equal angles , is called
a regular octagon. (See p. 68.)
Polygons maybe irregular, having their sides, and

consequently their angles, unequal. The regular
polygon always has the largest area.
For our present purpose it is not essential that
these figures be drawn with absolute accuracy.
When it is essential that they be thus drawn, in-
struments must be used. The directions, therefore,
for drawing them freehand will be simple, yet such
as will enable the learner, with a little practice, to
draw them quickly, and with approximate precision.
More than this is not required here.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE VII.
The Pentagon.
Directions. —Draw the horizontal line, ab; at its centre,
draw the perpendicular line, cd,
of an indefinite length, only mak-
i ing sure to have it long enough,
j
On the perpendicular mark a
point, o, making od a little less
than ab. Have this correct by
measurement. Through o draw
ef, of an indefinite length. Fix
the points e, e, /, by judgment of
eye, so that when they are united
with one another, and with' the
ends of the line ab, all the sides
of the pentagon will be equal. Turn the figure around for ex-
amination. Not. only must the five sides be equal, but the
five diagonals, of which only one is drawn in the copy.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE VIII.
The Hexagon.
Directions. — Draw the horizontal line, ab, in the middle
of the given space. Divide
this line into four equal parts.
Through the outer points of
division, draw two vertical
lines, of indefinite length,
above and below. Fix the
points c and d, hv judgment of
eye, so that the lines ac and
ad, when drawn, shall be equal
to each other, and to ce, the
distance between the two ver-
tical lines. Examine the figure
carefully by turning id around. See that the opposite sides
are parallel.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE IX.
The Octagon.
Directions. — Mark a point to indicate the centre of the
space given in the book. Above
this, about one-third of the dis-
tance to the margin of the space,
mark a second point, and a third
one below. Through the outer
points, draw two horizontal lines,
ab and cd, of indefinite length.
Next draw two vertical lines, ef
and c/h, of indefinite length, and
at the same distance apart as the
horizontal lines. The intersec-
tions of these four lines will form
a square, with the point in its centre. Fix, by judgment
first
of eye, the points a and e, so that the line ae, when drawn,
shall equal ec/, or the distance between the vei'tical lines.
Thus much done, the other lines composing the octagon can
be quickly drawn.
REVIEW. 69
Revert to these geometrical figures until your

and can
pupils understand their distinctive features,
fairly draw them. Do not dwell upon them long at
any one time. As so many designs are constructed
on a geometrical basis, the pupil will have occasion
to draw the given figures quite frequently in the reg-
ular course of these lessons. It will be an excellent
now and then to require your pupils to tell
practice
you how the figures should be drawn, step by step,
while you draw them on the blackboard.
But remember that the drawing of these geo-
metrical forms by freehand is in part educational,
and in part to enable the pupil to secure an approx-
imate accuracj' when instruments are not available,
or when perfect accuracy is not required. Every
person requiring a perfectly accurate hexagon or
octagon will draw it as only it can be drawn, viz.,
by mechanical means.
Questions. —
"Why is the drawing of geometrical forms a
good introduction to the drawing of natural forms? What is
sard of the Friends in England V what of the useful and the
beautiful? What is an angle ? Describe the different kinds.
Upon what does the size of an angle depend? Describe a
perpendicular line. How many kinds of straight lines are
known to geometry proper? How many degrees in a right
angle? how many in a circle? Why not 301? What is a
triangle? Describe the different kinds. What is said of the
right triangle? What is a quadrilateral? Define a square,
its diameter, its diagonal. Define a rhombus, an oblong, a
rhomboid. What is a polygon? Deline a pentagon, a hexa-
gon, an octagon.
CHAPTER IV.
RIGHT LINE GEOMETRICAL DESIGNS.

For reasons given in the Introduction, which need
not be repeated, the blackboard can be used only
to great disadvantage in providing pupils with
copies. If there are not, therefore, other objects
to be attained, the blackboard should be wholly
discarded. But there are other objects and they ;
must not be overlooked by the teacher of drawing,

especially if he has a large class under his instruc-
tion.
Blackboard Instruction.
A part of their drawings the pupils should make

of the same size as the copies, others larger, others
smaller. When you wish to exercise them in mak-
ing their drawings smaller than the copy, when, in-
deed, reduction is the main thing to be taught, then
the blackboard can be properly used. In this
case the drawings should be simple, should be such

that you can quickly putthem on the blackboard, —
such that from bad
the}’ will suffer the least possible
execution, and from being viewed obliquely by the

pupils. They should also have exact proportions,
that the pupils may be able, from your description,
to draw them accurately, even when viewed from the
side of the room.
70
BLACKBOARD INSTRUCTION. 71
Again the blackboard can be properly employed

:
when you wish to teach principles or methods since ;
these can usually be illustrated sufficiently well by

rude drawings, and since they can be as easily
explained to a class of forty, by the aid of a black-
board, as to a single pupil without its aid.
Again : the pupils themselves should, from time

to time, draw on the blackboard, enlarging to the
utmost the copies given in their books. This will
not onlj* exercise them in enlargement but in the ,
freest kind of freehand drawing.

The centre of a blackboard drawing should
always be on a level with the eye of him who makes
the drawing, otherwise it must be viewed obliquely.
In order that you may examine any drawing prop-
erly, the eye must be so far removed, that it can
easily take in the whole at once. The distance
should not be less than three times the breadth of
the drawing. When the drawing is on paper, hold
the paper in a vertical position, with the eye directly
opposite the centre of the drawing. In this way
both the beauties and defects of a drawing can be
readily perceived.
When giving a blackboard lesson you can follow
one of two general methods :
—
Directions. — 1. Draw the whole figure on the blackboard
prior to the lesson, that the class may see what they are to do
before they begin. Then direct' them, line by line, how to
proceed, causing the whole class to do the same thing at the
same time. Occasionally leave the pupils to execute the draw-
ing without any directions whatever, each relying on his own
judgment for the proportions and inode of procedure.
2. Clearly state what is tu be first done then do it yourself
;
on blackboard. Having allowed the class sufficient time

tlie
to do also, proceed in the same way with the next step.
it
This method has some special advantages. The pupils must

give strict attention, while they are kept in a perpetual state
of expectation as to what is coming next, and of surprise
when it does come. When you employ this method, draw all
the lines faintly at first, requiring your pupils to draw theirs
in the same manner. Having made the sketch, line in.
After you have done your part of such a lesson, allow your
pupils a little time for completing their drawings.
Sec the Primary Manual, Chap. VI., for illustra-

tions of the use which can be made of symmetrical
arrangement in giving blackboard lessons according
to the second method. A little practice will acquaint
you with all the minor details of procedure.
Drawing from Dictation.
Dictation exercises constitute an important fea-

ture in this course of drawing. You give only a
verbal description of the figure to be drawn, while
the pupils translate the spoken words into lines.
After a while, quite elaborate drawings can be made
in this way.
The educational value of this exercise is very
great for both teacher and pupils. The teacher
must use language with the utmost precision while ;
the pupils must give the closest attention to the

spoken words, first making a mental picture of
what is required, and then drawing it. If you find
it necessary to repeat airy part of the description,
do not change your language, unless it was wrong,
but give it just as you gave it at first. To draw
from dictation, the pupils must know the exact force
DRAWING FROM DICTATION. 73
of all the terms employed. There is no possible

escape. Hence a dictation exercise is, in some
respects, an excellent one for review.
You can give dictation lessons in two wa}*s, ac-
cording to the capacity of your pupils :
—
Directions. —1 Dictate a line to he drawn.
. Havingwaited
a sufficient time for the class to draw it, draw he same on the
t
blackboard yourself, that each pupil may see whether he has

it right, or not. Thus proceed with each step of the exercise.
2. After the whole figure has been slowly dictated by your-
self, and drawn by the pupils, then draw it yourself on the

blackboard in the order dictated. The pupils can then verify
their work by comparison with yours. It will be seen that this
method is more difficnlt than the first, since the pupils cannot
verify their work until the whole figure is completed.
From time to time require your pupils to originate

little dictation lessons of their own, and to write out
the descriptions. Examine the descriptions to see
that they are correct ;
then direct as mail}’ of the
pupils as opportunity will allow to give their lessons
to the whole class, just as would 3*ourself. B}
3*011 r
dividing the class into two or more sections, espe-

ciall}* if the class is a large one, two or more pupils
can be exercised in this commendable wa} at the r
same time. From time to time require some one of

the class to dictate for you to draw on the black-
board. The figure should be devised at the mo-
ment it is dictated. This will please 3*our pupils,
and profit them too. Adhere to one general line of
progress, but strive to vaiy 3’our methods of instruc-
tion in all rational wa}*s variety is more agreeable
:
than monoton} and affords a better discipline.

r
,
Right-Line Figures for Blackboard and Dictation

Lessons.
Having now learned to draw some of the pure

geometrical forms, we will begin to use them as a
basis for the construction of designs. It will often
be found that the drawing of the geometrical basis
is more difficult than the subsequent drawing of the
design. Thus the drawing of even a square will
frequently be more of a task than the drawing of
the design constructed on it. Yet, without the
geometrical basis, it would be almost impossible to
draw the design accurately.
The six which immediately
straight-line figures
follow are intended to blank page in the
fill the first
drawing-book. They must, of course, be given as

blackboard lessons. But, before you draw them on
the board, some of them can be used for dictation
lessons the pupils drawing on their slates or on
;
practice-paper. The first four, certainly, are simple

enough to be drawn in this way by quite young
pupils. All of the figures for filling blank pages
may first be drawn by the pupils on their slates, in
the form of cither dictation or blackboard lessons,

before they draw them in their books, if you find
that this helps along the drawing in the books.
This preliminary work should always be done
rapidly, since the object is not to produce accurate
drawings, but, in the case of dictation lessons, to
teach the pupils to translate spoken words into
graphic forms, and, in both cases, to familiarize the
pupils with the figure they are to draw in their books.
THE GREEK CROSS. 75
Instead of retarding, this should expedite the work

in the books, as the pupils will go about that so
much more intelligently. You will probably find it
well sometimes, if the pupils are quite young and

unskilful, to have similar preliminary drawings
made even of the copies given in the drawing-books.
It is not essential that you examine this preliminary
work.
The Greek Cross.
Through the centre of the first blank page draw a

horizontal line. Divide this into thirds, and through
the points of division draw two vertical lines, thus
I
dividing the page into six These
equal spaces.
I
lines, faintly drawn, can be erased after the draw-
ings are finished. If they are not erased, then the
drawings should be made somewhat smaller, to give
|
i
a handsome page.
Directions. — Mark a point in the

! hand space. Through this draw a
vertical line, 1 2, and a horizontal
line,3 4, each two inches long ;
the one bisecting the other, that

is, dividing it into two equal parts.
These having been made correct
by actual measurement, use them
'
as the diameters of a square, and

through their ends draw the sides
|
|
of the square. Divide the diarne-
j
ters into thirds, and through the
points of division, 5, 0, 7, 8, draw
lines parallelwith the sides of the square. Having done all
this with a faint line, draw heavily those portions which form
the cross, and erase the .remainder.
These are directions for drawing the cross in the

book. For preliminary practice on slate or paper,
in the form of a dictation or blackboard lesson, the
directions will need to be varied slightly. You
will readily see in what respect. When you have
put the cop}’ on the board according to the first
method for blackboard lessons, add the numerals
indicating the best order in which to draw the
lines.
You should always draw a figure two or three

times yourself, before giving it to the class. You
can thus get more rapid work from your pupils, and
at the same time better results.
Greek or Eastern churches are built on a ground-
plan like this cross.
The Latin Cross.
Directions. — Through the centre of the middle upper

space draw a vertical line, 1 2, two
inches long, half above, and half
below, the centre. Divide this line
into four equal parts through its ex-
;
tremities, and extending equally on

either side, draw horizontal lines 3 4, j
5 f>, equal to three parts of 1 2. Draw

35 and 4 (> parallel with 1 2. Through
the centre. and upper point of division
of 1 2 draw 7 8 and 9 10. Divide the
upper end of the oblong into thirds,
and from the points of division draw
lines parallel with 1 2. Line in the cross, and erase construc-
tion lines.
Many churches and cathedrals are built on this

form as ground-plan by the followers of the Latin
or Western church.
BLACKBOARD LESSONS. 77
The Maltese Cross.
Directions. — In the upper right-hand space draw a

square, as it was drawn for the
Greek cross. Add the diagonals.
Divide tlie diagonals into thirds,
the sides into fourths. Guided
by the -;e points of division, draw
the outline of the cross.Sketch
the form without turning the
book, except for the purpose of
examination hut turn the hook,
;
much or little, when lining in.
This form is frequently used by goldsmiths and

jewellers in the manufacture of articles for adorn-
ment of the person.
The Cross of St. Andrew.
Directions — Through the centre of the lower left-hand

space draw a vertical line, 1 2, two
inclie ^ and half below,
long, half above,
the centre. Divide this into thirds.
Through its ends draw two horizontal
lines, 3 4, 5 (», each equal to two-thirds
of 1 2, and extending equally on either
side. Unite the ends of these, forming
a rectangle, or oblong. Draw the di-
agonals and through the points of
;
division on 1 2 draw lines parallel with

the diagonals. Line in the cross. Ee-
member the construction-lines are
always to be carefully erased, unless you find it necessary,
as sometimes happens, to retain them in order to make certain
that the pupils have used them in drawing the figure.
In order to interest your class in their work, to

instructand stimulate them, impart any information
you may possess relating to the various forms they
have occasion to draw.
The Shield of the House of Savoy.
Directions. — Through the centre of the middle lower space

draw a vertical line, 1 2,two inches long.
Divide it into thirds. Through the points
of division, 3, 4, and the upper end, draw
horizontal lines, equal to two-tliirds of
the vertical line. Draw the outline of the
shield. Divide 1 4 and 5 fi into eight
equal parts. On the two parts of each,
nearest the centre, construct a square.
On each side of this construct a square,
and then line in the cross. Tell your
class something about the House of
Savoy, about its past and its present for-
tunes. Much that is interesting may be said.
A Silver Cup.
Directions. — The proportions of this cup must be de-

termined by judgment of eye
alone. Put it on the blackboard,
adding the numerals to indicate
the order in which the lines should
be drawn. Leave each pupil to
reproduce the cup, without fur- !
tiier help, in the lower right-hand j
space. Since the blackboard copy

is to be the pupil’s only guide, you
will need to take time to draw it

quite accurately before the les-
son comes
off. In this case the
blackboard copy should be as good as you can well make it.
From time to time the pupil should be left, as in

this exercise, to draw without specific directions.
This is a feature of such importance, that it should
-
never be overlooked in any system of drawing. It
j
enables you to find out what the pupil can, and what
he cannot, do by himself. Thus, if he has been re-
TELL THE TRUTH. 79
quired to use his common-sense, and has been taught

a simple process of drawing, an exercise now and
then like the present will give him a chance to
apply the instruction he has received, and will show
how much of the instruction is retained. The pupil
is also greatly profited by a healthy variety, not
only in the things drawn, but in the modes of teach-
ing, because the faculties receive a more varied
training. Indeed, without variety in both subject-
matter and method, there can be no intelligent
progress in drawing.
Tell the Truth.
Observe that the lines denoting the junction of

the handle with the cup are drawn a little inside the
outline of the cup. If they coincided with the out-
line, then we should be justified in taking the cup to
be square, or the handle to be without thickness ;
for that is what the drawing would actually repre-

sent. However rude a drawing may be in execu-
tion,it should always tell the truth, and not a lie.
Yet pupils are often set to drawing from books,

with numerous copies fundamentally false. Some
of them, to take simple illustrations, represent fore-
shortened lines of equal length with the actual lines.
Others represent ellipses by two segments of a circle.
Others fail to represent thickness at all, when it is
imperative^ demanded by the truth. Others make
a mixture, one part of the copy representing thick-
ness, another part omitting such representation,
when it should be all the one, or all the other. Here
:
we are given, for example, a gate and two posts

one post is represented as having thickness, the
other not. If we were told, in a verbal description,
that one of the posts had thickness, the other not,
we should straightway denounce it as false. No j
more should we tolerate falsehood in a graphic rep-

resentation. The pencil and the tongue should
equally adhere to the truth.
Four Concentric Squares.
Divide the second blank page by a vertical line,
so as to place a third of the page at the left of the

line. Divide this space by a horizontal line into
two equal parts.
Directions. — In the upper left-hand space construct a

square on its diameters, 1 2, 3 4,
two inches long. Add the diagon-

als. On 1 2, 3 4, as diagonals, con-
struct a second square. Now di- I
vide 12, 3 4, into six equal parts |
each. Through the outer points |
of division draw lines forming a j
third square, its sides parallel to

the sides of the first square. Unite I
the inner points of division, and

thus form a fourth and the inner- j
most square, with its sides par- I
allel to the sides of the second square.
Concentric Figures. — When two or more figures

have a common centre ,
they are called concentric
-figures.
Parallel circular curves, short or long, are also

said to be concentric : if continued sufficient^’ far,
they would form circles having a common centre.

GEOMETRICAL FORMS. 81
A Hexagon and a Six-Pointed Star.
Directions. — In the centre of the lower left-hand space

draw a vertical line two inches long.
Divide it into fourths. Through tlie
outer points of division draw tlie

horizontal lines, 3 4, 5 (>, of indefinite
length. Fix the points 3 and 4, by
judgment of eye. making the dis-
tances 1 3 and 1 4 each equal to the
distance 3 5. Draw the hexagon,
and unite its alternate angles to form
the two equilateral triangles.. Erase
the dotted lines. The pupil is never
to add the numerals to liis drawings:
they indicate the order in which it is best to draw the lines.
An Octagon and an Eight-Pointed Star.
Directions. — Mark a point in the centre of the last space, —

the two-tliirds of the blank page.
Draw two vertical lines, 1 2, 3 4,
the one an inch to the left, the

other an inch to the right, of the
point, and of indefinite length.
Then draw two horizontal lines,
5 7 8, at the same distance apart,
f>,
of indefinite length, and intersect-

ing the vertical lines so as to form
a square, with the point at its cen-
tre. Fix the points 1 and 5 at the
same distance from the corner of
the square, making the distance 1 5 equal to 1 3. Draw the
octagon; then draw the straight lines connecting the centre
of each side with the centre of each third side from itself.
Line in carefully, having first erased the dotted lines.
When yonr pupils are drawing geometrical forms,

request them to name both natural and artificial
objects whose general shape resembles that of the
figure they are engaged upon.
:
A Pentagonal Form.
Directions. — Draw a horizontal line. On this construct

a regular pentagon, according to
the mode described on p. (>7.
Bisect each side, and from the
points of bisection draw straight
lines to the opposite angles, which
straight lines will form axes of
symmetry. The points of the
smallest pentagon are halfway
from the centre to the sides of the I
largest pentagon. You can do !
what you choose with this figure.

The pupils would be profited by
drawing it several times on the blackboard.
The last five figures have no specific names

therefore they may be called, in common, geomet-
rical forms. To draw geometric forms without any
mechanical help is at all times a difficult matter, not
only for a beginner, but for a person of experience.
The work, however, is greatly facilitated by such
simple methods as have been described.
Axis of Symmetry.
When a line drawn through a figure divides the

figure into two parts, which are not only just alike,
but balance each other without change of position,
the line is called an axis of symmetry. Observe
that the regular pentagon in the last exercise has
five axes of symmetry, each a line drawn from an
angle to the centre of the opposite side. The equi-
lateral triangle has three, the regular hexagon six,
axes of symmetry. Call the attention of the class to

other figures.
TIME DRAWING. 83
Examination and Criticism of Drawings.
From the very first, the pupil should be taught to

discover his errors by viewing his drawing in several
positions. The e}e soon becomes accustomed to
an error viewed in one position, which it quickly de-
tects when the drawing is turned. Portrait-painters
often make use of a mirror, which gives them a re-
flection of their work reversed in position. This is
a good corrective both of bad drawing and of bad
color. The effect is similar to that of reversing a
drawing, as here recommended. The error is
doubled, and so more easily perceived.
Frequently ask your pupils whether they have
ever seen such a form as the one they may chance
to be drawing, — as, for instance, the Latin cross, or
House of Savoy,
the shield of the —
and to tell where
! itwas seen, and of what it was made. If there is
:
no response, direct them where to look for similar
forms, and point out the difference between these
and the form they are drawing. Ask for any criti-
cism or observation on the objects. When you
have pursued this course for a while, you will find
your pupils looking at all objects about them with
new eyes, as it were, because with a new under-
standing.
Time Drawing.
Throughout this course of drawing, great impor-

tance is attached to rapid execution, provided always
that it is intelligent. When the pupil, in the ad-
vanced stages of his art culture, comes to draw from
84 TEA ClI ERS ’ MAN UAL.
the human figure or from nature, it will often be

absolutely essential that he draw rapidly : otherwise
a change of position or of light will introduce a new
effect, and spoil what he has done, it being but a
part of a whole now lost forever. Turner, the great-
est of landscape-painters, owed
power to his great
this ability todraw the effects of nature with aston-
ishing rapidity. Again when the pupil leaves
:
school, and comes to put his art knowledge to prac-

tical use as a workman, he must execute rapidly, or
put up with the wages of the slow workman. Hence
the habit of drawing rapidly should be early formed,
and persistently cultivated.
For securing rapid execution, time-exercises are
very valuable. The pupils may do their drawings
on the blackboard, or on practice-paper. Alterna-
tion is best. When they are done on paper, each
pupil should attach his name, time allotted to the
exercise, and the date the drawings to be preserved
;
for the inspection of school officials. These exer-

cises should usually be veiy brief, always compara-
tively brief. Thus, if either of the last nine copies
are used, the time allotted to pupils having some
little skill should not exceed five to ten minutes.
All should begin and end at the word given by your-
self. You should also inform the class when a
quarter, one-half, three-quarters, of the time, has
expired.
Many teachers pursue the same method in map-
drawing. They find no practice better calculated to
impress upon the mind the general geographical fea-
tures, which arc by far the most important.
BORDERS AND MOULDINGS. 85
Borders and Mouldings.
All mouldings ma}” be called borders ;

but all
borders cannot be called mouldings : borders is the

more general term. The following distinction is
usually made between them. If the form projects
above, or is depressed below, the surrounding surface,
it is then called a moulding : there may be color
applied or not. If it is simply ornament on an
flat
even surface, as in woven fabrics, and often in pot-

tery, — therefore, always involving color, — it is
then called a border. In a moulding, the enrich-

ment projects : in a border, it is flat.
Designs for borders and mouldings involve, to a

large extent, the same principles. The}' must, of
course, be somewhat modified to adapt them to the
material of which the decorated object is made.
Thus a design which is to be painted on a vase can •
be made more elaborate than one which is to be cut

in stone. Again they must be somewhat modified
:
according to the position in which the ornament is

to be viewed. Thus a moulding which is always to
be seen in a horizontal position must frequently be
made different from a moulding which is always to
be seen in a vertical position ;
while a border which
is to be seen in all positions may require to be still
further modified. If a design has a right way up,

it should be always so seen. Not only mouldings
and borders, but all designs, must, in their practical
applications, be thus adapted to material and posi-
tion. More will be said about this farther along,
as illustrative designs are drawn.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE X.
The Zigzag.
Directions. — To complete the copy in the drawing-hook,
first extend the horizon-
tal lines across the page,
then divide the enclosed
space into squares, and
draw the oblique lines.
Among the oldest

and most widely-
used ornaments is
the simple zigzag, —

here given as a copy, — or some of its modifications.
Observe the parallel horizontal lines, one above and
one below, without which a border or moulding sel-
dom or never produces its best effect.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XI.
The Greek Fret.
Directions. — To complete the copy in the drawing-book,

first extend the hori-
zontal lines, the outer
and next to the outer,
across the page ;
then,
with vertical lines, di-
vide into squares the
space for the fret sub- ;
divide each of these

large squares into six-
teen small squares, by
drawing three horizon-
tal and three vertical
lines, the middle one to be drawn first. Line in.

;
THE GREEK FRET. 87
There are few ornamental forms older than the

Greek fret there is not one that has been so widely
:
used. Sometimes it is called the “ key ornament,”

because there are varieties which resemble a key
sometimes, the “meander,” because its lines so
frequently change their direction sometimes, the
;
“labyrinth,” because of the involved intricacy of

certain specimens, especially as elaborated by the
Greeks. When the lines are oblique, it is called a
“raking fret.”
Notwithstanding there are so many varieties of
this ornamental form, 3’et
its construction is always

simple, always by the aid
of a basis of intersecting
straight lines. Its ger-
minal form is seen at A. Instead of straight lines,
curved lines are sometimes used. Celtic art is es-
pecially inclined to the use of curved lines. But
whether the arrangement of the lines is rectangular,
raking, or curved, the leading characteristics of the
ornament remain plainly discernible.
Though the Greek fret is so rigid, so arbitrary,
in its character, yet there is something about its
•
meandering lines, which always and everywhere

pleases the eye. It has been used by all nations and
tribes, and is more extensively used today than any
other form for enrichment. It may be seen in the
decoration of architecture, of textile fabrics, of
potteiy, glassware, buffalo-robes, shoes, books, &c.
Request your pupils to tell whether they have ever seen
it, where, and if like the specimen given in the cop3*.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XII.

Isosceles Triangles Alternately Reversed.
Directions. —The pupil should be able to complete this

moulding without
specific directions:
hence none are given.
When this de-

sign is viewed in a
vertical position,
the effect is not
agreeable, as it is
not seen the right

way up. It would not, therefore, answer well for
a vertical moulding.
Geometrical Drawings.
A geometrical drawing of an object to represent

breadth and height does not aim at pictorial effects,
because it ignores the principles of perspective,

which would give such effects. The object is drawn
as though all the rays of light proceeding from it
were parallel, and continued parallel forever, instead
of converging, and entering the eye ;
which they are
regarded as doing in a perspective drawing. This
will be explained towards the close of the book.
The two exercises which immediately follow are
geometrical drawings of toy-houses. They are not
pictures. With a little license we ma}' call the first
an end-elevation of a toy-house, the second, a front-
elevation. The plan would show the dimensions on
the ground, and features of construction.
ELEVATIONS. 89
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XIII.
End-Elevation of a Toy-House.
Directions. — Draw a square, 1 2 3 4, on its diameters.

Extend the vertical diameter up-
wards, one -half of its length, to 5.
Draw the oblique lines for the
roof. Divide 1 2 into eight equal
parts, and from the points of di-
vision draw downwards lines par-
allel with the sides of the square.
Divide 1 G into thirds, the lower
point of division giving the bot-
tom of the upper windows. From
4 set off one-third of the distance
3 0, thus obtaining the elevation
of the bottom of the lower windows. Finish according to the
copy. See that the eaves extend sufficiently beyond the
walls.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XIV.
Front-Elevation of a Toy-House.
Directions. — Draw a vertical line, 1 2, and divide into

three equal parts at 3and
4. Through 1, 2, 3, and 4
draw horizontal lines a
third longer than 1 2. Draw
5 0 and G 10, and add the di-
agonal of the oblong; also
-i
the vertical lines which pass

through the centres of the
windows and of the door.
It will now be an easy mat-
ter to fini di, following the
copy. Before the pupils
draw this figure, have them analyze it after the manner which
will now be described.
Preliminary Analysis.
Teach your pupils that they should always analyze

a form, before beginning to draw it : otherwise they
cannot proceed intelligently. Just as young pupils
are apt to begin to work a problem in arithmetic
before they have fairly read it, so they are apt to
begin the drawing of a figure before the}’ have ex-
amined it, to learn what it means, and how best to

begin. This is the haste that makes waste. While
pupils should aim to draw rapidly, they should,
nevertheless, always draw deliberately. From time
to time conduct the analysis yourself, causing the
whole class to participate. You can then make it
an excellent review of many things, besides ac-

quainting them with the particular form they are
about to draw, besides teaching them to observe
and to deliberate. The mode of conducting this
preliminary analysis was illustrated in “ The Prim-
ary Manual.” Here is another illustration, with
Drawing-Book Ex. xiv. for a subject.
Teacher. — What the shape of the front of this house ?

is
Pupils.— Oblong.
Teacher. — What other words might be used to describe its
shape ?
Pupils. — Parallelogram, or rectangle.
Teacher. — Does a parallelogram always have eqiial
angles ?
Pupils. —
No. It is only necessary that its opposite sides
be equal and parallel.
Teacher. —
Does not a rectangle sometimes have all its
j
sides equal ?
Pupils. —
It does and then it is called a square. It is only
;
necessary that a rectangle have all its angles right angles.

;
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS. 91
Teacher. — Which word, then, do you prefer in describing

the side of this house ?
Pupils. — Oblong.
Teacher. — What the shape of the roof ?
is
Pupils. — Oblong.
Teacher. — Shape of the chimneys, windows, and door ?
Pupils. — They are all oblong.

Teacher. — How many oblongs, then, in ? all
Pupils. — Ten.
Teacher. — What other forms do you see ?
Pupils. — Four triangles, — three over the windows, one

•
over the door.

Teacher. — What kind of triangles V
Pupils. — Isosceles, because they have two equal sides.

Teacher. — What kind of angles have they ?
Pupils. — Each has two acute angles and one obtuse.

Teacher. — Wliat else, then, may you call the triangles V
Pupils. — Obtuse-angled triangles.

Teacher. — Are there any other angles in the drawing?
Pupils. — Yes, right angles.
Teacher. — What kind of lines in this drawing ?
Pupils. — Horizontal, vertical, and oblique.
Teacher. — Is the line 7 9 oblique, or vertical ?
Pupils. — Vertical.
Teacher. — But it represents the end of the roof ;
and the
roof slopes, or inclines.
Pupils. — But the line in the drawing does not incline, and
so is not oblique.
Teacher. — Does the line 7 9 represent the full width of one
side of the roof, just as the line 1 5 in the preceding exercise
represents the full width ?
Pupils. — We do not know.
Teacher. — This has not been explained,
and I will tell you
now; for something quite important for you to know.
it is
We say that such a line as 7 9 is foreshortened which means

that the fore view, or front view, of the object is shortened,
because it is partly turned away from the eye, and so is seen

obliquely. When I hold this pencil, for example, square in
front of you, the view shows you its full length. But now I
turn one end from you, and, though you really see the whole
length of the pencil, yet it appears to be shorter than before.
Can you think of any thing you should learn from this ?
Pupils. —
That when we draw an object, if any part is
turned from us, we should allow for foreshortening.
Teacher. —
Good. When two objects are actually of the
same length (take these two pencils), but one is seen oblique-
ly, thus: the other not, thus: how should they be drawn?
Pupils. —
The one seen obliquely should be drawn shorter
than the other.
Teacher. —
Are there any other foreshortened lines in this
drawing, besides 7 S), K 0 ?
Pupils. —
We think not.
Teacher. —
How do you know that the sides of the house
would not lean either towards or from you, were you stand-
ing before it, as represented in the drawing ?
Pupils. —
Because the sides of houses do not lean.
—
T'eacher. But that is not a satisfactory answer. Suppose
this were the drawing of an object you had never seen, would
you then feel sure that the side towards you is perpendicular,
or not ? Would you feel sure that the line 7 h is oblique in
the object itself ?
Pupils. — AVe now see that we could not tell.
Teacher. — Indeed you could not. Hence drawings from

which houses, steam-engines, ships, machinery, and many
other things, are made, give two representations of each part,
that the workmen may know just its shape and size. Bucli
drawings are called “working-drawings,” because they tell
men how to work. All of you who expect ever to become
machinists, shipbuilders, carpenters, mechanics of any kind,
should learn, by and by, how to make these drawings for ;
such knowledge will enable you to do more and better work,

and, therefore, to earn larger wages. The two drawings of
toy-houses in your books are neither pictures nor working-
drawings. They are the latter so far as they go but they ;
only tell half the story, and other drawings, called plans and
sections, would teli the other half.
It is not expected that your analysis will be just

like the above : this is a suggestion. Vary it to
suit circumstances, taking only a part of the things
touched upon, adding other things, changing the

language, the order of the topics, &c.
WORK-IN G-DRA WINGS. 93
Working-Drawings for a Toy-House.
An illustration of what are called working-draw-

ings is here given. You can use it as you deem
best. A working-drawing is so called because one
can work from it, making whatever is required ;
pro-
vided always he can read the drawing, that is, tell
what it does require. Working-drawings are made to

an exact scale, showing the exact proportions of the
different parts of the object. The drawings here
given are thus made ;
and a carpenter, calling each
sixteenth of an inch one foot, for example, could
readily construct the required toy-house. The two
drawings at the right are not absolutely essential for
our present rude building purpose. They are given
for another object.
The drawings numbered 1, 2, 3, are called plans ;
4, 5, G, elevations. A plan supposes the eye to be at

an infinite vertical distance, and looking directly
down upon the object, and represents what would
then be seen. A 11 elevation supposes the eye to be
at an infinite horizontal distance, and looking at the
side of the object.
1 and 2 are horizontal sections.
Plans No. 1 rep-
resents what is seen when the toy-house wdiose front
elevation is given at 4, and end elevation at 5, is
cut horizontally across through the middle of the
lower windows. It shows the position of the door,
windows, chimne} s, stairway, kitchen, sitting-room,
T
also the thickness of the walls and other parts. No.

2 is a similar representation of a horizontal section
through the middle of the upper windows. The
stairway, it will be seen, is a winding one, the lower

half shown on plan 1, the upper half on plan 2.
No. 3 is a plan of the roof and chimney-tops, the
double dotted lines indicating the walls of the house,
which would not be seen by the eye looking directly
down upon the house. No. G is an elevation of the
house when viewed at an angle of 45° as represented
in the plan, from which the elevation is made.
Different points in the elevation are secured by
means of the dotted lines drawn perpendicularly up-
wards from the same points in the plan. Observe
that the full length of the roof is shown by the line

ab in the plan ;
but, in- the elevation, a'b' shows it
foreshortened as , it appears seen at an angle of 45°.
I
Thus the foreshortened lines in the elevation can be
obtained from the full line in the plan.
But observe that neither the plan nor the eleva-

tion gives the full length of the line which repre-
sents the width of the roof from the eaves to the
ridge-pole. But one who understands working-
drawings can, by the aid of the two foreshortened
lines, cie and aV, determine just the length of the
actual line which they represent. Indeed, the true

length of any line, whatever its actual position, may
always be obtained from its plan and elevation com-
bined. On this simple fact, which enables one to
represent the exact proportions of any object, rests
the whole vast superstructure of working-drawings,
for machinery, building, and engineering purposes.
Blackboard Lessons.
Divide the blank page (7) into three equal parts,

by horizontal lines. These may be drawn with a
straight-edge. But remember that all lines in the
drawings are to be drawn with the free hand alone.
Modification of the Zigzag.

Directions. — fn the upper space of blank page (7), re-
produee the zigzag,
Ex. X. Begin by
drawing two parallel
lines across the page,
one inch and a quar-
ter apart, the upper
one a trifle farther
from the edge of the
book than the lower
one is from the line
of division. Having
drawn the zigzag
lines, as in Ex. X., repeat the zigzag inverted. Add the small
rhombuses and triangles ;
then the outer parallel lines.
This exercise illustrates how easy a thing it is to

make a new design out of an old one, to convert
a simple design into one more elaborate by a sym-
metrical addition of new lines. In like manner, an
elaborate design may often be converted into a sim-
ple one by removing some of the lines. This is a
lesson which the pupils should learn early.
A Greek Fret.
Directions. — In the central space of blank page (7), draw
two parallel horizon-
tal lines across the
page, one inch and
a quarter apart, to
form the edge of the
fret. Divide the space
between them into
squares by vertical
lines. Subdivide these
squares, as in Ex. XI.
Line in the fret, add
the outer horizontal
lines, and erase all construction lines not used in the form.
The same basis of intersecting straight lines is
used in this as in Ex. XI. ;

but the result is
somewhat Request your pupils to devise

different.
other modifications of their own, and thus stimulate
their invention. Tliej can use the same basis, or a
7
greater or less number of lines. The only “ inven-

tive drawing,” —
a term we sometimes hear used, —
that is of any real worth, is the new combination of
lines according to some rational method, and not
as the thoughtless fancy of the pupil may dictate.
All invention, to be of any worth, must be methodi-
cal and intelligent.
VARIETIES OF THE FRET. 97
Four Additional Varieties of the Fret.
Simple as is the construction of the fret orna-

ment, yet its varieties, even if we confine ourselves
wholly to straight lines, are almost numberless. Four
varieties are here given, which }T ou can use as you
think best.
Directions. — 1. Draw seven parallel horizontal lines equi-

distant. This
can be best
done by
drawing the
two outer
lines first, and
then the cen-
tr a 1 one.
Draw the ver-
tical lines
necessary to
divide the
whole into small squares. On these squares construct the
fret, as in the copy. This is a Greek specimen.
2. Draw seven parallel horizontal lines equidistant. Draw
the vertical lines necessary to divide the whole into squares.
On these squares construct the fret, as in the copy. It will be
seen that this is quite different from the last variety, though
formed on the same intersecting lines. This is an Egyp-
tian specimen.
3. To construct this variety, draw six parallel horizontal
lines equidistant. Across these draw equidistant vertical
lines, producing a series of squares. On these squares, lightly
sketched, construct the fret, as in the copy, repeating the fig-
ure three or four times. This is a Greek specimen.
4. Draw nine parallel horizontal lines equidistant. Draw
the outer lines first, and then the central one. Across these
draw the necessary vertical lines to produce a series of squares.
Line in the fret, following the copy. Repeat the figure three
j
or four times. Erase construction lines. This is an Egyptian
specimen.
Moulding of Crosses and Squares.

Directions. — In the lower space of blank page (7), draw
two horizontal lines
across the page, one inch
and a quarterapart. Di-
vide the space between
them into squares, and
add their diagonals. Di-
vide the diagonals into
eight equal parts, and
through the points of di-
vision nearest the centre
of each square draw lines
parallel with the diagon-
als. Line in the crosses, and add the outer parallel lines.
When the work on this page has been all completed, erase
the two horizontal lines which divide the page into thirds,
otherwise the page will look too crowded or make the mould-
;
ings narrower.
The Star Cross.
Divide the blank page (8) by a vertical line, so

that one-third of the page shall be on the left, two-
thirds on the right. Draw a horizontal line dividing
the left-hand space into halves.
Directions. — In the upper left-hand space draw a two-

incli square on its diameters. Add
the diagonals. On the diameters
of this square, as diagonals, draw
a second square. Divide each side
of the first square into thirds.
Complete the figure, observing that
every line in it is parallel with
either the sides or diagonals of the
larger square. Before lining in
erase those lines which are not to
make part of the finished drawing,
and which are indicated in the
copy by dotted lines, and thus avoid mistakes.
Cross and Squares.
Directions. — In the lower left-hand space (p. 8, blank)

draw a two-inch square, with its
diagonals. In a square the di-
agonals are always equal, and
cross each other at the centre of
the square. Divide each diagonal
into eight equal parts. By the
aid of these points of division
complete the figure. This will
make a good time exercise, to be
drawn by the pupils on the black-
board, or on their slates. If it is
so used, you will need to draw
it carefullyon the blackboard before the class begin to draw.
Two Triangles Interwoven.
Directions. — In right-hand space (p. 8) draw an equilat-

eral triangle, sides four inches long.
Divide each side into thirds, and
through the points of division draw
lines to form a second triangle of the
same shape and size as the first.
Draw the inner triangles parallel to
the outer ones. The triangles hav-
ing been all sketched complete, in-
terweave the bands, when you line
in,making each go under, then over,
the other, as in the copy.
When you have to draw figures, portions of which

are invisible, sketch the invisible as well as the
visible portions then erase the former. By doing
;
thus, you can readily get the visible lines in their

right places. See that your pupils do the erasing
before they begin to line in, or they will make many
mistakes, and waste much time with the rubber.
Twelve-Pointed Star.
Directions. — Draw a hexagon and triangles, as in the

blackboard exercise on p. 81. Draw
two other triangles by connecting
the centres of the alternate sides of
the hexagon. Line in. Make such
use of this exercise as you deem best.
Remember that the time to

make most- use of the rubber is
just before you begin to line in

a drawing. All the lines, and
parts of lines, which do not be-
long to the form, should then be carefuly erased,
otherwise you will frequently line in portions you
should not.
Patterns for Covering Even Surfaces.
Patterns for covering even surfaces are often

called diapers. They are usually based on the tri-
angle or square, two elementary geometrical forms,

either of which, when repeated, will cover flat
surface without leaving interstices. By using curved

lines instead of straight lines, or by using the two
combined, you can easily secure a great variety of
patterns, which, to the uneducated eye, will appear
to be constructed in ways altogether different.
Diaper patterns can be property used whenever
you have a flat surface to be decorated, as in the
case of woven fabrics, floors, &c. Because they can
then be property used, it does not follow, by any
means, that they are always the best form of decora-
tion to be employed at such times.
COVERING SURFACE. 101
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XV.
Hexagons, Repeated for Covering Surface.
Directions. — First extend the vertical lines of the copy

near to the bottom
of the allotted space
in the drawing-
hook ;
then draw
the horizontal lines.
Sketch and line in
the hexagons.
Since each
hexagon can be
divided into six
equilateral triangles by straight lines drawn from all
its corners to its. centre, we may say that the basis

of this pattern is the equilateral triangle.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XVI.
Octagons and Squares, Repeated for Covering Surface.
Directions. — Extend the vertical lines of the copy down-

wards ;
then draw hor-
izontal lines dividing the
whole space into squares.
Draw the octagons by
judgment of eye. The
square is the basis of
this pattern, as it is also
of the next.
Were we to use
this pattern for a
marble floor or pave-
ment, we would fill the squares with marble of one
;
color, the octagons with marble of another color.

Were we to use the preceding design for the same
purpose, only the alternate hexagons would be of the
same Such patterns are especially suitable
color.
and pavements, as the ornament applied to
for floors
them should always be flat. If it represents relief,
then it gives the disagreeable impression that we
are walking on a rough surface.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XVII.
Squares and Crosses, Repeated for Covering Surface.
Direction-s. —No directions are needed for drawing this

pattern. From time to
time, pupils should he
left wholly to themselves
to test their capacity, to
show whether they re-
tain what they have been
taught, and whether
they possess any origin-
ality.
See that you do

not require overmuch
of your pupils in the way of original, unaided effort
otherwise they will become disheartened. Avoid,

also, giving too much assistance ;
for then they will
never become original and self-reliant. Just when to
help, and just how much, is, indeed, one of the most
difficult things to determine satisfactorily. When a
word will save from a prolonged stupid effort, give
it. not of equal value. When a word
All effort is
will deprive ofmental discipline, and of the pleasure

of unaided conquest, then withhold the word.
COVERING SURFACE. 103
Triangles, Alternately Empty and Filled, for Covering

Surface.
Directions. — Draw an equilateral triangle, abc. Halve

each of its sides. Through the
points of division draw lines
parallel with the sides of the
triangle. By the aid of these
lines construct other triangles,
and parts of triangles, inside
and outside the first. A larger
number of triangles may be
readily obtained by dividing
the sides of the first triangle
into a larger number of equal
parts. Inside of the triangles
thus obtained, draw similar triangles slightly smaller, and fill
every other one with an ornamental form, as in the copy.
Questions. —What is said of the use of the blackboard?

Of blackboard lessons? Of dictation lessons? Of original
dictation lessons by the pupils ? Of truthful graphic repre-
sentation? Of leaving pupils to draw given forms without
directions ? Of drawing geometrical forms without mechani-
cal aid ? Of the use of mirrors by portrait-painters ? Of class
criticism of the form drawn? Of time-drawing? Mention
reasons why the pupils should learn to draw rapidly. De-
scribe borders and mouldings. How do material and position
influence designs? What is said of the zigzag? Of the Greek
fret? What is a geometrical drawing? a plan? an eleva-
tion? a working-drawing ? What is said of preliminary
analysis ? When is a line said to be foreshortened ? What
of inventive drawing ? Describe diaper patterns. When can
they be properly used ?
-
CHAPTER V.
PLANE CURVES, AND PLANE CURVED FIGURES.

DESIGNS COMPOSED OF STRAIGHT AND
CURVED LINES.
Curves may be divided into two general classes,

mathematical and unmathematical. The former
have properties clearly defined and invariable.
They can always be drawn with mechanical aids,
and cannot otherwise be perfectly drawn. The
circle, spiral, ellipse, cycloid, parabola, are mathe-
matical curves. Whether drawn large or small, or
with any other modification of appearance, each
curve must always have certain peculiar properties.
Thus every point in a circular curve must be at the
same distance from a common point called the
centre. In an elliptical curve the combined dis-
tance of each point from two common points,
called the foci of the ellipse, must always be equal,
however flat or full the curve ma}' be. Unmathe-
matical curves have no precisely defined properties :
they are distinguished by their general appearance.

Provided they conform to this general appearance,
they are correctly drawn. Hence, while mathe-
matical curves can be drawn freehand with only an
approximation to accuracy, unmathematical curves
can be accurately drawn in this way but some of
;
the latter curves will, indeed, be much more beauti-
104
CURVED LINES. 105
ful than others. The oval, or egg-shape, is an

example of the unmathematical curve. Drawing
employs curves belonging to both of these general
classes.
Mathematical curves may be divided into plane
curves and ascending curves. The former, like the
circle, the ellipse, the parabola, are drawn in the
same plane ;
the latter, like the thread of a screw,
have no two points in the same plane. Mathemati-
cal curves are yet further distinguished. In this
Intermediate Course, however, we shall have occasion
to deal only with plane curves, both mathematical
and unmathematical. See that your pupils acquire
a distinct notion of what is meant bj a plane. Re-
7
mind them that all lines, straight 01; curved, drawn

on the same blackboard, are drawn in the same plane ;
and so they are drawn in the same plane when

drawn on the same flat sheet of paper.
In describing curves, certain terms of rather loose
application are sometimes employed. Thus the term
“abstract” is applied to all curves which do not
enclose space, and do not represent any created
object, natural or artificial. Certain curves which
are never produced by mechanical means, like nu-
merous modifications of the ogee, are called “ hand-
curves,” because they are always drawn with the free
hand alone. A curve which reverses its direction,
like the ogee, is called a “reversed curve.” It
really consists of two curves, each of which may
be a mathematical or an unmathematical curve.
As your pupils go on with their drawing, see that
you make them perfectly familiar with the features,
especially the mathematical features, which distin-

guish different curves and curved figures. By ocular
illustration,by comparing one curve and figure with
another, and by frequently repeating your instruc-
tion, you will, after a little, accomplish this.
Plane Curves, and Plane Curved Figures.
A Plane Curve. —A
plane curve is a line ivhich
liesin one plane constantly -changes its direction
, ,
and has no three consecutive points in the same

straight line.
A Plane Curved Figure. —

Any figure bounded by a
plane curve is called a plane curved figure.
While there is an infinite variety of plane curves,

mathematical and unmathematical, they are all
embraced under the definition given above. Neither
a reversed curve, like the ogee, nor a plane spiral, ,
forms an exception ;
for, when we speak of three
consecutive points of a line, we mean that no other
points come between these three. Any three points

in a reversed curve, or spiral, found to lie in the
same straight line, would also be found to have
parts of tlie curved line between them. Hence they
would not be consecutive points.
A Circular Curve. —
A line which lies in one plane ,
and bends equally in every part, is called a circular

curve.
A curve of this character is always struck from

one point, and, if continued far enough, becomes a
circle. It is sometimes, in popular usage, called a
“ simple curve.”
—
A PLANE CURVED FIGURE. 107
The Circle and its Parts.
A circle may be struck with open compasses ;

one
foot of the compasses being
fixed, and marking the centre
of the circle, the other re-
volving, and tracing the cir-
cumference : hence its defini-
tion.
The circle may be divided
in different ways, asshown
accompanying cut and
in the ;
it has many important mathematical properties,

which will have to be learned and used in more
advanced drawing.
A Circle. —A circle is a plane figure bounded

by a curve called ,
its circumference ,
all parts of which
are at the same distance from a point within ,
called
the centre.
This is the strict mathematical use of the word

“ and makes it consist of the space enclosed
circle,”
by the curve. In popular usage the word frequently
denotes the circumference, and may be defined
thus :
A circle is an endless plane curve which bends

equally in all its parts.
Discriminate carefully between these two mean-

ings. For convenience, the word must be frequently
used in this double sense. The connection will
always show what is intended.
I
108 TEACHERS' MANUAL .
Radius of a Circle. —A radius of a circle is a

straight line drawn from the centre to the circumfer-
ence. (See p. 107.)
The radius of a circle is equal to the opening of

the compasses with which the circle was struck.
Diameter of a Circle —A
diameter of a circle
isa straight line drawn through the centre and touch- ,
ing the circumference on both sides. (See p. 107.)
Thus the diameter is double the radius. It is the

longest straight line that can be drawn in a circle,
and divides it into two equal parts, called semicircles.
There may be numberless radii and diameters.
A Sector. — The space included between any part of

the circumference and two radii of a circle is called
a sector. (See p. 107.)
A Quadrant. — The space included between a quar-
ter of the circumference and two radii of a circle is
called a quadrant. (See p. 107.)
Thus a quadrant is a sector ;

but all sectors are
not quadrants. It would not be sufficient to describe
a quadrant simply as a quarter of a circle : the
circle must be divided in a particular way.
An Arc.— Any part of a circumference or other

curve is an
called (Seep. 107.)
arc.
A Chord. — A straight connectingline the two
ends of an arc is called a chord. (See p. 107.)
In drawing, it is frequently convenient to speak of

the chord of a curve as its base.
THE CIRCLE AND ITS PARTS. 109
A Segment. — The space enclosed by an arc and

its chord is called a segment. (See p. 107.)
Altitude of a Curve — The altitude of a curve is the
perpendicular distance from the base to the highest

point in the curve. (See p. 107.)
We
do not describe curves as oblique, horizontal,
or vertical, but say, “ a curve on an oblique base,”
“ a curve on a horizontal base,” “ a curve on a
vertical base.” Whatever ma}' be the position of
a curve, it has base and altitude all the same. In
teaching drawing, especially in blackboard and dic-
tation exercises, you will have frequent occasion to
use these terms.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XVIII.
The Circle and its Parts.
Directions for the Circle. — In the middle of the lower por-

tion of the allotted space draw
a horizontal line and a vertical
line, each an inch and a half long,
and mutually bisecting. Upon
these two lines, as diameters,
draw the circle.
The Quadrant.— In the left-
hand upper corner draw a hori-
zontal line one inch long. At
the left end of this draw a per-
pendicular line of the same
length. Add the curve, com-
pleting the quadrant. See that
you do not make the curve too flat: it should represent the
quarter of a circle.
The Semicircle. —
To the right of the quadrant draw a hor-
zontal line two inches long. At its centre draw upwards a
110 TEA CHERS ' MAN UAL.
vertical line one inch long. Add the curve, completing the
semicircle.
The Segments. —
Draw the segments about the circle,
giving the chord, or base, of each curve a different direction.
The pupils need not add the names of the different parts;
as, diameter, chord, &c.
When it is essential that the circle be drawn with

mathematical precision, then use the compasses. It
is not essential that it be so drawn here, and the
compasses must not be used. Practice will enable

one, after a little,to draw a circle practically accu-
rate with the free hand alone.
Doubtless, many of your pupils will make bad
work at first with the circle thus drawn. They
will declare th$y can never do it in a respectable
manner. When such is the case, ask them if they
can see imperfections in the circles they have drawn.
If they say, “ Yes,” then tfell them, for it is true, that
the hand, with practice, soon learns to correct all
the imperfections discoverable by the eye. Tell

them that the very fact that they can see their errors
is cause for encouragement since, if they did not
;
first see them, it would be impossible to correct
them. Tell them there is no limit to progress, so

long as the eye can detect imperfections when there
are any. Only he who cannot perceive the imper-
fections in his drawing, when they are prominent,
has reason to be discouraged. When the eye of the
pupil thus you will find it well to show him
fails;
the imperfections by mechanical means.

For artistic purposes, the circle is the least beauti-
ful of all the curves, since the eye can so readily de-
THE ELLIPSE DEFINED. Ill
tect its character, — that it bends equally in all its
parts. The more subtle a curve, that is, the more

difficulty we have in discovering its true character,
the more it pleases the eye. The same is true of

proportions, the eye deriving less pleasure from sim-
ple than from subtle proportions. More about this
further along.
The Ellipse.
In drawing, much use is made of this figure.

Whenever a circle is assumes the
seen obliquely, it
appearance of an Hence, in model and

ellipse.
object drawing, the ellipse must be frequently drawn.

Again elliptical curves being more beautiful than
:
circular curves, they are often employed in design.
An Ellipse. — An ellipse is a plane figure bounded

by a curve every point of which
,
is at the same com-
bined distance from two points called the foci.

(See p. 116.)
According to this definition, the space bounded by

the curve, and not the -curve itself, is the ellipse.
But the word “ ellipse,” like the word “ circle,” is,
for convenience, often used to describe both the
curve, and the enclosed space.
The ellipse being a mathematical figure, it can be
drawn with perfect accuracy only by mechanical
means. There are various ways to do this. One is
described in the Primary Manual you should make ;
your pupils familiar with this way if they do not

already understand it. Here is another :
—
Drawing the Ellipse by Mechanical Means.

Directions. — Draw two straight lines, 1 2, 3 4, of indefinite
length, mutual-
ly perpendicu-
lar, and bisect-
ing each other.
From the point
of bisection, o,
mark on off
either hand,
along one of the
lines, as at 1
and 2, the same
distance, name-
ly, one-half of
the long, or
transverse, diameter of the proposed ellipse. Call it two
inches in the present case, making the whole distance, 1 2,
equal to four inches. From o, on either side, mark off along
the other line, as at 3 and 4,the same distance, namely, one-

half of the short, or conjugate diameter of the proposed el-
lipse. Call it one inch, making the whole distance, 3 4,
equal to two inches.
You now have the diameters of the proposed ellipse. The
one, 1 2, is twice as long as the other, 3 4. Any other pro-
portion could be taken as well. The ends of these diameters
give four points in the required curve. For one skilled in
drawing ellipses freehand, these points would suffice but for ;
the beginner they are not enough.

Take a piece of paper having a straight edge from one end
:
mark off a distance equal to 1 o, or one-lialf of the transverse

diameter of the proposed ellipse. Put the letter t by the
side of thismark, also by the side of the transverse diameter.
Commencing at the same point, mark off on the same edge of
the paper the distance 3 o, or one-half of the conjugate diam-
eter. Put the letter c by the side of this mark, also by the
side of the conjugate diameter. Lay the strip of paper on the
diameters of the proposed ellipse, so that the mark t shall
fall on the conjugate diameter c, and the mark c on the
transverse diameter t, at the same time. The corner of the
paper will give a point in the required curve. Mark it.
DRAWING THE ELLIPSE. 113
Change the position of the papei’, observing always to keep

t on c, and c on until a sufficient number of points have
't,
thus been accurately obtained. Through these points draw

the curve freehand.
This method, which is only in part mechanical, is a very
convenient method. Using a stick, instead of a slip of paper,
you can thus draw large ellipses on the blackboard. "With
a few trials, your pupils will become masters of the method.
Before an ellipse can be drawn with a good degree

of accuracy by the aid of the diameters alone, the
eye must become familiar with the figure by look-
ing at ellipses accurately drawn. Therefore, require
your pupils, from time to time, to draw ellipses in
the manner just described. After they have been
thus drawn on paper, or on the blackboard, require
them to go carefully over the figures many times
with their pencils or crayons. Such practice will at
last so work the curve into both hand and eye, that
it can be drawn freehand with a good degree of
celerity and precision.
The definition says the combined distance of each
point in the boundary of an ellipse from two points
called the foci is always the same. To find the
foci,you have only to draw a straight line from an
end of the short diameter, on either side, to the long j
diameter, making each of these lines, as 3/ and

3f\ equal to lo, one-half of the long diameter.
Where these two lines touch the long diameter, will
be the two foci, as / and /'. Now, from any point
in the curve, as a, draw a straight line to each
focus, and you will have af -{- cif = 3/ -J- 3f.
This it is that distinguishes the ellipse from all other
curves. Why it has this peculiar characteristic, will
be clearly seen by consulting the Primary Manual,

and drawing an ellipse as there described.
The centre of an ellipse is at the point where the
transverse and conjugate diameters cross each other,
as at o. This point will bisect every line drawn
through it from one side of the ellipse to the other ;
that is, the centre of the ellipse and the centre of |
the line will coincide. Any straight line thus drawn

divides the ellipse into two equal similar parts, just
as the circle is divided by its diameter. Hence, by
tracing an ellipse on transparent paper, you can
easily determine whether it is accurately drawn for, ;
if it is, the trace can be exactty applied to the ori-
ginal, with ends and sides reversed.
Centre of a Plane Curve. — The centre of any plane

curve point in the plane of the curve which
is that
bisects every straight line drawn through it and ter- ,
minated by the curve.
If no point will do this, then the curve has no

centre.
Centre of a Straight Line. — The centre of a straight

line is that point which is equally distant from the
extremities of the line.
The word “centre” can be applied to the exact

middle of a line, as well as to the exact middle of a
circle.
The Oval.
The oval is not a mathematical figure ;

for it has
no properties mathematically defined and fixed. It
is named from its general appearance, as its name

;
THE OVAL DEFINED. 115
implies. It is simply an egg-shaped figure ;

that is,
it resembles the longitudinal outline of an egg, or

the flat surface that would be obtained on dividing
an egg, lengthwise, into two equal parts. As the
variations in the shape of eggs are innumerable, so
are the variations in the shape of ovals but the ;
general appearance, in either case, remains alwa3T s

the same.
The Oval. — The oval is a plane figure hounded

by a curve having the shape of an egg viewed side-
wise. (See p. 116.)
There are different ways, of course, to define an

oval. You can use any other definition for which
you have a preference. The thing of real value is,
for the learner to get a correct notion of the figure,
not simply to memorize a definition.
When drawing an oval, we may make its boundary-
line circular in part, in part elliptical ;
or we may
make it wholly of portions of different circles, or of
different ellipses ;
or we may use curves which are
neither circular nor elliptical. It is only essential
that the figure be egg-shaped ;
that its two parts,
when it is divided lengthwise, as the long diameter
divides it, be similar and equal, balancing. No
other line will thus divide it. The ellipse has two
axes of symmetry ;
the oval, one.
In popular usage the ellipse is often called an oval
but this should never be, for the two figures are quite
unlike. If you teach your pupils properly, they will
never confound the two.
116 TEA CIIERS ' MAN UAL.
DRAWING- BOOK EXERCISE XIX.
Drawing the Ellipse and the Oval, Freehand.
Directions for an Ellipse 2 —

X 3 (a). In the middle of the
left-hand upper space draw the
transverse and conjugate diame-
ters of the ellipse, making the
former two inches and a quarter
long, the latter one inch and a
half, which will give an ellipse
with the proportions of 2x3.
Through each end of the diame-
ters draw a portion of the houn-
dary-line. When these are satis-
factory, unite them by drawing
the intervening portions. See that
the ellipse has no abrupt curve anywhere; also see that its
sides aVe not too flat. Compare carefully with the copy.
It will be well to require your pupils, before they

attempt to draw the ellipse in their books, to draw it
on their slates : first by the aid of a slip of paper, as

described on p. 112 ; then with the free hand.
Observe that each of its diameters divides the el-
lipse into two equal and similar parts and that both ;
together divide it and similar parts.

into four equal
By comparing these parts with one another, you will
facilitate the drawing of the ellipse.
An Oval (h) — In the middle of the upper right-hand space

draw a vertical linetwo inches and a quarter long. Divide it
into thirds. Through the upper point of division draw a hor-
izontal line equal to two parts of the vertical line, and extend-
ing the same distance on either side. On the horizontal line,
as a base, draw a semicircle for the large end of the oval. On
the lower two-thirds of the vertical line, draw one-lialf of an
ellipse for the small end of the oval.
QU ATREFOIL. 117
Observe that only the long diameter divides the

oval into two equal and similar parts, balancing.
It has, therefore, but one axis of symmetry. Com-
pare with the ellipse, which has two.
An Ellipse 3x7 (c). — In tlie middle of the lower space

draw the long and short diameters of the ellipse, making the
former three inches and a half long, the latter one inch and a
half,which will give an ellipse with the proportions of 3X7.
Complete as in the last exercise but one.
Do not weary your pupils by keeping them too

long at work, at any one time, with the circle,
ellipse, and oval ;

but rather revert to them quite
frequently, until they have fairly mastered their
different features.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XX.

Quatrefoil, Filled.
Directions. — Mark the centre of the space allotted in the

drawing-book. Through this point
draw two lines, one vertical, one
horizontal, each an inch and a half
long, and each bisecting the other.
On these two lines, as diameters,
construct a square. Extend the
diameters one-half of their length
beyond each side of the square.
On each side of the square draw a
semicircle passing through the end
of the extended diameter. This
will complete the
copy in the draw-
ing-book. Now make of each semicircle a complete circle.
Then through each corner of the^squarc draw a semicircle,
connecting the centres of the two adjacent sides of the square.
Add the other curves in the Manual copy. Draw the figure
on the blackboard, as the class draw it in their books,
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXI.

Quatrefoil, Filled.
drawing-book. Thro ugh this point
draw two straight lines, one verti-
cal, one horizontal, each two
inches long, and each bisecting the
other. On these lines, as diame-
ters, construct a square ;
then
unite their ends to form a smaller
square. Draw the diagonals of
the larger square. From each
corner of the smaller square mark
off about one-sixth part of the side
of the square. On each side of
the smaller square draw a semicircle, connecting these points
of division, and touching two sides of the larger square. Line
in. This gives the copy in the drawing-book. Now draw a
'
circular curve to connect each end of each semicircle with its

middle. Next draw a circular curve, convex towards the
common centre of the squares, to connect the centres of each
two adjacent sides of the smaller square. Finish.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXII.
Trefoil, Filled.

drawing-book. Through this point j
draw a vertical line two inches long,

and divide it into four equal parts.
Through the upper point of division,
and extending equally on either side
of the vertical line, draw a horizon-
tal line, not quite two inches long, but
long enough to form an equilateral
triangle when its ends are united by
straight lines to the lower end of the
vertical line. Divide each side of
the triangle into four equal parts.
On the two central parts draw semicircles. This gives the re-
SYMBOLISM IN ART. 119
suit shown in the drawing-hook. Now add the other curves

contained in the Manual. Draw on the blackboard as the
class draw in their books.
Symbolism in Art.
When we use an object to convey a meaning

which the object itself does not necessarily imply, it
becomes a symbol. Thus the letters of the alpha-

bet are symbols by common agreement they are
:
employed to represent sounds which they do not re-

semble in the remotest degree. A bundle of rods is
a symbolic representation of strength in union.

The stars on the American flag are symbols, each
standing for a State. When, however, a man is
painted with hammer and tongs, the latter are not

symbols : they are the instruments themselves which
a blacksmith uses in his labor, and show, without
an}r conventional agreement, that the man holding
them is a blacksmith. But, when the human figure
is painted with a bridle in the hands, we have a
symbol which the ancients employed to represent
temperance. Constancy they indicated by an atti-
tude, —by the human figure leaning against a
column.
Much is made of symbolism
in Egyptian art, and
in Christian art of the Middle Ages. Of Christian
symbolism we have examples in the trefoil and qua-
trefoil figures, which have just been drawn the ;
former a symbol of the Trinity, the latter a S3 mbol r
of the four Evangelists. The cross is a symbol of

Christianity itself. Indeed, the numbers 3, 5, 7,
became sacred, —
3 meaning the Trinity, 5 the five
wounds, 7 the seven sacraments. These numbers

were to be seen in the plan of a church, a nave —
and two aisles in the number of the lights in the
;
windows, in the foils of the tracery, in the number

of points or leaflets of sculptured foliage. Thus a
Gothic rosette does not have four, six, or eight leaf-
lets. Even painting became so far symbolic as to
use a special color for the garment of each saint,
and a special emblem to denote the sufferings of
each martyr.
For an extended account of symbolism in art and
architecture, see chap. vi. of the author’s “Art
Education,” issued by the publishers of this book.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXIII.
Moulding of Circular Curves.

Directions. — Extend the horizontal lines across the page,
and divide into squares.
Sketch the whole in light
lines first. Having se-
cured a satisfactory
sketch, line in. If the
work is properly done,
a series of circles will
form apart of the result.
This design will appear
the right way up when
viewed from any point,
and repeated any way.
Observe how simple are the elements composing

this form, —
two curves only, if we omit the outside
straight lines. Repetition of these two curves pro-
duces the apparently intricate design. An analysis
of the different exercises in this book will show, in
MOULDINGS. 121
each instance, that the final result has been secured

by the repetition of two or three simple elements.
If those elements can be well drawn, then the whole
figure can be well drawn, with a due allowance of time.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXIV.

Moulding of Circular Curves Interlaced.
Directions. —
Extend the horizontal lines across the page,
and divide into squares.
Draw long curves
the
full then erase those
;
parts which go under.

The smaller circles occu-
py about one-third of the
breadth of the moulding.
This design will appear
the right way up when
viewed from any point)
and when repeated up
and down, or right and
left. The long curves are parts of perfect circles.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXV.

Moulding of Flower-Forms Alternately Reversed.
Directions. — Having extended the horizontal lines across
the page, and made the
proper divisions, first
draw throughout the
whole the long, contin-
uous wave curve. Hav-
ing got this to your
satisfaction, the other
curves can then be eas-
ily added. Strive to
make the curves grace-
ful. This design can
be seen to best advan-
tage only when horizontally repeated on a vertical surface.
Blackboard Lessons.
Draw a vertical line so that two-thirds of blank

page 13 shall be on the left of this line, and one-
third on its right. Draw a horizontal line dividing
the one-third into two equal parts.
Square, and Interlacing Curves.
Directions. — Mark the centre- of the largest space on the

page by a point ;
through this draw
the horizontal and vertical diame-
ters for a five-inch square. Draw
the square, and add its diagonals.
Divide the diagonals into thirds.
Through the points of division
draw equal circular curves, one on
each side of each diagonal, and
touching the diagonal near its ends,
as shown in the copy. Draw th*e
inner parallel curves, making the
bands interlace. Before lining in
I
erase the parts not to show when the drawing is done.
The Unit of the Dog-Tooth Moulding.
Directions. — In the upper right-hand space draw a two-

and-a-half-inch square, with sit
diameters and diagonals. Add the
indentations at the centres of the
sides. Line in. By repeating this
unit, leaving a slight space be-
tween the repeats, and adding par- |
allel outlines, you have the dog-

tooth moulding, which is often cut
in stone for an architectural orna-
ment.
The centre of the figure is \
higher than any other part, each of the four sides ]

DRAWING FROM MEMORY. 123
of the figure sloping from the centre to the edge,

and so the diagonals represent ridges. This feature
cannot be shown without shading, which young
pupils should never attempt in the earlier stages of
their drawing career.
Rosette of Right and Curved Lines.
Directions. — In the lower right-hand space draw a two-

and-a-half-inch square, with its
diameters and diagonals. Mark
the centre of each semi-diagonal,
and through the points of division
draw the smaller circle. Draw
the outer circle so as not quite to
touch the sides of the square. Add
the foils on the diagonals in the
corners of the square. Line in.
The centre of a drawing when
placed on the blackboard should
he on a level with the eye. The
lines may extend above and below the eye as far as they can
be readily drawn.
Drawings executed from Memory.
Let the pupil fill p. 14, which is blank, with forms

drawn from memory. You can leave him to make
his own selections, or 3011 can indicate the one's you
would have drawn. Preference should be given to
historical forms, some of which, one on the
like the
titlepage of this book, should be drawn again and
again. Before the pupil begins, he should deter-
mine the number of the forms, and the size of each
to be drawn on the page, and divide the page accord-
ingly. After he begins to draw he should not refer
to the form he is endeavoring to reproduce.
Blackboard and Dictation Lessons.
The figures which follow are intended for black-

board and dictation lessons, to be used when you
think best. They can be drawn on the blackboard,
or in the place of some of the figures which have been
designated for the blank pages in the drawing-book.
Rosette : Square and Circular Curves.
Directions. — Draw a square with its diameters and diagon-

als. Halve each semi-diameter,
and connect the adjacent points of
division by semicircles convex
towards the corners of the square.
Draw a circle enclosing this quatre-
foil, and not quite touching the
sides of the square. If this is given
as a blackboard lesson, let .the
draw it large from the copy
pupils
without directions. The pupils
themselves should quite frequently
draw on the blackboard, a thing
they usually like to do. The drawings should be large.
Rosette: Octagonal Form.
Directions. — Draw a square with its diameters and di-

agonals. Within the square con-
struct an octagon as shown. Halve
the semi-diameters of the square,
and through the points of division
draw a second square having its
sides parallel with the sides of the

first square. By the aid of this
complete the figure. Let the pupils
draw it from a blackboard copy
without directions. The important
educational discipline to be got
from this practice has been pre-
viously explained, and need not be repeated here.
Diaper Pattern: Squares and Circles.
Directions. — Draw any number of connected squares.

Add circles circumscribing alter-
nate squares. Within the other
squares draw circles touching, but
not cutting, the first-drawn circles.
This will serve as a pat-

tern for a pavement, the dif-
ferent parts to be filled with
different colored marbles.
Other curves might be added,
thus greatly modifying the appearance of the pattern.
But it is better to err, if you err at all, in the wajr
of simplicity, than by an over-abundance of lines.
It not infrequently happens that the effect of a
design is weakened by too man} T
lines. It is the
tendenc}' of the uncultivated taste to overdo in
the application of ornament, whether it consists
of form or color:
Square Rosette of Interlacing Lines.
Directions. —
Draw a square, its diameters and diagonals.
Divide the diagonals into ten equal
parts. Connect the three outer
points of division on each semi-
diagonal by lines parallel with the
sides of- the square. Through the
points of division nearest the cen-
tre, draw lines parallel with the
diameters. Draw the oblique lines
for the interlacing. Having thus
sketched the form, ei'ase the lines
which are not to show when the
drawing is done. Also erase the other lines until they are
just visible: then line in.
ROSETTE FORMS. 127
Page of Rosette Forms.

Directions. — The geometrical rosette forms on the opposite
page can be used for blackboard lessons at such times as you
may deem best. No one of them needs more than a word of
description. It will be seen that the first seven are con-
structed on the same basis of two equal concentric squares,
the diameters of the one coinciding with the diagonals of the
other.
Form I. — Draw a square on its diameters. Add its diagon-

als. Mark
such parts of the diagonals as will be equal to
off
the diameters of the first square; and on these, as diameters,
draw a second square which will be equal to the first. Add
the circular curves.
Form 2 . — Reproduce Form 1. Continue every other curve

to the common centre of the squares. All the curves are parts
of circles.
Form 3. —
Reproduce Form 2. Add the small circle at the
centre, and the remaining circular curves.
Form 4. — Reproduce Form 1. Next draw the larger inner
circle. Finish according to copy.
Form 5. — Reproduce Form 1, making it large. Draw the

larger inner circle, making it equal to one-half the diameter
of the whole figure. Draw the smaller circles.
Form 6. — Reproduce Form 1. Add the parallel lines, and

complete the figure.
Form 7. — Reproduce Fig. 1, making it large. Draw the

interlacing bands.
Form 8. —
Draw two interlacing triangles, as on page 99.
Add the interlacing circles.
Forms 9 and 10. — These are so simple, that no directions

at all are needed.
Form II. — Draw all the straight lines, and all the circles,
full ;
then erase the parts not wanted.
Form 12. — The drawing of this is too simple to require any
directions. All the curves are circles or parts of circles.

Ornaments and Pictures.
In the production of an elaborate ornament, we

start with a simple germ, perfect in itself. One
feature after another is added to this. The additions
are made in accordance with the general laws of
natural growth, symmetrically about a centre, for
example, as Nature arranges the petals of a flower.
With each new addition we have a new design, as
illustrated by the progressive steps which lead to
Form 3, p. 126. Each new design is perfect in it-
self, because there is no superfluous line, and no line

is wanting to complete the symmetry of the figure.
At last, through the different symmetrical progres-
sive steps, we reach the elaborate final result that
was desired.
A picture must have symmetry, indeed, but of its
appropriate kind there must be no regular repeti-
:
tion of lines or features, as in a design for decora-

tive purposes. A picture, too, may have different
degrees of elaboration, at an}’ one of which, should
the painter stop, the picture, nevertheless, would be
a complete whole, though not in the highest degree
elaborate ;
but, as already said, no stage consists of
the symmetrical repetition of a particular feature.
Here we have one of the things which distinguish an
ornament from a picture.
But, further having constructed our ornament,
:
we ma} repeat it, in some regular order, again and

r
again, without offence to the taste ;

with delight,
rather. Indeed, the regular repetition of an orna-
mental form usually increases its pleasing effect.
ORNAMENTS AND PICTURES. 129
But who would care to hang upon the walls of his

room a score of landscapes, or other pictures, all
exactly alike? Could any arrangement, regular or
irregular, make the effect agreeable? Rather, the
j
feeling would always be one of disgust. Or who
would care for half a dozen of the most beautiful
marble statues, exactly alike, and symmetrically
arranged, as, back to back, in the form of a hexagon ?
The effect would be simply ridiculous. Here, then,
is another thing which distinguishes an ornament
from a picture, or piece of statuary. The latter
cannot, without offending the taste, be repeated as
wholes ;
but an ornament can, and so is adapted to
the purposes of beautifying in the industrial arts.
Single pictures, indeed, may be thus used when the
form of the object will permit, and the material of
which it is made as in the case of porcelain.
;
Rosette : Hexagonal Form, with Interlacing Lines.
Directions. — Draw a hexagon. Divide each of its sides

into fifths. On this basis con-
struct the figure, drawing all the
|
lines full' at first, and then eras-
ing parts so as to represent in-
terlacing bands. Let vour pu-
pilsdraw this foriix on the black-
board or you can use it in any
;
other manner you please.
When it is drawn on
the blackboard, the centre
should be on a level with the eye, otherwise the
form will be viewed obliquely, and so will be dis-
torted.
9
Page of Rosettes.
Directions. — But little is demanded in the way of direc-

tions for drawing either of the forms on p. 130. In each case
begin by drawing a square adding its diameters and diagon-
;
als, or not, as required. The forms can be used either for

blackboard or dictation lessons. If used for the former, the
pupils can be left to draw them without any verbal directions,
as it has been advised that they should be sometimes left.
Borders of Interlacing Lines.
Directions. — (a). Draw the outer parallel horizontal lines.

Across these draw very light vertical
lines far enough apart to make a
series of squares. Draw other light
vertical lines dividing the squares
into thirds. Now draw the inner
parallel horizontal lines, making the
space between them equal to six-
eiglitlis of the space between the
outer lines. Finish the figure on this
basis.
Directions. — (
Having drawn
b ).
the squares, with their diameters and diagonals as a construc-
tion basis, proceed to draw the interlacing curves, drawing
the longer ones first.
Perhaps you have found it a hard task to bring
your class thus far ;

and perhaps you are not satis-
fied with the result. The reverse would be wonder-
ful, if, while your pupils are you new to the subject,
are also just beginning to teach drawing, and to
learn it, perchance, yourself. Such must be the
situation in many schools where this book is used
for the first time. Instruction in drawing has its
.
peculiar difficulties but if you go to work ear-

;
nestly, and in accordance with the general princi-

132 TEA CIIERS ’
MA N UAL.
pies of teaching, you will soon ascertain how to

meet these difficulties, though peculiar. The second
class you take over the ground will not give you
half the trouble you experienced with the first and ;
at the same time the pupils will do their work better

and with more ease. But drawing has not onty its
peculiar difficulties ; it has also its peculiar advan-
tages. When you have become familiar with teaching
it according to this system, you will find it one of
the most satisfactory of all studies to teach.
Questions. — How may curves be divided? What is a

mathematical curve ? a plane curve ? a plane curved fig-
ure ? a circular curve ? a circle? Name parts of a circle.
How must a circle be divided to give a quadrant? Deline tlie
diameter of a circle its radius. Wliat is an arc? a chord?
:
a segment? Deline the altitude of a curve. What two

meanings has the word “ circle ” ? Describe an ellipse: an
oval. How do these two figures differ from each other, and
from the circle? What is said of learning by contrast and
comparison ? Why is the ellipse much used in drawing?
Describe the method of drawing it with a slip of paper.
What is said of symbolism in art? What kind of forms are
preferable for memory lessons? How do ornaments and
pictures differ ?
CHAPTER VI.
REVERSED CURVES, AND APPLICATIONS. -

ABSTRACT CURVES.
When
two curves that tend in opposite directions
unite, forming a continuousline, they produce what
is called sometimes a reversed curve, and some-
times a compound curve. It has no fixed qualities,

and so is not a mathematical curve yet its seg- :
ments, separately considered, may be mathematical

curves ;
that is, circular, elliptical, &c. When the
segments are of such a character, then the whole
curve may be struck with instruments. But the
variations of this curve are numberless ;
and, prac-
tically, most of them must be drawn with the free
hand. For this reason they are often called hand-
curves.
The reversed curve is very extensively employed
in practical design. When the use for which an
object is intended permits an aesthetic .treatment of
its form, then the reversed curve is quite certain to
be called into requisition for the purpose of helping
to make that form beautiful. Again, in nearly all
varieties of applied enrichment it renders conspicu-

ous service. Hence we should learn the proper
treatment of this curve, that we may be able, when
using it, to obtain the most satisfactory results. So
easity can it be modified, so readil}' can the elements
133
of its beauty be learned, and in so many ways can

itbe applied, that it usually proves a favorite line
with all.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXVI.
Three Reversed Curves.
the - allotted space draw three vertical

lines at suitable distances apart. Divide
each line into By
the aid of
thirds.
these three straight lines thus divided,
draw three reversed curves like the ones
in the copy. Avoid all sudden, angular
change of direction, for that is always
disagreeable. Imitate the copy, mak-
ing your lines as graceful as possible.
Observe how little the three

curves resemble one another and observe, also, how
;
the difference in their appearance is secured. The

drawn through the lower point of division in
first is
the base line, the other two through the upper
points and then no two segments of the curves have

;
the same form of curvature. Thus it is seen how

easily the appearance of a reversed curve can be
changed; (1) by drawing it through a different
point of division in its base line, (2) by giving the
segments a different curvature.
That point in the curve farthest from its base,
namely, the point of its greatest altitude, is the
feature which specially determines the character of
the curve. Thus, in b and c the curves on the upper
thirds,and lower two-thirds, of the base lines are
intended to be the same in shape, though they are
SUBTLETY. 135
drawn on different scales. The character of 6 is
specially determined by making the greatest altitude

of each segment near an end of the base line but ;
in c the greatest altitude of each segment is near the

point where the curve reverses its direction.
DRAWNG-BOOK EXERCISE XXVII.
A Vase.
Directions. — In the centre of the allotted space draw a

vertical line, and divide it into three equal
parts. Through each end draw a horizontal
I
line, equal to one-tliird of the vertical line,
and extending equally on either side. Care-

fully complete the oblong, and divide its sides
into three equal parts. On this oblong draw
a vase in outline, using reversed curve a of
the last exercise. Make the right and left
which can be quite easily
sides just alike,
done by the aid of the straight lines, and
could hardly be done without them. See
that the curves bend gracefully, with no
abrupt change of direction. Finally, add the pedestal.
Subtlety of Proportion and Curve.
The height of this vase is three times as great as

its width, giving the proportion of three to one.
Any other proportion could have been taken as well
with the same curve but any other proportion
;
might not have been as pleasing, or it might have

been more pleasing, as it was more simple or subtle
than the one used. With the same curve draw a
vase, byway of experiment, twice as high as wide ;
that two to one then draw another as wide as

is, :
high that is, one to one.

;
Contrast these with the
copy, and with one another you will see that pro-
:
portion has a decided influence upon the pleasing

appearance of the vases. The proportion, one to
one, gives the most disagreeable form of all. Why
is this ? We can only say that the simpler the pro-
portion, and the more easily it is detected by* the
eye, the less pleasing the effect while the more
;
subtle the proportion, and the more difficult it is for

the eye to make it out, the more pleasing the effect.
What is said of the general proportion of the vase
holds equally true of the proportion of the segments
of the curves. The one is twice as long as the
other, giving the proportion of two to one. Were j
they equal, giving the simplest proportion of all,
one to one, they would be less beautiful than now.

But the proportion neither of the segments of the
curves, nor of the vase as a whole, is the most pleas-
ing that might have been selected. The proportion
five to thirteen, for example, would be more pleasing
than one to three. Sometimes a building, having

four stories inside, has its outside finished in three
unequal stories. This divides the outer surface into
segments of more pleasing proportions.
As a subtle proportion is more beautiful than a
simple one, so the more subtle of two curves affords
the eye the greater pleasure. The origin of the cir-
cular curve, struck as it is from one point, is more
readily detected than the origin of the elliptical
curve, which is struck from two points ;

and the
former is less beautiful than the latter. As the
taste develops, and the hand acquires skill in draw-
ing, the subtle gracefulness of hand-curves may be
increased to almost any degree.
POTTERY FORMS. 137
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXVIII.
A Pitcher.
Directions. — In the draw an oblong, as
allotted space in
the last exercise, with the same propor-
tions and divisions. Next draw the con-
tour, or outline, of the pitcher, using curve
b of Ex. XXVI. Strive to make the two
sides of the pitcher exactly alike. Now
add the handle, drawing it so as to indi-
cate that it has thickness; that is, the
junction of the handle with the body of the
pitcher must be shown by lines which do
not coincide with the general outline of
the pitcher, but lap over slightly. Finally,
add the lines forming the lower portion of the pedestal.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXIX.

A Vase.
Directions. — In the allotted space draw an oblong, as in
the lasttwo exercises, with the same pro-
portions and £)raw the contour
divisions.
of the vase, using curve c of Ex. XXVI.
Make the opposite sides of the vase sym-
metrical. See that there are no sudden,
ungraceful turns in the lines anywhere.
Add the horizontal bands as in the copy.
Horizontal lines ought not to be

placed on a vase so as to divide it
into two equal parts for the propor-

;
tion one to one is the least pleasing of all. There-

fore, in placing horizontal lineson a vase, consider
well the relative proportion of the parts into which
they will divide it. Agreeable variety ma}’ be
secured by drawing the lines near together in one
place, and wide apart in another.
:
Designs for Pottery.
Ceramic art affords man a wide field for the dis-

play of his aesthetic taste. The clay with which
the potter works in the production of table-ware,
vases, and many other things, is so plastic that he
can easily give the most beautiful forms to the pro-
ductions of his hand. It also furnishes a surface to
which exquisitely graceful decoration can be readily
applied. Thus the potter has fully at his command
the two general elements which contribute to the
beauty of an industrial product. There is a beauty
which inheres in form itself that he has there is
;
:
a beauty which is secured by the application of orna-

ment and that he has also.
;
But not only is the potter favored b}r the charac-

ter of his material : the uses to which his produc-
tions are put allow and .justify a large expenditure
of art in securing beauty both of form and of decora-
tion. The cheapness of his material is also to his
advantage. Bj giving to worthless
t
cla}' a value
even of silver or gold, as he can, he feels that he
is adding to the wealth of his country no less than
to the enjoyment of those who buy the products of
his hands and taste. He also has the assurance
that these products will be carefully preserved ;
for,
unlike objects made of silver or gold, they will be

worthless when broken. Many a beautiful work of
art has been destroyed because it was made of pre-
cious material. It is a barbaric taste which is
pleased only with objects made of precious material

a refined taste admires the art, whether the object
DESIGNS FOR POTTERY. 139
which displays the art be made of clay or gold.

Art can make the rudest substance contribute to our
pleasure and refinement. A noble power is this,
and worthy to be sought by study.
Every design for an industrial purpose must
specially consider five things (1) the use to which
:
the object is to be put (2) the material of which it

;
is to be made (3) the means by which it is to

;
be made ; (4) the form best adapted to the intended

use ; (5) the applied ornament. The beauty con-
ferred by art must come from the form of the object,
and from the applied ornament ;
precedence always
being given to form. No amount of decoration can
make an object beautiful, unless its form, in the first
place, is beautiful.
The contours of pottery products should have
some definite proportion to give character. In the
absence of a pronounced line of contour, we have
a want of character, and weakness. The highest
result is secured by the proper union of beaut} and 7
character. While there may be so little of the latter

as to give us nothing but weakness and puerility,
there may? on the other hand, be so much as to give
us only eccentricity. There is opportunity for great
improvement iii the designs of ordinary pottery
products. The public taste is rising and those who ;
persist in making homely articles will soon find

themselves without a market. Nothing commands
a readier sale, and a better price, than beauty. To
make an object beautiful, does not necessarily imply
that it must be costly. Often the beauty can be
secured without additional expenditure, provided the
workman has taste. If he lacks taste, whatever he

makes will show that lack.
Blackboard and Dictation Lessons.
The twelve examples given on the opposite page

show how easy it is to modify the reversed curve by
changing the comparative length of the segments,
or by changing their curvature. The twelve ex-
amples which follow show the applications of the
twelve curves, enough to teach the general mode of
designing the contours of pottery forms.
Directions. — No. l is the ogee, as it is called in architecture.

Jt consists of two circular curves: hence the curvature of each
segment is the same in every part; and where the curves unite
the change of direction is instantaneous and complete. 'Were
the change gradual and imperceptible; that is, were the curv-
ature of each segment the greatest at its centre, and then grad-
ually decreased towards each end, becoming a straight line
for the shortest distance possible at the point where the curve
reverses its direction, — then we should have what is sometimes
called the “line of beauty.” An abrupt change of direction
is lesspleasing than one which is so gradual you cannot say
that here is the point where the change occurs.
The segments of No. 2 are circular curves; but they are
parts of larger circles than the segments of No. 1. No. 3 also
consists of circular curves. The segments of Nos. 4, and 5
consist of elliptical curves they are the same in both cases,
;
but united differently. This is true of Nos. and 7. The

base lines are divided, some into halves, others into thirds.
They might, of course, have been otherwise divided. Exam-
ine these curves with a good degree of care.
After the separate curves, come their applications in de-
signs for the contours of pottery forms. The numbers which
these forms bear indicate the curves which have been used.
Thus the pitcher is numbered 2, which indicates that curve 2
is used for the contour of its sides. The general proportions
of the figures, shown by the oblongs on which they are con-
structed, are either two to one, or three to one. This can he
easily determined by the eye. No further directions are

needed for drawing these forms, which can be used either
for blackboard or for dictation lessons. If used for the latter,
state, in the general directions, the greatest altitude of the
segment of each curve. Thus the greatest altitude of curve 1
is one -fourth of the base. State also the point at which the
greatest altitude occurs. Aim to make all the lines as grace-
ful as possible.
A Vase.
Directions. — Draw an oblong having the proportion of

three to one. Divide its sides into thirds,
and through the upper points of division
draw curves like the one numbered 10,
on p. 141. Though the curvature is very
marked, yet draw the curve so that the
eye cannot readily detect the exact point
where the direction of the curve is re-
versed. See that the curves exactly bal-
ance each other. Add the horizontal
lines. Frequently let your pupils draw
these pottery forms, of large size, on the
blackboard.
Abstract Curves.
Abstract curves represent no created thing, natur-

al or artificial : hence their name. Usually the}’ are
not regarded as enclosing space. The curves to

which the term is applied, in this course of drawing,
can be drawn, in the main, with the free hand only ;
and so they may be called hand-curves. The draw-

ing of such curves is excellent for training the hand
and eye, and gives a knowledge of lines which must
be often used.
In drawing abstract curves, special attention should
be given to three things: (1) to gracefulness of
TANGENTIAL UNION. 143
curvature, (2) to the tangential union of lines, (3)

to the balance of lines. How to secure gracefulness
of curvature, has been explained ;
and nothing more
need be said here. By tangential union, it is meant
that one line should blend insensibly into another,

so that when they unite they shall both be going in
the same direction. In the given cut
the straight line cib is a tangent to the
circle, because it simply touches the
circle, and does not cut across it.
Such a union of lines is always more
pleasing than a secant union, where the
lines Would cut across one another, if they were
drawn further. Drawing-book Ex. XXXIV. illus-
trates both kinds of union. Hence, when there is
nothing to prevent, unite lines tangentially. By
balance of lines, it is meant when the curves
that,
are drawn on an axis, they should be drawn sym-
metrically ;
the curves on the right balancing those
on the left.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXX.

Abstract Curves.
Directions. — (a). In tlie centre of the allotted space draw

a 'vertical line three
indie long, and divide
;
it into thirds. Through

the upper end of this line
draw a horizontal line
two inches long, extend-
ing equally on either
side of the vertical line.
With these as guide lines
draw the curves given
at a. Make the change of direction gradual and pleasing.
0). Instead of the curves at a, those at b may be drawn,

i
In this case make the horizontal line, drawn through the top
of the vertical line, of the same length as the latter. Add the
two oblique lines; halve them; and through the points of
division draw the curves. See that the curyes blend insensi-
bly into each other.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXXI.

Abstract Curves.
the centre of the allotted space draw a

vertical line three inches long, and di-
vide it into thirds. Through the top of
this line, and through the points of divis-
ion, draw horizontal lines, making the
uppermost two inches long, the others a
trille less. Add the curves, which are all
circular. Observe that the curves which
are convex towards the straight line,
form a tangential union with it. Turn
the drawing for the purpose of carefully
examining the curves.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXXII.
Abstract Curves.
Directions. — (a). In the centre of the allotted space draw

a vertical line as long as the space
will admit, after making due al-
lowance for margin. Divide this
line into fourths, and draw the
balancing curves as in the copy.
(6). If the curves at b, instead of
those at a, are used, begin in just

the same manner, but modify the
curves as they are modified in the
copy. It. will thus be seen how
easy a matter it is to change the i
character of the result by varying |
the number of the parts into which the axis is divided,, and
the points of division through which the curves are drawn.
VARIOUS EXERCISES. 145
Exercises for Blank Pages 17 and 18.
Directions. — Draw a vertical dividing the blank page

line,
(17) into two eqnal parts. In the left-hand half draw that one
of the forms belonging to Ex. XXXII. which has not been
used. Enlarge it to till the whole space. In the right-hand
half reproduce Ex. XXIX., enlarging it to fill the whole space.
Instead of these exercises you can, if you think best, use any
others, few or many, to fill the page; but, whatever forms are
used, let them be drawn large.
Draw a vertical line dividing the blank page (18) so as to
place two-thirds of the page to the left of the line. Draw a
horizontal line dividing the right third into halves. In the
left-hand space draw Ex. XX., Ex. XXI., or XXII., with
added design, from memory. Enlarge so as to fill the two-
thirds of the page. Before putting the drawing into the book,
the pupil may execute it as many times as he chooses; but,
after he begins in the book, he should not be permitted to re-
fer to the copy. Give each pupil the same amount of time.
Notify the class when one-quarter, one-half, and three-quar-
ters of the time has expired.
In the upper half of the right-hand third of the page, have
each pupil draw an original geometrical design, symmetrically
arranged about a centre, after the manner of copies which he
has drawn. In the space below have him write a description
of the design, like the descriptions that are given in this
Manual, and such that the class could reproduce the de ign
from the written description given as a dictation lesson.
Examine both the design and the description before the
pupil puts them into his book. It is expected that the pupil
will have made several trials in the way of original design
before he reaches this point. He can work up his original
designs, in part at least, when he is out of school.
Page of Curves and Ornamental Forms.
Directions. — The various forms on p. 14G can be used,

from time blackboard lessons. No specific direc-
to time, as
tions are required for drawing any of them. As a general
rule, first determine the main divisions of the central line, and
then the breadth of the form as compared with its height.
Depend upon the eye for all the rest.
ORIGINAL DESIGN. 147
Original Design and Written Description.
Original design is almost identical with original

composition. In the latter we do not expect from
3'oung persons new ideas, but, at most, only a new
statement of ideas which are old. So in original
design we should expect only a new arrangement of
old forms. In determining the merit of an original
design, we should look more at the thought displayed,
at the originality of the arrangement, than at the
manual execution. When original design is taken
up, you will find your pupils, to a greater or less
degree, changing places. Some, who have hitherto
done poorly in copying, will take front rank in ori-
ginal design, with a great increase of love for draw-
ing while others, who excel in manual execution,
;
will show a lack of original power.

Children should learn to compose at a very early I
age ;
many say even before they study technical
grammar at all. One of the hardest things for them,
in the outset, is to express their thoughts clearly.
Now, the first condition, if we would have clear-
ness of expression, is a subject of such a nature that
our knowledge relating to it is clear. Children have
such a subject when they attempt to write, as here
required, the description of a simple original design.
With a fair degree of care, every thing can be stated
with the utmost precision. If 3*ou desire to teach
3’our pupils to compose, 3’ou will find it well to re-
quire ofthem frequent written descriptions of origin-
al designs,and of other forms given by 3'ourself for
blackboard lessons. Always teach two or more things
at once when it can be (tone. In this case }'on can

teach drawing, composition, writing, and spelling
together.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXXIII.
A Spiral Form.
Directions. — a. In the allotted space of the centre draw a

vertical line, 1 2, five inches long.
Divide this line into thirds at points
3 and 4. Divide the upper and lower
thirds into halves at points and f>. .*5
Draw the curve, making its altitude

at 0 a trifle less than the distance 1 C>;
its altitude at 4 a trifle less than the

distance 1 3; its altitude at 5 a trifle
more than the distance 5 2. Draw
the curve with great care, turning it
about, frequently, when sketching it,
for the purpose of examination.
b. This is simply curve a reversed. Draw the vertical line
to the left of the centre.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXXIV.

Abstract Curves.
the centre of the allotted space draw a

vertical line, and divide it into fourths.
Add the horizontal lines, making the
second one from the top a trifle the
longest. Draw the longest lines first,
the one on the left hand, then the one
on the right. Turn the hook frequent-
ly while sketching. Observe lmw the
curved lines unite with the straight cen-
tral one. The two outer unions are
tangential; the inner, secant. The pupils
who succeed in drawing these curves
well must po ;se ;s a good degree of skill.
: :
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN. 149
Summary of Principles of Design.
Nearly all the designs which have been thus far

given are geometrical, being combinations of straight
and curved lines without an attempt to represent
objects, natural or artificial. A few are outline
designs for vases, pitchers, and the like. There are
no conventional forms, such as will be given in the
next chapter and in the next drawing-book. The
principles of design which have been exemplified
may be briefly summed up, thus :
—
I. Beauty resulting from (1) in propor-subtlety
tion ; (3) in the union of two lines.
(2) in curves ;
II. Beauty resulting from orderly arrangement:
(1) by symmetrical repetition about a centre (2) by ;
mmetrical repetition on an axis (3) by regular

v
S3 ;
repetition of the symmetrical unit, («) horizontally,
(
b ) verticall}', (c) in all directions, to cover surface.
III. Adaptation of the design to position: (1)
when it isto be viewed from all sides, as a carpet
pattern ; (2) when it is to be viewed from one side,
as an ornament for a vertical surface, the unit being-
repeated, (a) horizontal!}', (6) vertically.
IV. Adaptation of the design to use , material , and
mode of manufacture (1) the object having that
form, (a) best for its intended use, (b) best for the
material of which it is to be made, (c) best for the
mode of manufacture; (2) the decoration being in
harmonj', (rx) with the object and its intended use,
(b) with the material, (c) with the manner of pro-
duction.
At different points, these principles of design have
been more or less fully explained and illustrated.

You should not permit your pupils to finish this
drawing-book without a reasonable effort, on your
part, to acquaint them with these principles, and
with their application in the production of original
designs. It is not to be expected that children can
be taught in a few lessons all that is meant by purity
of taste, and originality in design. But they can be
taught something : they can be taught to avoid the
grossest errors in taste, and they can be taught to
do a little in the way of intelligent original design.
Whatever progress you make should always be in
the right direction.
Questions. — What is said of reversed curves ? How may

their appearance be modified? What is said of subtlety of
proportion? of subtlety of curve? of designs for pottery prod-
ucts? of proportion in contour? of beauty inherent in the
form of an object, and of its decoration ? Name the five
things which a design for an industrial purpose should always
consider. What is said of abstract curves ? of the tangential
union of lines ? When are lines said to balance ? What is
said of original design ? of composition ? Give a summary of
the principles of design which have been thus fax illustrated.
PART II.
INTERMEDIATE COURSE.
IUTBODTJ CTIOH".
The child having passed through the Primary

Course, — thus learning names, terms, and expres-
sions used in teaching drawing, — and in the Inter-
mediate Book, No. 1, having practised with the lead
pencil on paper, ma} now be expected
T
to have an
elementary knowledge of lines, and to have overcome
the first difficulties of drawing on paper. In the
Second Intermediate Book, new exercises are intro-
duced, such as, in a more elaborate form, will be
practised further on in the Grammar Course, or, if
that be never arrived at by the pupil, will give him
the first ideas of design, as pursued in the workshop.
The teacher should carefully consider the purpose
for which drawing is taught, so as to endeavor in
the right way to achieve that purpose.
Industrial Drawing is taught in the public schools,
firstly, for the purpose of improving industrial manu-
factures, both in creating skilled designers and an
appreciative public. Secondly, that the educational
influence resulting from a development and training
of the observing powers may add to the intelligence
of the pupil, and assist him in studying other
subjects. These are the grounds upon which it is
rightly claimed that all children should be taught to

draw. Even if no use whatever had to be made
of drawing as an art by half of those who learn
to draw, the intelligence, and ac-
sensitiveness,
curacy which drawing alone creates are needed by
ever}' human being every day of his life. Ability to
draw is, perhaps, the least valuable of the results
which the teaching of drawing leaves behind tor, if ;
nothing more were acquired than the proper use of

the senses of seeing and touch, every child would
be repaid by such an acquisition for the time spent
in attaining it. We are all victims to the delusions
of eyesight until we are taught to see ;
and a man’s
account of what he has seen is apt to be very super-
ficial, or strangely distorted, unless he can deduce
the fact fronrthe appearance, which he never can do
until he has produced the appearance from the fact,
and that is only possible by drawing.

In the minds of the uneducated in art, there is a
perpetual conflict between what the mind knows
(the world of facts), and what the eye sees (the
appearance of those facts) The two things, though
.
relating to the same, are both imperfect alone, only

complete and reliable by association, which those
who never learn to draw, and therefore never test
their knowledge, never attain to the knowledge of.
Drawing is a criticism made by ourselves on our

-knowledge of facts or objects as they appear to the
eye under varying conditions and when our ability
;
to see, and skill to display by expression, the fact in

its appearance, are trustworthy, then we may be con-
sidered competent -witnesses, and not before. Thus
INTRODUCTION. 155
the process of drawing necessitates observation,

comparison, analysis, in a subject where every step
is susceptible of demonstration, and in which truth
or error can be tested by the evidence of the senses,

as well as by mental- criticism. It is, perhaps, the
one subject of education capable of this double criti-
cism, and is, therefore, especially valuable as an

agent in education. What may thus be carried out
in drawing can be applied to other subjects, both in
school and in after-life and, if this result be
;
achieved b}' teaching drawing in an intelligent man-

ner, we shall have more than justified its introduc-
tion as a subject of study in all schools, from the
kindergarten to the university.
If eveiy child learns to draw well by going
through the lessons as arranged in the graded course
of work now offered to the public, it ma}' be of great
advantage to him at some future time. If he should
be the one person in ten thousand who is unable to
learn, the exercises will be of great value towards
developing an intelligence which is at the zero-point,
and can onty, probably, be reached by appeal to the
senses.
The soundest plea for the teaching of drawing,
therefore, is not that it is an amusement, an accom-
plishment, or even a weapon and means of advance-
ment, a pleasure or profit in itself, but because, in
addition to all this, it enables the teacher to shed a
flood of light on many departments of education,
sensitizes the mind to receive impressions which
may be relied upon, and develops the constructive
and analytical faculties of the human being.
It is obvious, that, as only a few will ever have the

opportunity to apply their knowledge of drawing
to the pursuit of their trade or professional pur-
poses, they will have to seek secondary or technical
instruction in special schools. But we should
proceed in teaching drawing on the basis that all
children are to learn and our instruction must be
;
of this general character, benefiting all by elevating

the intelligence, rather than of a special kind,
whereby only a few will reap the advantage.
Education in public elementary schools should be
such as, by its general usefulness to all, will prepare
all for their future vocations in life as intelligent
beings, leaving to technical or secondary education
the task of preparing each for his specialty. But
the general course must not leave untouched the
elementary preparation for a vast class of occupa-
tions connected with industry, manufacturing or
commercial, or it will incur the charge of being only
a class-education, suitable only to the few. And
here let it be said, that the reason why drawing
should be taught in the primary schools upwards, is
that there alone can it be satisfactorily taught to all.
If, in any frenzied panic about education, the subject
were to be eliminated from all grades of schools but

one, or if, in adopting it for the first time, only ore
grade of schools were to be taught, instead of select-
ing the high schools as the most important place for
it (which is frequent!}’ done), I should plead for the
primary schools as being the places where the
greatest good could be obtained from drawing, and
INTRODUCTION. 157
where it would have the most general influence upon

the pupils and the public.
The views here expressed will account for the
pervading the instruction given in this Manual.
spirit
Hand skill is not the most valuable part of drawing,
and therefore is never described as the one thing to
be attained. The desire of the author is to lift this
subject from its past character as a specialt}', and

place it in its true position as an element in all
intelligent education, to destroy the false notion
that only a few can learn to draw, and relieve it
from the air of mystery with which those who cannot

draw have been in the habit of regarding it.
The principle upon which all this instruction is
arranged is, that the regular teachers are as well

able to impart it as the scholars are to learn it. It
is recognized in the world of art, that the artistic

expert usually lacks the teacher’s instinct. And
experience has demonstrated, that, given the prac-
tised and successful teacher of general subjects, and
you have the best possible material out of which to
make a good teacher of drawing.
It may be difficult for the teacher who takes up
this subject late in life to become an expert in draw-
ing ;
but it is not difficult, if proper appliances be
provided, for any teacher to learn readil}' how to
draw well enough tc teach it satisfactorily. And
an}' who does not possess elasticit}' and
teacher
intelligence enough to do this condemns himself as
unfitted to have charge of education, which is always
progressing, and cannot content itself with the anti-
quated and abandoned standards of the past.
In this section of the instruction, a new feature is

introduced into the Manual, for the convenience and
guidance of those teachers whose opportunities to
study drawing have not been sufficient. N ot only
are the steps in every lesson described, and illus-
trated by diagrams figured for reference, and occur-
ring in the text, but the exercises for the blank pages
are given in the same way, and engravings of the
appearance of the pages in the pupils’ books are
also given ;
so that there can be no possible mistake
of what each lesson is to be like, when finished, or
the whole page, when the exercises on it are com-
plete.
This is not, however, intended to prevent indi-
vidual teachers from filling up the blank pages in a
different way from that indicated, if the}' prefer to
do so. Some teachers represent that they have
neither time nor skill to invent blackboard or dicta-
tion lessons : for them this Manual provides such
lessons. Other teachers prefer to design such
lessons for themselves, for their own improvement,
and in order that the}' may the better teach from
examples of their own invention. To them the
blank pages filled may be suggestions, and are not
intended to cramp their own inventiveness, which is
better in them than the most scrupulous imitation of
others.
Pages of lessons and illus-
for the blackboard,
trations of historicalornament and of objects, are
also provided, from which the teacher may select
examples to use instead of those given on the blank
pages, or for additional lessons on slate or black-
INTRODUCTION. 159
board. The directions for drawing these are short,

because most of them explain their own construc-
tion and the teacher who employs these copies
;
ought to be able to add all necessary instruction for

the pupils.
The lessons in this book are so arranged, that
most of them can be executed in half an hour, a —
time which is long enough for lessons to children.
If it be found, however, that, from the pupils’ want of
previous practice, the drawings cannot be sketched
and finished in that time,, let them be well sketched
in one half-hour, and well finished in another. More
time than that spent over one lesson will waste the
time of man}', if not all, of the pupils. It will be
found by observation that either quick or dawdling
working is a habit ;
and it is as easy to form one as
to fall into the other.
If you would keep children happy and well em-
ployed, give them enough to do, and let it be of a
pleasant sort, employing their curiosity and their
constructive faculties. As a matter of fact, children
generally work hard either at their play or their
amusements and nothing so soon kills a child’s
;
interest in any thing as loitering over it, or working

at it after the freshness of novelty is passed. Make
use of this trait of child-character in your lessons
in drawing, and they will then enlist the lively' in-
terest of your pupils.
The more you can ally your instruction with
natural forms or objects, the more will the pupils
lay hold of the instruction, and understand it. For
this reason, the forms of leaves, and the outlines of
objects, arc freety given as copies. These will enable

the teacher to point out the characteristics of similar
forms not being drawn ;
and thus whole fields of
education may be illumined.
It is believed, that, though appeals to the taste and
knowledge of the pupils have not been so insisted on
in this book as in some others, the teacher will none
the less see that one of the objects sought for by
teaching drawing is to increase the knowledge,
and to refine the taste, and to do it by the almost
imperceptible growth of observation, and love of the
beautiful in nature and art.
CHAPTER I.
SYMMETRY, CONVENTIONALIZATION, AND

REPETITION.
In sketching, the pencil should be held loosely

with the fingers, and the pupils should be warned
against griping the pencil with a pinching grasp,
which the} will do unless trained to do
T
differently,
Also, let the teacher require the pupils to mark their
first lines faintly, so that corrections may be made
without involving rubbing out with heavy erasure.
Freehand drawing must be done by a hand that
feels free, not a hand too strongly controlled.
Bohemian Glass Pitcher.

Directions. —
The left half of the pitcher is drawn, and the
pupil has to complete the pitcher by-
drawing the right half. Continue the
horizontal lines at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, as much
to the right of the central line as they
extend to the left. Then complete
the outline of the pitcher, observing
the egg-shape form of its body be-
tween 2 and 3. The handle is not to
be repeated but, if the teacher finds
;
the exercise too short, a second han-

dle may be drawn, symmetrical with
that in the copy. Notice in drawing
the handle, that, at the points in the
neck and body of the pitcher where
it is attached to them, it is drawn
within the profile.

Square Rosette.
Directions. — The exercise is intended to show the value
and effect of repetition in
design. One-eighth of a
j
square by a por-
is filled
j
tion of a lotus-like flower.

The form is first to he re-
j
peated in the triangle to

the left of the central
line; and the unit of the
design filling one-quarter
of the square will then hi
complete. This unit is to
be repeated in the three
remaining quarters of the
square and the whole ro-
;
sette will then

he finished.
This exercise illustrates repetition about a centre, and in a
geometric form. Draw the outer curve near the diagonal,
which will end near 6, and balance that ending in 5. Then
draw the left half of the central leaflet, ending at 1. Add
the berry and stalk. This done, repeat the flower three
times in the three triangles, and complete the rosette; the
longest lines, those from 5 to 6, being the first lines drawn in
each triangle.
The two copies on this page of the drawing-book

will serve as illustrations of two principles in
design ;
and they are exercises which will prepare
the pupils for intelligent practice in design, when
they are called upon to exercise it.
These principles are symmetry and repetition.

In the pitcher, one repeat gives symmetr}7 : in the
rosette, seven repeats form a complete arrangement,
illustrating the power of repetition.
CONVENTIONAL LEAF. 163
This latter being an exercise in freehand drawing,

the pupil draws every part of it without any mechan-
ical assistance, because here he is learning to draw ,
and, by drawing, fixing also in his mind the princi-

ples which constitute design. When he comes to
design, then he will practise it, as in the workshop,
by drawing the unit or element of the design, as
shown in the half of the flower above, and then
mechanically repeating it as often as the arrange-
ment requires.The drawing of repetitions like
this fixes also in the minds of the pupils by the
most effective means, that of drawing, how the form
is to be repeated to make a rosette, also, what are
the axes of symmetry, and which is the unit of

design.
In drawing, we must learn through our fingers ’-
ends more than through our ears : we are more
liable to forget ideas than lose skill developed by
practice.
Conventional Leaf.
Directions. — One half of a leaf is given, and the pupil is

to complete it by drawing the other half.
Make the horizontal lines project as far to the
right as they do to the left from the central
line, or midrib, of the leaf. Draw the right
.enclosing curve. Divide the horizontal lines
into two equal parts, and to these divisions
draw the curves forming the lobes of the leaf.
The three veins which spring from the midrib,
and end in the points of the lobes, must be
drawn last. The veins slumld join the midrib
tangentially, not so as to cut aci’oss the midrib, if continued.
164 TEACHERS’ MANUAL.
The object of giving an exercise like this is to

teach the value of symmetry. One half of an object
being accurately drawn, the pupil has to balance his
work with a perfect half, and thus educate his eye
in a very important part of drawing. The exercise
is not a difficult one ;
and, when given, it maj' be
made the occasion for requiring good manual execu-
tion from the pupils.
Conventional Ivy- Leaf.
Directions. =—Draw a central line in the space below the

copy, of the same length as the leaf
above. Divide it into six equal parts,
and through the centre draw a hori-
zontal line, one-sixth of the central one
on either side. Draw the four veins of
the leaf, and then, beginning from the
top, draw the lobes of the leaf on the
left side. Repeat on the right, and com-
plete the leaf.
The sketches a and b are leaves drawn from Na-

ture, — a, the house-ivy ; 6, the hedge-
ivy. Another species of ivy, which
grows on trees as a parasitical plant
(which is the char-
acter of ivy wherever
it grows) ,
has a leaf not so short-
lobed as the house-ivy, and not so
long-lobed as the hedge-ivy, being,
therefore, much more like the con-
ventional leaf than either a or b. The teacher
should point out from the three forms here given,
IVY-LEAF ROSETTE. 165
that conventionalism is a retaining of the general

features of leaves, without imitating the peculiarities
of individual leaves. The thumb-nail sketches a
and b are not intended to be copied by the pupil.
Ivy-Leaf Rosette.
Directions. —
Draw the square in the space below, with its
diameters and diagonals. Draw the
circle at its centre, and in one-fourth
of the square draw one leaf to fill it,
iike the copy. Repeat this leaf in
the three remaining quarters.
Here an application of a
is
natural form to the purpose

of design, and it is one of the
simplest arrangements that can be made of a leaf.
This treatment is called repetition from or around
a centre, and is the principle Nature applies in the
construction of a flower ;
each petal being a modified
leaf, repeated in whorls, or circles, round the seed
and reproductive organs, placed in the centre of the
flower.
For very young children, a good exercise in mem-
ory-drawing is to draw' such a design, after hav-
ing done it in their books. It will be seen that all
there is to remember example is the shape of

in the
one ivy-leaf, w'hich, by repetition, makes, apparent-
ly, quite an elaborate composition, though actually
the simplest arrangement.

Another interesting task for a class is to require
each child to bring four leaves of some sort (if at
the proper season of the year), and having once

seen how to fill a square, making a rosette, as in the

ivy rosette previously drawn, to make a fresh design
by copying the leaves they bring with them. Make
them arrange the fdur natural leaves on their slates
first, to see how they will look, and then explain,
that, if the leaves are different in shape and size in

Nature, in ornamental design we have to make them
all the same shape and the same size and so they
;
will see the difference between a natural rosette and

a conventional one. These experiments on slates
will be useful as occasional exercises to vary work
on paper, teaching, also, the relationship of Nature
to drawing, and drawing to arrangement, or design.
BLACKBOARD EXERCISES FOR PAGE 3 OF

DRAWING BOOK.
Horizontal Repetition.
The blank page is to be divided into three equal

parts by drawing two horizontal lines at the di-
visions, as shown in the illustration on p. 170. In
these divisions the three horizontal mouldings are
to be placed as exercises in drawing from the black-
board.
Heart-shaped Moulding.
two horizontal lines,
an inch and a quar-
ter apart; and, start-
ing one inch from
the left edge of the
paper, mark off
along the top line
five divisions of an
inch and a quarter in
length, from which
draw vertical lines
V"
HEART-SHAPED MOULDING. 167
to form five squares. Each of these squares is to contain one

heart-shaped leaf. Divide, therefore, the square into two
equal parts by a vertical diameter, and sketch the curve of
the leaf on either side. When all the leaves are completed,
add the circle and stem between the leaves.
Let the teacher draw but one of these leaves on

the blackboard for a copy, and then leave the pupils
to repeat the form in the other squares, remember-
ing, that, in good instruction, the pupil must some-
times be left to himself. About a tenth or an eighth
part of the time given to a drawing-lesson from
the blackboard should be spent by the teacher at
the board, in drawing, and in general class instruc-
tion, and the rest of the time in examining and
correcting the work of individual pupils.
The sketches a and b are from the convolvulus
and morning-glory leaves, both heart-
shaped, and types of a great number
of natural leaves hav-
ing the same or similar
forms. Being simple
in character, they are
good subjects for de-
sign, especially for mouldings ;
and the
pupils may be required to bring such leaves to the
school for material in design : without any great
hardship being inflicted on them, they may be taught
to see how many of The
the kind are to be found.
more you can set children to work in using their
eyes, and the more their eyes are employed in dis-
covering the beautiful forms to be seen in the world
of foliage and flowers, the better for the children
now, and the better for their inteligence and happi-

ness hereafter.
Heart-shaped Moulding. — Running Pattern.
Directions. — Lay out the space in the same way as for the
last exercise. Let the hori-
zontal lines he an inch and
a quarter apart, and the five
squares therefore on that
base. Next divide each square
into two equal parts by the
vertical diameter, and each
half of the square again into
two equal parts by a vei’tical
line, as shown in the last
division to the right. This
gives the central line for the small ovoid form near the bot-
tom, and also for the point where the two leading lines cross
near the top. Draw the outer leading lines in each half
square in three squares, before adding the lower lines or inner
lines, on which the cross points are, and then add the latter.
Draw the whole of the forms, and then rub out the invisible
parts. Finish.
Though the squares are five in number, the draw-

ing of three will be found sufficient for one lesson,
and the completion of the remaining two might be
made the subject of another exercise, without further
assistance from the teacher.
It has always been a special point in the author’s
instruction to vary both themethod of giving the
and the subjects of them also. Kemcmber
lessons,
we have to educate, not cram to develop the;
intelligence, not teach tricks. If the pupil goes

through all this training, and ends b}’ not being
able to draw at all, he will yet have learned by it
IVY-LEAF MOULDING. 169
to discover what he might do better than by any

other training. Cultivate intelligence, and let the
individual and his individual circumstances deter-
mine in what direction it shall be applied. Some-
times help the pupil all you can, if the subject or
way of treating it be new and sometimes studiously
;
refrain from helping him at all, when he knows all

he can know about it, and only has to apply his
knowledge, and thus develop self-reliance.
Ivy-Leaf Moulding.
Directions. — In
a similar manner as m the last two exer-
rises, divide the space into
five squares on a side of
an inch and a quarter. Also
divide each square vertical-
ly by a diameter. In each
square draw an ivy-leaf
and berries, as shown in
the diagram ;
the leaf being
similar to those already
drawn. Draw one complete
leaf, and one complete clus-
ter of berries, on the board, and require the pupils to repeat
them the required number of times, after their first copy has
been corrected and criticised.
The half-page illustration of these exercises

worked out is given in order to show the teacher
how the blank page in the pupil’s book will look
when completed. Though on a smaller scale than
the work will be in the drawing-book, the proportion
isexactly the same. Thus the teacher is furnished
not only with the process of making each unit of the
ILLUSTRATION OF PAGE 3 OF DRAWING-BOOK.
design, but with the appearance of the pupil’s book,

if the instruction given is attended ’to.
EXERCISES FOR PAGE 4 OF DRAWING-BOOK.

Drawing from Dictation.
When the teacher dictates a form to the class,

each line drawn should be tersely and accurately
described : if a straight one, both as to position
and length; if a curved one, as to its curvature or
altitude.
Each step should be simple ;
and the order to
execute it should be as direct and authoritative
as if for military drill, whilst the pupils should be
required to obey promptly and methodically. It
will be evident that this can only be accomplished
VERTICAL REPETITION. 171
by first teaching the definitions of plane geometrical

drawing as a basis of preparation. The class must
be kept together at any cost. The word of com-
mand, when given by the teacher, must be instantly
obeyed by the pupils ;
and, if the teacher finds they
cannot thus follow, it is evident that a simpler exer-
cise should be taken. Never mind imperfect work,
if the effort be made ;
the imperfection will disap-
pear by degrees : but do mind that every child
makes the effort to the best of his ability.
Dictation Lesson. —A Wineglass dictated.
Directions. — Divide the blank page (4) of the Drawing-

Book into two equal parts by a vertical
line in the centre. The left-hand half is
to be used for either a dictation or memo-
ry exercise. The following is a dictation-
lesson, which may be thus dictated to the
class :
—
Drawa central vertical line 1 2, letting
itbegin at a distance of an inch from the
top, and end an inch from the bottom, of
the page. Divide this into two equal
parts in 3. Through 1 and 2 draw hori-
zontal lines equal in length to one-half of
1 2, one-half on either side of 1 2. Call the
line through 1 by the numerals 4 5 and ;
that through 2, by 6 7, 4 and 6 being on the left side. Through

point 3 draw a horizontal line 8 9, equal to one-half of 1 3; the
first numeral being always to the left, and the second to the
right. Draw 5 9, two oblique lines. Divide 1 3 into

4 8 and
two equal parts and through the division draw a hori-
in 0,
zontal line terminated by the oblique lines. Call this line 11,
12. Draw lines from 0 to 8 and 9, and lines from 11 to 3, and
12 to 3, leaving out the part between 0 8 and 3, and between
0 9 and 3. Divide 3 2 into two equal parts in point 13.
Explain to the class that the subject is a wine-

glass,and then draw on the board what you have
dictated.
Require those who have gone wrong to put their
work right from the copy on the board. Then draw
the curve of the stem, and add the other details on
the board, which the pupils may copy. The teacher
will find that the prevailing tendency will be to make
the stem of the glass too thick : therefore it will be
better to warn them against this fault before they )
begin.
The author lays great stress^ upon the importance |
of teaching by dictation, as one means of securing

accuracy of thinking, and clearness of understand-
ing ;
and it is hoped that teachers will not slight
tliesp exercises.
Blackboard Lesson. — Leaf-Moulding.

Directions. — The right-hand half of page 4 may be
devoted to two vertical mouldings which illus-
trate vertical repetition. Divide this
half into two equal parts by a cen-
tral vertical In the left-half
line.
draw two lines one inch
vertical
apart, and divide the space thus
partially enclosed into five squares.
Draw oblique lines, as shown at b,
to join the stem, and add the oblique

lines which form the midrib of the
leaf. Then draw the leaf in each
square, and complete the moulding as shown
at a.
It may be objected, that the leaf used is not sym-

metrical on its axis, and, therefore, it is not conven-
IVY-LEAF MOULDING. 173
tionalized, or rather too much conventionalized. But

some leaves have this inequality as a natural feature,
such as the elm-leaf and others ;
and, therefore,
one principle of Nature is expressed by the arrange-
ment.
Ivy-Leaf Moulding.
Directions. — In the right halfof the space prepare a
series of five squares for another example of
vertical repetition, this time of an ivy-leaf
moulding. Two examples are given if a be :
taken, it will be prepared for, as in the last les-

son, by a series of oblique lines,
which in this case will form the
midribs of each leaf. If the teach-
er prefers to take b, then a leaf
on a vertical central line will be
drawn in each square; and, when
the leaves are completed, the clus-
ters of berries have to be added at the sides.
The ivy-leaf has been drawn so frequently,
that it cannot be necessary to give any further
description of the method by which it should
be drawn.
Heart-shaped Running Border.

Directions. —
If the teacher prefers this copy to the two
preceding ones, it can be taken to fill one-
lialf of the space devoted to the blackboard
lessons on this page. The leading form suggests
a heart shape, and also the Gothic form called
the vesica.piscis, or form of a fish, a very favorite
shape in early Christian art. The space in the
drawing-book will allow of three repetitions Of
the element or unit of pattern. Each may be
ehclo ;ed in a square, leaving a space on each
side; or the teacher may draw the design on the
blackboard complete, and let the pupils copy it,
having first seen that their construction lines and proportions

are approximately right, as an exercise in reducing the size
of a copy without having every proportion pointed out to
them;
book will look when completed according to the
v*
^jpj
Questions. — What is said of symmetry?

tv<9f* the union of
the veins of a conventional leaf with its'midrib? Of draw-

ing the copies with and without mechanical aids? What is
meant by a conventional leaf ? Wliat is said of pupils bring-
ing natural leaves to school? During a blackboard Ifessoa,
what part of the time should the teacher spend at the black-
board? What is said of variety in subjects taught, and meth-
ods of instruction? Of keeping the class together?
CHAPTER II.
CONVENTIONALIZATION APPLIED TO DESIGN.

Conventionalization, as we have seen, is the tak-
ing of a natural form, and, while adhering to its
general type, adapting it to ornamental purposes.

It will be readily seen, that, in drawing conven-
tional forms b.eforts natural forms, we pursue thg
oiily rational way of arriving at skill in rendering
natural forms. If we were to put natural forms of
leaves before children in the first instance, we should
simply burden therti with a mass of detail and
delmabff, of proportion which they could not .com-
prehend. , For purposes of comparison with the con-
ventkufal leaf, 'the teacher has given here sketches
of natural. leaves..
The small sketches a and b are maple-leaves from
Nature. There are other varieties of
the maple, which are more deeply cut
in the divisions of
the leaf. The conven-
tional leaf given as
an example on the
hed page has its lobes more divided
from one another than either a or &,
but is the accepted type of a maple-leaf as used for
decorative or ornamental purposes in surface decora-
tion, stained glass, metal work, wrought iron or brass
ornament, chandeliers, screens, or gates.
Maple-Leaf conventionalized.
Directions. —
In the space below, draw a vertical line as
long as the leaf. Divide it into four
equal parts; and through the centre
draw a horizontal line nearly as long
as the vertical, half on either side.
At the bottom of the vertical draw a
second horizontal line nearly as long
as the first. Fix the central point
from which the ribs or veins spring,
and draw them to the ends of the
horizontal lines. Add the margin of
the leaf; and, when the form is
completely sketched, erase working-lines, and finish.
Maple-Leaf Rosette.
Directions. — Apply what has been said about design to
this exercise. In the large space
to the right, let the pupils draw
either an equilateral triangle, or
square, or circle, or regular hexa-
gon, as large as the space will
allow, leaving a margin of paper
on all sides. And it is a good plan
to divide up the class into a certain
number of groups each group, or
;
row, to draw one geometrical

form. Thus let the first row draw
a square; the second row, a circle;
the third, an equilateral triangle; and the fourth, a hexagon.
The drawing of these geometric forms is sufficient
for Talk to the pupils, and tell, them

one lesson.
that the next lesson, which will be given on such
and such a day, will be to make a design from the
maple-leaf to fill the geometric shapes ;

and every
child who can find maple-leaves is to bring as many
as he or she may wish to put in the shape drawn.
Those who cannot do so will have to use the con-
ventional leaf directly from the copy already drawn.
As this is the first design to be entered in the
book, would be advisable to let the pupils try it
it
on their slates first, and when they see what size the
leaf must be, to fill the space nicely, then let them
put it into one division of the geometric form,
which the}’ have previously made. The preceding
page gives four treatments of this exercise, to sug-
gest to the teacher how it may be treated in the
four forms recommended. Others will occur to both
teacher and scholars ;
and those who have the inven-
tive faculty will be more pleased to design their
own patterns than to borrow them. In every class,
however, there will be a number of children who
cannot, or who believe they cannot (which for prac-
tical purposes the same thing) make a design.
is ,
These stupid children, as they are more stupidly

called, must be taken under the wing of the teacher,
and helped more than the rest. To such let the
teacher show the examples on page 177, and get
them to work out one like either. This practice will
implant, or create, or develop the constructive fac-
ulty, which is the origin of design ;
and design has
just as much to be created, or implanted, or de-
veloped in drawing as other things in other studies.
In teaching drawing after this manner, as has fre-
quently been said, it is not the showy results in the
shape of beautiful work we are striving .for, so much
THE PRACTICE OF ORIGINAL DESIGN. 179
as it is to awaken the mental faculties of construc-

tion, origination, and design, which we know to
exist in and be especially valuable to every human
being. Doing bad or poor work is a condition of
the child which should never distress the teacher,
nor cause her to distress the child. Let it go on,
rather than frighten or harass the pupil, until the
love for making patterns takes root, and then 3-011
will have no more trouble. It will take root in

eveiy child sooner or later, it is 011I3
7
a question of
time when do so and the poor little things
it will ;
who seem to have no facult}- for the work are merely

in an undeveloped state, or belong to families or races
which develop later on in life. Let me say here,
that some of the greatest men and women who have
ever lived have belonged to this class and this con- ;
sideration should make us very indulgent to their

representatives of the present, now under our charge.
The Practice of Original Design.
It ma} be of use
T
to the teacher if some informa-
tion be given concerning the practice of original
design in the class-room.
The essential feature of the plan of industrial
drawing which we are endeavoring to carry out,
is, that it shall be practical in its objects and its
methods and we should aim to prepare our pupils for

;
an industrial life by practising them in such work as

may be some time required of them in the workshop,
office, It is one of the essential require-
or studio.
ments of industrial drawing in either of these places,
that it shall be accurate, not approximate!}* accurate
160 TEACHERS- MANUAL .
as if done by 'the freehand alone, but as accurate as it
can be made by the use of instruments such as the

compasses., ruler, square, and
Whatever scale.
those implements cannot be made
do has to be to
done by the freehand but whatever they can be
;
made to do is done by them. Then, also, where

one freehand form or detail is repeated, its
repetition must be effected by mechanical means.
Thus, if a leaf occurs four times, and that leaf is
symmetrical, one-half of the leaf is drawn, as at a;
and this half is transferred on the opposite side of
the central line, as at 5, and then finished. It is
then transferred to each quarter and thus four ;
times repeated it will be accurate and reliable.

In preparing the geometric shapes for design,
advantage should be taken of all the mechanical
implements available, so as to secure the first condi-
tion of industrial drawing viz., accuracy. And, to
;
adopt the economy of time necessary in the work-

shop, no freehand form should be drawn more than
once by the freehand and its repetition should be
;
effected either b} use of tracing-paper, or by rubbing

r
the pattern, and transferring the design from one

side of a line to the other.
Remember, then, that in designing, and in work-
ing out designs, the child should rule every straight
line, and strike every curve with the compasses,
which can be so drawn. Measurement should be
obtained b}T a scale or ruler with inches marked on
it ;
so that a line which professes to be three inches
long is not a guess line, somewhere near it, but a
true line, capable of standing the test of the measure.
For very young children who have not been taught

geometrical drawing, the teacher may insure an
approach to accuracy by showing them how to test
their squares with the ruler. Thus in drawing a
square, if the two diagonals are of the same length,
and the four sides are equal, the form must be a
square. When a square has been drawn by the
child, let him with his ruler subject it to this test.
For the repetition of freehand work, one mode is
by rubbing. Begin
by drawing the unit
of repetition, as at «,
with a black pencil
(F or H B) ,
in the
square which has
been already drawn,
together with its
diagonals and diam-

eters. Fold the
square on the diago-
nal 1 2, and rub the
back of the paper, behind the drawing, either with
the thumb-nail, or a knife-handle, — any thing hard
and smooth. This will transfer the trace as at 5,
which is then to be lined Fold the square again

in.
on the diagonal 3 4, and rub again on the back,

making a trace as at c. Line that trace in. Next
fold the square on the vertical diameter at c, and
rub the back to transfer the two leaves to the re-
maining quarters, and leave the trace as at d. Fin-
ish by lining in the two transfers.
This folding and repetition should be done on
;
thin paper, like note paper or thin manilla paper

and the creasing of it will, of course, destroy the
appearance of the sheet on which it is done. To
place the design in the drawing-book, the geomet-
ric form should be carefully made in the book.
Paper on which the design has been drawn should
be placed, face downwards, on the geometrical
form, be held very firmly to prevent its shifting, and
then be rubbed hard and steadily until the whole is
transferred in faint lines to the shape marked out
in the book. It may then be carefully lined-in or
finished.
Another method of mechanical repetition is by
the use of tracing-
paper. Let us sup-
pose that the form
to be filled is a pen-
tagon, and the de-
sign used as shown
at a. draw the
First
pentagon, and divide
it into ten equal
parts, by drawing a
line from each angle
to the centre of the
opposite side. Now draw one-tenth of the rosette,
and over this unit place a piece of transparent
paper, either thin note paper, or tracing-paper as
bought in the stores. With a soft pencil (F or II B)
trace the design on the paper as it shows through,
and alsq trace the lines of the triangle enclosing it.
Then turn it over, and transfer to the other side of

the central line by rubbing, and thus give a trace

which will enable you to line-in one complete unit,
as at a. Trace the complete unit, and rub it four
times round the centre of the pentagon, placing the
lines of the enclosing triangle on each triangle in
the pentagon which has thus to be filled. If any
difficulty is experienced by rubbing the back of the
pattern to transfer it, let the pupil go over the lines
of the pattern with a hard pencil from the back of
the paper, as the design will always show through
the transparent paper, and the pressure of the
pencil on the paper will transfer the design as accu-
rately as the line is drawn.
In thus repeating, there may be inaccuracies from
the shifting of the paper, or because the geometric
shapes have not been perfectly accurate. When the
transfer is completed, such inaccuracies or accidents
may be remedied by the freehand ;
or, if the transfer
be very faulty, it should be rubbed out, and the
fault}' portions be transferred again with more care.
Then the design be lined-in with a sharp
is to
pencil, and a clean steady line, having no varia-
tions of thickness or blackness.
The teacher who is not practically acquainted
with the processes described should ask any de-
signer or draughtsman to show' her the operations.
They are perfectly simple,and easy of accomplish-
ment, after having been once seen, though any
description in writing may appear to make them
complicated proceedings.
Another method of repetition, generally used when
coloris w'orked with, is called pricking and poun-
cing. Designs for carpets, wall-paper, or cotton

fabrics, worked in tempera color (which is powdered
color mixed with water and gum or isinglass, the
latter to make the color adhere), are usually worked
out on a colored ground ;
and when the complete
design has been made, and drawn out accurately
on thin paper, the pattern forming the outlines is
pricked through at intervals of about the thirty-

second part of an inch apart, so as to make a line
of little holes, looking like the dotted lines in the
illustrations of this Manual. When the design
has been thus indicated b} perforation, the paper
r
is
placed on the colored ground on which it has to

be wrought ;
and a pounce, made of wash-leather
charged with finely-powdered color (such as white-
lead, or black-lead, or any other powder which is
not the color of the ground), is rubbed or dabbed
over the perforated paper. Every little hole allows

the powder to reach the colored ground below, and
thus the pattern appears on the ground, when the
perforated paper is removed. This is by far the
most ready means of multiplying a pattern, but
more suitable to the designing-room of a factory
than the class-room of a school, because of the
number of appliances required.
Draughtsmen, when designing a sjrmmetrical form,
often make use of a small rectangular piece of
looking-glass, which when one of its edges is placed
on the central line, and the glass itself held at right
angles to the paper, repeats the pattern on the
opposite side of the line just as it would appear if
drawn, and thus enables the draughtsman to see the
effect of his design without the trouble of drawing

the repetition. A piece of looking-glass about four
inches by three inches would be large enough for
the use of a child and it saves a great deal of labor,
;
by enabling a faulty arrangement to be corrected

without wasting labor on it.
If the teacher once comprehends the value of
even the simplest exercises in design, it will be easy
enough to make the children interested. And a

distinction must be made, and made very clearly
and emphatically, between the training and benefit
obtained through freehand drawing, and that which
proceeds from original design. The first is an exer-
cise of the eye and the taste the second, of the hand-
;
skill as a workman, and of originality. The second

an industrial application of the first and the rules
;
of practice in the two departments should not be

confounded.
In freehand drawing from copies, the straight lines
should not be ruled, nor should tracing or transfer-
ring be resorted to. The eye and hand must be here
trained into ready and faithful service ;
and this
cannot be attained without considerable practice,
which drawing from copies is thus meant to provide.
In the one case, therefore, the pupil must realize
that he has to rely upon himself, and his skill of
sight and hand, his appreciation, and his ability
to execute ;
in the other, he has to bring all these
to bear upon the arrangement of his design, and
work it out like a workman, as though he were
already in a factory.
Remember, therefore, that, in copying as an exer-
cise in freehand drawing, it is not right to resort

to mechanical help when the object is to train the
e}r e, the hand, and educate the taste ;
and that at the
same time, when designing is practised, it is right to
take advantage of all mechanical help ;
for, without
it, the exercises will be playing at design, not prac-
tising it.
Having thus described the processes by which

designing may be practised in the schoolroom, an
example is given of the variety caused simply by
the repetition of units in geometrical forms.
KEimxmON IN DESIGN.
REPETITION IN DESIGN. 187
The page of figures are given as illustrating to the teacher

the influence of repetition of the same unit, or element, in va-
rious enclosing forms. The unit is a trefoil, or tliree-pointed
leaf,shown at a. It is repeated in (!) an Equilateral triangle,
(2;a square, (3) a pentagon, (4) a hexagon, (5) a circle, ((>) in
squares as a horizontal moulding, (7) in squares as a vertical
moulding. The character of the' unit is retained, though its
proportions of width to length are altered.
Such exercises as these form valuable preliminary

practice in design, if given from the blackboard.
Let the unit, or element of repetition, a, be drawn
first by the whole of the class. Then divide the
pupils into four groups ;
the first group to draw a
triangle ;
the second, a square ;
the third, a penta-
gon ;
and the fourth, a hexagon ;
which forms are to
be the enclosing forms within which to inscribe a
design similar to those seen in the illustrations.
In teaching the drawing of these rosettes, the
enclosing figures being completed, the centre of
each should be marked by a point, and also the
centres of each side of the figure. Then draw
simple curves from the sides to the centres, as
shown in the small figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, below, and
add the pointed foils, or ends of the leaves, in the
angles of the figures. The lesson is an easj one, r
and the teacher can draw one foil, or leaf, in one

division of each figure on the blackboard, requiring
the pupils to repeat the unit, as many times as the
enclosing figure has sides, in the remaining portion.
In filling the circle, the circumference should be
drawn on vertical and horizontal diameters, two
other diameters being drawn bisecting the right
angles at the centre, thus dividing it into eight
equal parts. The unit, or element, is then to be

drawn on each semi-diameter as a central line. A
series of arcs drawn around the points of the leaves,
and usuall}' called cusps, may be added, and the
whole be enclosed by an outer circle.
The vertical and horizontal mouldings are com-
posed of squares continuous in either a vertical or
horizontal direction ;
the unit being placed on the
diameters of each square. In the vertical design,
half the unit is placed at the side of the central
figure, to fill the space. When the filling is com-
pleted, parallel lines to the sides of the squares are
to be added to give unity to the design. When
several independent units of form are grouped
together, as in the case of these squares placed side
by side, or one above another, it is necessary to
have lines to unite these parts together, either cir-
T
cumscribing them, as in polygons, or b} parallel
lines, as suggested, enclosing many units together.
It will be seen in this variation of use, the unit is
really half the leaf, symmetry adding the other half.
Symmetry may be said to be repetition on one axis :
repetition round a centre is symmetry on many axes.
Questions. — Why draw conventional forms before natural

forms? What is said of the given conventional maple-leaf?
Of the pupil sketching his original design before drawing it
in his book. Of mechanical aids in original design? Of trans-
ferring and tracing? Why not make original designs wholly
by freehand? What distinction should be made between
freehand drawing from copies and original design ? What of
parallel lines enclosing units of ornament ?
;
CHAPTER III.
CONVENTIONALIZATION, HISTORICAL ORNA-

MENT, &c.
In this chapter, for the purpose of implanting in

pupils’ minds some associations in regard to their
exercises, we have introduced forms derived from
the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Moorish styles.
A Lotus Ornament.
Directions. — The example is to be copied the same size as

the illustration. Draw in the
centre of the space a central
line equal in length to 1 2, and
a horizontal line, 3 I, of the
same length. Draw 3 2, 4 2.
Bisect 1 2 in 5, and through 5

draw a horizontal line, cutting
the oblique lines in 6 and 7.
Draw the double ogee curve,
beginning at 3, through 6, to 2,
and repeat it on the right side
then the simple curves from

3 and 4 to 5. This gives the
principal form. Continue cen-
tral line, 1 2, above 1, and below
2. The flower form above 1 is
to be drawn by judgment of
the eye, as also the stem between 1 and 5, and below 2.
190 TEACHER'S MAN UAL.
At a and b are two Egyptian renderings of the
lotus-flower, the first approaching to the
natural form, the second more conven-
tionalized, as used in important orna-
mentations.
The teacher should sketch these illustrations on
the board, and tell the pupils about the
and plant, and its symbolic
lotus flower
meaning
Egyptian art. It was the
in
plant which first developed and blos-
somed after the annual overflow of the
Nile, and was regarded by the Egyptians as we regard
the first violet in spring, or the young foliage of
trees, after the winter is past. But the Egyptians
treated their art as sj'mbolic of natural laws and
beauties ;
and therefore, to them, the lotus-plant
appeared as symbolic of life returning after death,
wherever it was used ornament. Every
in their
detail and feature of Eg} ptian ornament was sym-
T
bolic of something else than itself, aiid conveyed the

idea of which the form was the outward expression.
The form given as a drawing exercise is not a
close adherence to the Egyptian type and the in- ;
troduction of the historic element into these lessons

is for the purpose of arousing the interest of the
pupils, not to make them imitators of Egyptian, or
any other art. Most children will know enough of
Bible history to be interested in Egyptian forms,
just as the relics of Egyptian art and industry in a
museum are invariably the most attractive portions
of it to the multitude.
GREEK AND MOORISH ORNAMENT. 191

DRAWING-BOOK.
Greek and Moorish Ornament.
GREEK FORM.
Directions. — In the left-hand part of this page draw the

sprig of ornament given in the illustra-
tion, derived from the honeysuckle, or
antliemion form of the Greek ornament.
Begin by drawing a central vertical line
from within an inch of the upper margin
to within an inch of the lower. One-
sixth of the line from the top, draw a
horizontal line equalling three-quarters
of the vertical line, half on either side.
These are all the construction lines re-
quired. Next draw the ogee curve
forming the outer from the
line of the side leaves, starting
left and right extremities of the horizontal line, and then the
inner curves of the same leaves. Next draw the central leaf,
and the two members forming the husk at the base.
When the pupils have drawn the construction

lines, the teacher should draw the curves, on the
blackboard, one step at a time, and point out their
delicacy or graceful curvatures, the class following
as each is added, until the sketching in the books
is completed. Then every drawing ought to be
examined and corrected before it is lined in or fin-
ished. By referring to the specimens of historical
ornament, on pages 231, &c., the teacher will see
contrasted some of the features of the four historical
styles.
MOORISH FORM.
The right-hand space is to be devoted to the Moorish
ornament, a variety in the type form of the style, just as
the Greek example is a variety in the type of the Greek

honeysuckle. Draw a vertical line
one-tliird of the page from the right
edge (dividing the space into two un-
equal parts), extending to within an
inch of top and bottom of the page.
About one-sixtli of this line from the
bottom, draw a horizontal line equal
to the vertical line; and, at a distance
of a little less than half the vertical
line from the bottom, draw a second
horizontal line having a length of rather more than half of
the first horizontal line drawn, half on either side of the
central line. With these lines as guides, draw the outer
curves from the upper point of the vertical to the extremities
of the horizontal lines, the left-hand curves first, and then
the right-hand ones. Let the completion of the example be
an exercise of the eyes of the pupils the drawing being made
;
on the board, no proportions being stated, though the teacher

should criticise and explain the character of the curves, and
the direction of the lines.
Representation of natural forms was forbidden by

the Mohammedan religion. This was the religion
GEOMETRICAL FORM. 193
of the Moors, and their ornament shows the in-

fluence of their faith. Note that the curves are so
drawn as not to produce a loop. Absence of looped
curves, as well as absence of natural forms, is a
marked characteristic of Moorish ornament.

Dictation Lesson. — Geometrical Form.
The two examples are to be drawn in a space
having the same proportions as the page of the
drawing-book. The representation on page 195
will be a guide to the teacher, showing how the
pupil’s book is to look when the page is complete.
The page is to be divided into two equal parts by a
vertical line, the left-hand division to be the least,
and be used for the dictation lesson. The teacher
should dictate as follows :
—
Directions. — Draw a vertical line in tlie centre of tlie left-
liancl space, from within a half-inch
of the top to within the same dis-
tance of the bottom. Call this line 1 2.
Divide it into six equal parts, by first
dividing it into two equal parts, and
then each half into three. Call these

points 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, beginning the nume-
ration at the next division below 1.
Through points 3 and 7 draw horizon-
tal lines equal to two parts of the
vertical, one part on each side. Call
these lines 8 putting 8 on the left
9, 8' 9’,
side. Draw 8 8', Draw horizontal
9 9'.
lines through 4 and 6, terminating in

8 8', 9 9'. Treat 0 0 on 8 8' as the diam-
eter of a semicircle, and draw it, curving
to the left away from the central line.
In the same way draw a semicircle on O' O', curving to the

rightaway from the vertical line.
Erase the dotted lines, and line in the figure.
Memory Lesson. — Pitcher.

Directions. —A lesson in memory drawing must vary
according to the capacities and ex-
perience of the children in a class.
Exact forms which can be described
in words, or whose names suggest
the forms definitely, are the best
subjects to use at first, the exer-
cise being closely allied with dicta-
tion drawing. Afterwards a vase,
which has been previously drawn,
and whose proportions of construc-
tional lines can be recalled, may be
given; the irregular lines, such as.
the profile, or the handle, being a
fair tax on the memory.
How much the memory may be assisted in the

early stages of these memory lessons must depend
on the thoroughness in which pupils have been
taught, and have learned.
If a class has been well
taught, their intelligence developed, rather than
crammed, and a T
free healthy plaj allowed for the
faculties, all the powers of the mind will be strong,
i
the memory as well as others. But, if the exercises
have been dull and uninteresting, the copies not
pleasing, and no information about them given, and
no association with other forms suggested, then the
memory of them will be a
child’s blank.
Memory lessons, like dictation lessons, should be
frequentl}' given as review exercises, either on slates
or on paper.
CONVENTIONAL LEAF. 195
It may be that at first there will be need to allow
much help. The teacher may have to draw the

subject on the board before the lesson begins, and
let the class see every step ;
then to erase from the
’
board, and let the pupils draw the examples with

refreshed memories. Or, where little faculty of
memory exists, might be required to
the pupils
draw the copy on their slates as the teacher does on
the board, and, w'hen complete, to erase it, and then
to draw it in their books.
Every teacher will readily discover how it is best
to proceed wfith her class so as to make the memory
exercise improving- to the pupil without being dis-
tressing. But it has been found that one thing is
essential, — however much help may be given before

or after a lesson in memory drawing, during its
progress the pupil should not be allowed to look at

the original drawing or copy.
In the exercise given here, the construction lines

may be dictated, and the rest left to the memory.
If the pupils have not drawn the vase (in Interme-
diate Book 1 ,
Ex. 28) ,
they should first draw it on
their slates as a blackboard exercise, and then be
required to draw it from memory.
Vine-Leaf conventionalized.
Directions. — Draw the vertical line 1 2, for the vine-leaf,
in the space for it. Fix the
point 3, which is not in the
centre of 1 2, hut rather nearer
the bottom than the top. Draw

4 5 and G f horizontal lines de-
,
termining the width of the pairs

of lobes forming the sides of the
leaf. The line G 7 equals 3 2.
Having fixed these lines, mark
off on 4 5 the points 8, 9, and on
1 2, the point 0. Then draw the
outline of the lobes.
The vine-leaf as thus drawn is a good example

with which to point out and explain what is meant by
a conventional leaf, if conventionalism be not yet
understood. Thus the general outline and char-
acter of a vine-leaf is retained ;
but manj" details
are omitted in the natural leaf. The edges of the
leaf are cut up into many divisions, and the margin
is, therefore, called serrate, or saw-like-; and if the
leaf weredrawn from Nature, or introduced into a
picture, these minor divisions would have to be
shown. For ornamental purposes, such details are
not expressed, as they are liable to weaken or con-
2
GEOMETRICAL FORM. 197
fuse the ornamental effect ;

and this is the origin of
conventionalization, — the adapting of a natural form
to the uses of industrial art.
Conventional Leaf.
Directions. — Draw in the space allotted for it a central
line 1 2, and upon it draw faintly
the general outline of a heart-shaped
leaf, as shown by the dotted line on
the left. When the form is well bal-
anced and satisfactory, the small divi-
sions can be added. Observe that the
curve of the small divisions is com-
posed of two parts; the longer one
tending away from the central line,
and the other, which is the shorter
of the two, cutting in abruptly
towards it.
Vase, in the Greek Style.
Directions. — One-half of this vase is given in the drawing-
book and the exercise is to draw the
;
balancing half. The horizontal lines

should be all carried across the central
line 1 2, in the order of the numerals,
and drawn as much to the right of 1
as points 3, 4, 5, 6, are to the left of it.
When has been done, draw the
this
profile orcontour of the body of ,the
vase, and then add the. handle.
Point out to the pupils that

the body of the vase is ovoid,
or egg-shaped, with the large
end uppermost and also state ;
that this form of curvature,

tending to the ellipse or oval, is one of the features

of Greek ornament, in opposition to the roundness
of Roman, or the flatness of Egyptian ornament.
Sketch examples on the board to show the distinc-
tion between the three styles. By referring to the
forms of historical ornament on pages 231, &c., sim-
ple examples will be found for this purpose.
Draw a detail of an Egyptian, Greek, and Ro-
man moulding, —
that is one feature, or unit. Use
these three blackboard examples to point out what
was remarked about the flat, elliptical, and circular
character of the three styles of ornament.

Acanthus- Leaf conventionalized.
Directions. — The leaf is to be copied the full size in tlie
right-hand space. Draw a cen-
tral line 1 2 equal in length to that
of the copy, which line will be
the midrib of the leaf. Divide
it into four equal parts, as shown
by the three crosses. Divide the

two upper parts of the line into
three equal parts each. Draw a
horizontal line through the centre
of the vertical line equal on each
side of the central line to one and
one-tliird part of the central line.
Draw now the enclosing line of
the leaf, as shown in dotted
curved lines; and then draw
horizontal lines through the
three crosses on the central line,
to terminate at the curved outer
line. Now add the eyes, or loops, for the division of the leaf,
and we have the development and constructional lines of the
leaf as shown in sketch a.
ACANTHUS-LEAF CONVENTIONALIZED. 199
If the teacher looks at the sketch b, the second stage of

the drawing will be seen, the
veins and loops of the divisions
of the leaf and
the general
features being
given. In the
sketch c, the
leaf is shown
completed, the
three members
of each great division being drawn as though
they were one. In d, the natural leaf is given
for comparison.
The acanthus-leaf is the most frequently used

foliage in ornamental art. It was first used by the
Greeks ;
a particular variety, called the Acanthus
spinosus , or prickly acanthus, being employed, a
plant much resembling the larger varieties of the
sharp edgings or margin of the leaf.
thistle, in its
Another variety, called the Acanthus mollis or soft ,
acanthus, more nearly resembling the leaf of the

parsley and many wild plants, was adopted b} the T
Roman ornamentists, and so developed by them that

the acanthus scroll of the Trajan Forum in Rome
may be most magnificent decorative
said to be the
foliage ever produced. This variety had rounder
points, more elaborate divisions and enrichments of
the leaf, than the prickly acanthus used b}’ the
Greeks. It is the Roman acanthus, with various
modifications, which is so extensively employed now
in almost all branches of decorative art ;
and it is
this form which is given for a copy.

CHAPTER IV.
OBJECT DRAWING, BLACKBOARD EXERCISES,

AND HISTORICAL FORMS.
For the purpose of giving variety to the exercises,
geometrical views of a few objects are given in this
chapter. The difference between a geometrical view
and a perspective view of an object will be seen by
comparing Exercise 12 and the same form in a per-
spective view, in Exercise 4, Book 3.
Greek Vase.
Directions. — Draw a central vertical line, 1 2, the same
length as in the copy. Draw
3 4 through 1, tliree-fourtlis
the length of 1 2; half the
length of 3 4 being on each
side of 1 2. These propor-
tions being secured, notice
the egg shape of the body;
and, in drawing the profile,
letthe curve he very refined
and gentle. The shape is
very subtle and beautiful,
and should he well copied.
The horizontal lines of the mouldings are to be noticed also.
The principal difference between this and Ex. 10,

is, that more of the large end of the egg-form is
cut off at the top of this vase than in that example,

giving thereby more character and individuality.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE. 201
Padlock.
Directions. — To be drawn the same size as the copy, and

directly below it. Draw 1 2 im-
mediately under tlie central line
of the lock, and divide it into
three equal parts in 3 and 4.
Through 3 draw a horizontal
line, 5 0, and divide it into three
equal parts in 7 and 8. These
are the constructional lines and
divisions. Begin the curved out-
lines by drawing the longest
curve, 5 2 G, and carry the curve
above 5 6, to pass through 7 and
8, and end in a straight line
below 5 6. Draw the hasp
above 5 G, the upper line passing
through 1. Point 9 is halfway between 3 and 4; and 9 0, the
central line of the key-cover, should be drawn so as to make
the cover symmetrical. Draw it, and, lastly the keyhole,
which may be given as an exercise, without proportions being
described.
See if the pupils will draw a cover which will

conceal the keyhole, the purpose for which it is made.
The point 0 ought to be just below the bottom
of the kej'hole, measured from 9 down the central
if
line towards Then ask them to measure the

2.
width of the cover in their drawings, and apply it

to the widest part of the keyhole, and see if it
would protect the hole from wet and dirt by covering
it. Practical tests of the usefulness and working
capacity of useful objects as drawn, are among the
best tests of good drawing.'

Earthenware Pitcher.
Directions. — The pitcher is to he drawn the same size as
the copy, and in the space be-
neath it. Draw the vertical line
1 2, and divide it into four equal
parts in 3, 4, 5. Through 4 draw
a horizontal line, 6 7, equal to
three parts of 1 2. Draw the hori-
zontal lines, 8 9, 10 11, 12 13, 14 15,
in their respective places, and
length proportioned to parts of
1 2, as truly as your eye judges;
the two lines, 8 9, and 14 15, being

equal and nearly as long as two
divisions of 1 2; and those at
10 11, and 12 13, being a little
longer than one division of 1 2.
The horizontal lines which mark either the narrowest or
widest parts, or the termination of a curve, should be drawn
before the outline of the form be drawn. Those which occur
between two such divisions, as, for instance, those on the neck
of this pitcher, may be added after the outline is done, as their
lengths will be determined by the oblique lines of the outline.
Having drawn the leading horizontal lines, draw the out-
line, handle, and spout.

Moresque Ornament.
Directions. — The example is first to be copied in the space
below the illustration, and of the same
size. No simple proportions are given;
the exercise being to practise the pupil
in seeing proportions not reducible to a
simple fraction of the whole height.
Draw the central line in the middle of
the space, and add, at their proper posi-
tions, the three horizontal lines. Next
draw the two longest curves, near the
central line, and add the outer ones,
;
DBA WING-BOOK EXERCISE. 203
which end at the extremities of the horizontal line. See how

the stems of the leaves interlace, and remember to draw
them across or through one another at first, afterwards rub-
bing out the invisible parts. Lastly draw the conventional
apple or berry on the central line.
Enlargement of Previous Exercise.
The same exercise is now to be drawn in the large

space on a central line twice as long as the copy
the general directions for drawing it being the same
as before. The teacher should be sure that the
proportions of the dotted constructional lines are
approximately correct in the children’s drawings,
before allowing them to begin the curves. It is
unwise to let a drawing get altogether wrong for

want of close attention and correction in the early
stages. Any measurement the teacher wants to get
quite true may be obtained by measuring it from
the copy, and doubling it for the enlarged drawing,
if, as in this exercise, the drawing is to be made
twice the linear size of the copy.
The teacher will see, by a scrutiny of the lines
employed in Moorish ornament, that simple curves,
and the compound curve, called the ogee, or line of
beauty, are the most frequentlj'-used curves in the
style. This will enable the teacher to describe the
curvature in words, as well as to illustrate it effec-
tively by means of base on the board the

lines ;
altitude of each curve being approximately measured

by a proportion of the base.
For further illustrations of the Moorish style, see
the examples on page 237.


The page is to be filled by two exercises ;
the first
in dictation, the second from the blackboard. Com-
mence them by requiring the pupils to divide the
page vertically into two equal parts.
Dictation Lesson. A Vase.

Directions. — In the centre of the space to the left, draw a
vertical line to within half an inch
of the top, and continue it to with-
in the same distance of the bottom,
of the page. Call it 1 2, the numeral
1 being at the top. Divide 1 2 into
three equal parts in 3,4 3 being next
;
to 1.Through 1 draw a horizontal

line equal to two parts of 1 2, one on
each side of it, which mark as 5 6.
Through 3 and 2 draw horizontal
lines equal to one part of 1 2, half
on either side, calling that through 3,
7 8, that through 2, 9 0. Erom 5 draw
a simple curve inwards towards 1 2,
ending in 7, its altitude one-sixth of its base. From 7 draw
a curve to 9, rounding fully from 7 outwards (away from 1 2),
and being flatter as it approaches 9; the altitude to be on
the base 7 9, one-fourtli its length from 7, and one-fourth of
the base in height. Itepeat these curves from (i to 8, and from
8 to 0. The body of the vase should be ovoid in general
character, large end uppermost.
The lesson here given is one of the most perfect

blackboard lessons yet given. Its proportions and
curvature can be stated in exact terms of language.
The true test of good blackboard-drawing is, when
few guide-lines have to be erased. In this, only five
lines have to be erased when completed.
BLACKBOARD LESSON. 205
Blackboard Lesson. Shield and Crown of the House of

Savoy.
Directions. —
In the centre of the right-hand space, draw a
vertical line to within one inch and a
half of the top, and one-half inch of
the bottom, of the page. Divide this,
as shown at the side of the diagram,
into four equal, parts, in 3, 4, 5. —
Through 3 and 5 draw horizontal lines
G 7, G' 7’, each equal to half of 1 2,
Draw G G', 7 7‘, (>' 2, 7 2. Bisect 6‘ 2

and T 2, drawing a compound curve
called the ogee, through the bisection
on either side. Through 4 draw 8 9.
Divide the lines from 4 to 3, 5, 8, 9, into
three equal parts, and, through the
divisions nearest to those numerals
draw lines at right angles to the central lines of the cross,
each equal to a third of 4 8, half on either side. Complete
the cross by joining the extremities of the lines last drawn.
[The numerals are placed on a line at the side; but the
teacher is to suppose 1 2 to he the central line of the figure.]
The Crown. —
The upper division, 1 3, is divided into three
equal parts, the rim of the crown taking up the lower third,
the spheres and lozenge shapes, the middle, and the bars, the
upper third. The hall and cross are added, a little more than
a third of 1 3 in height.
In this exercise, the curves and upper portions of

the crown are to be drawn by judgment of the e}r e,
both by teacher and pupils ;
and, the great propor-
tions being given, the details of the rest may well
be left to the judgment of the eye.
Thereby the
pupil acquires a sort of instinctive criticism, which
is the only safe guide in after-practice of drawing
from nature. Every drawing-lesson should give both

exact and inexact proportions, so as to develop the
TT
i*
mental criticism and the judgment of the senses ;
and it will be the wholesome and healthy exercise

of both of these faculties which will result in intelli-
gent skill.

Memory Drawing.
Directions. — Draw a vertical on the page, dividing it
line
into two parts, of which the left space shall he
one-third, and the right space two-thirds, of j
the page. In the space give the square

left
ivy-leaf rosette to be drawn twice from mem-
ory. Draw two vertical lines near the out-
sides of the space, leaving a margin of half an
inch on both sides. Divide this space into two
equal parts by a horizontal line. Then draw
a square in the upper half between these par-
allels, and a second square in the lower half.
Draw the diameters and diagonals of both squares, and then
remind the pupils of the character of the ivy-leaf, and re-
quire them to draw the rosette in each square from memory.
If necessary, let them turn to the exercise on the second
MEMORY DRAWING AND DESIGN. 207
page, and look well at it, before beginning to draw it; but,
after the work is begun, let no leaf of the book be turned for
reference.
Ivy-Leaf Design.
Directions. — Let the pupils now apply the knowledge they
! have of the ivy-leaf to an original
j
treatment of it. In this exercise the
teacher may depart from the rosette
arrangement, in some cases, letting
the design be more of symmetrical
arrangement on a vertical axis. Four
examples are given of this manner of
treatment; two being simple in char-
acter, the third and fourth more elabo-
rate. The teacher will note, that, in
each, the first thing to be clearly dis-
cerned is the geometrical shape. Let
those pupils who have tried, and have
failed to make any kind of a design
for themselves, copy one of those here given; though even
an indifferent arrangement made by the child itself will be
more educational to it than copying the designs of others.
Variations of the Ivy-Leaf Design.
Though a fairly good drawing may be made by

children in the regular hours of study, generally, a
design cannot often be made, by any one at a fixed
time. It is a work of
thought and experiment,
and, therefore, the pupil
should have time enough
given in which to experi-
ment. Before the time
arrives when the design for
this place has to be put in
the book, the teacher should
set the children to work on
their designs, and require them to practise at home

as a preparation, bringing
their sketches to the teach-
er for criticism and sugges-
tion. When even a mod-
erately satisfactoiy result |
is arrived at by the pupil, !
then let the teacher have

it placed in the drawing-
book as a privilege. Again
be said, Beware of in-
let it
sisting on too high a standard for children. Keep

them interested and happ} in their work, even if
r
they do it very badly. Educate the spirit of, and

instinct for, constructive work of some sort, and let
the time when excellence shall be attained take care
of itself.
The work in seldom be better than

drawing will
that of the same childany other subject. Start-
in
ing on a basis of nothing, when the skill and knowl-
edge of the child are at zero,
w e have
r
to add, little by lit-
tle, to that nothing, and rise
by degrees above that zero,
through various imperfec-
tions, until we approximate
to the relatively good : the
perfect we never reach. Let
this thought sober the criti-
cism, and restrain the impa-

tience, and comfort the dis-
tress, of the teacher, when the sorry work of the
MEMORY DRAWING AND DESIGN. 209
ILLUSTRATION FOR PAGE 17 OF DRAWING-BOOK.
pupils is being examined. Let her remember that all

the brilliant geniuses before whose names, memories,
or shrines, a whole earth bows in admiration, never
produced, even in the maturity of their skill, any
thing but imperfect work, and died before the}’ had
accomplished more than an approximation to the
truth, or even reached a realization of their ideal.
AVith these things in mind, we can afford to be toler-
ant of the imperfections of young children ;
for
this imperfection is the claim they have upon us for
help and guidance.
In the development of originality in pupils, by
designing lessons, the teacher will find much encour-
agement. Frequently it will be found that pupils
who have shown but little interest in the study, and
have consequently made but indifferent progress,
will suddenly awake to enthusiasm when they see
its application to design.

210 TEACHER'S MANUAL.

Watering-Can.
Directions. — This example is tohe drawn in the space to
the right, and of the same
size as the copy. Draw a
central line in the middle of
the space 1 2, and divide it
into three equal parts, as
shown by
stars on the copy.
Lines 3 4 and 5 6 are each
equal to half 1 2. Draw
them and the sides 3 5, 4 6.
This gives the cylindrical
body of the can. Draw its
top by a simple curve from
3 to 4, and mark the opening
near 3. Add the handles
and spout, measuring their dimensions by the eye, in compar-
ing them with the width and height, 3 4 and 1 2. Thus the
handle to the left projects beyond 3 5 nearly the half of 3 4,
and vertically it projects a little above 3, and ends a little
below the second star, on line 3 5. In the same way analyze
the position of the spout before drawing it.
This is a copy which may be successfully repro-

duced on a large scale on the blackboard by pupils,
the form being simple in character. Very imperfect r
work in the books may sometimes be corrected by

requiring the class to draw the same example sev-
eral times. Thus, begin with drawing it on slates ;
then draw it for the second time on a large scale on

the blackboard, each pupil drawing it the same size
as the teacher does ;
and, lastly, let the pupils draw
it in their books. Two or three repetitions of les-
sons in this manner will much improve the book-
work.
THE OXFORD PITCHER. 211
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XVII.

The Oxford Pitcher.
Directions. — The construction here given, as well as the
same form in the drawing-book,
shows how to begin this exercise.
The pupil is to complete the dia-
gram given in the book, thus mak-
ing a copy the size of the illustra-
tion. The pitcher is to be drawn
twice as large as the illustration in
the space assigned. In the centre
of the space allotted, draw a cen-
tral line, 1 2, twice as long as the
same line in the copy. Draw 3 4
and 5 0, also twice as long; i.e., on
each side of the central line in the
drawing will be a line as long as
the whole of 3 4 or of 5 6 in the
copy. Then draw 3 5, 4 6. Draw next the horizontal lines.
Add the spout at 3, and round off the angles at 5 and 6.
Then draw the handle.
The two objects, the watering-can and the pitcher,

illustrate one principle of good drawing, -which should
be early impressed on the pu-
pils. It is, that in objects
which are, taken altogether,
not symmetrical, there will
probably be some symmetrical
parts, and the unsymmetrical
parts will be details only, such
as handles and spouts. The
draughtsman looks for the
symmetrical parts, and draws
them first, thus securing bal-
ance and consistency in the
more important portions of the object.
212 TEACHERS' MANUAL .
Here comes in the same element in drawing from

objects, which is so much insisted on in drawing from
flat copies or ornaments, namely, the geometrical
basis. Just as the accurate geometrical arrangement j
of parts in a flat ornament is one of its essential
characteristics,*so, in the appearance of an object,

there will be portions in which solid geometiy occurs |
as a basis and the knowledge which enables us

;
to
draw the geometric solids will enable us to draw all
j
objects having the geometric solids as the bases of i
their forms or construction.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XVIII.

Acanthus Ornament.
Directions. — The copy is to he increased in size to twice as
large as the example. Draw in
the centre of the space, to the
right, a vertical line, 1 2, twice as
long as 1 2 in the copy. Divide
it into two equal parts, and
through the division draw 3 4,
equal to 1 2. Treat these as the
diagonals of a square, and draw
the square. First draw the
curve from 3, through 2, to 4.
The large liusk is to he then

completed by adding the lobes
of the leaf-like part above 3, 2, 4.
This example shows how valuable simple construc-

tional lines are in obtaining proportion. The acan-
thus husk not usually considered as of very simple
is
proportion, yet here it is designed on one of the

simplest geometric forms, that of the square and ;
every part of the square is useful in fixing the posi-

tion of some important feature.
BLACKBOARD LESSON. 213
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XIX.

Acanthus Rosette.
Directions. —A square rosette, having in each fourth of the

square an acanthus-like husk, will
he produced by repeating the quar-
ter given, in the three remaining
quarters of the square. Begin by
drawing the long outer line of the
husk which commences near the
ends of the diameter, and passes
to touch the small circle at the
centre of the square, in the three
quarters not filled; then fill up the
points or edgings of the side lobes,
and, lastly, those of the central lobe.
The teacher might allow those pupils who draw

this example well to put half-tint consisting of par-
allel lines on the background, that is, on the portion
of the square not included within the acanthus
forms. drawing lines parallel to each
Half-tint is
other, leaving the width of a line between two

lines.
But the mere daubing of a surface with lines run-

ning every way is not half-tinting it. The lines
should run one way, either vertical, horizontal, or
all
oblique, and then the surface will look flat. If there

is much difficulty in obtaining this result at first, let
half-tinting be practised on the slate or blackboards ;
for let it be remembered, that to erase faulty half-

tinting will spoil an}' drawing, and, when the pupil is
allowed to use this means of distinguishing the parts

of a drawing, it must be done firmly and deliber-
ately at once, and not done to be erased.

Blackboard Lesson. — Conventional Leaves and
Flowers.
Directions. — Divide the page into two unequal parts by a
vertical line, making the left half
slightly the larger.
In the centre of the left space draw
a vertical line 1 2, leaving a margin i
of half an inch at the top and bottom

of the book. Divide 1 2 into four
equal parts in 3, 4, 5. Through 1 |
and 5 draw horizontal lines, equal to

half the vertical, 7 and 8 9.
fi Draw |
the curve from through 4 to 2, and

(>
|
then that from 7 through 4 to 2. I
Next draw the leaf from 7 to 5, and !
add that below 0 to 5, remembering

to make the points of the leaf sharp,
and the lobes rounded. Between 1
and 3 draw the flower, its centre midway between 1 and 3.
Repeat this flower round 8 and 9 as centres, and then draw
the stems of leaves and flowers.
The usual method of proceeding in sketching an

outline design is to draw the left side first ;
but in
this case, where the complete leaf occurs on the right
j
side, it will be better to draw the right leaf first.

The flower, at 8 should, however, be drawn before
that at 9. The pupils might be required, as a home
exercise, to adhere to this arrangement of leaves
and flowers whilst taking another subject for a
design. Thus t'he morning-glory, the geranium, the
convolvulus, and many other common plants, would
be fitting subjects for design, with an arrangement
borrowed from the above.
DICTATION LESSON. 215
Dictation Lesson. Conventional Ornament.
Directions. — In the right space draw a central vertical line

the same height as that used for the
blackboard lesson on the same page.
Divide this line, 1 2, into four equal
parts in 3, 4, 5, remembering always
to divide it first into two equal parts,
and then each part into two, thus
getting four equal parts. Through 4
draw a horizontal line, 6 7, equal to
two parts of the vertical line, half on
each side of it. Draw simple curves
from 1 and 2 to 4, on both sides of
1 4 and 2 4, their heights equal to
One-eightli of their bases. From (5
and 7 draw simple curves to 4 on both

sides of 6 4, 7 4, their heights equal one-sixth their bases.
Draw the right line 1 6, and divide it into three equal parts.
On the upper two-thirds as base draw a simple curve to the
left of the line, its height equal to one-fourth base; and on
its
the lower third of 1 6, draw a simple curve, height equal

its
to one-fourth its base. Repeat this on the three other lines,
1 7, 6 2, 7 2. Divide (5 4 and 4 7 each into two equal parts in
8 and and draw 3 8, 8 5, 3 9, 9 5. Between 3 and 1 draw a
9,
circle whose diameter coincides with the line 3 1, and reaches
from 3, one-fourth of 3 1. Below 5 repeat a similar circle
down the line 5 2. From 8, towards
draw a circle on the 6,
line 8 6, its and taking up one-
diameter beginning at 8,
third of the line between 8 and 6. Repeat this circle in a
similar position between 9 and 7. Erase the parts of the
lozenge shape which go behind the conventional leaves, and
finish the figure.
The constructional lines are divided points to

show every proportion to the teacher. The dictation
given above is all that is barely necessary ;
but it
should be amplified and repeated as much and as

often as the teacher thinks advisable, so as to give
216 TEACHERS' MAN HAL.
a clear and complete understanding by the language

used of the form described. The illustrations above
show how the examples, properly drawn, will appear
in the drawing-book.
Teachers sometimes inquire, why, in this course of
lessons, so large a proportion of the exercises are
taken from ornamental forms rather than from ob-
jects. The reason will be evident, if we remember
that few objects can be intelligibly represented,
unless drawn as the eye sees them and this would ;
necessitate a knowledge of perspective, which chil-

dren in the primary or intermediate grades can
hardly be expected to understand. Again : the aim
of these first exercises is to cultivate the imitative
faculty, and give an appreciation of beautiful curves.
Few common objects have beautiful curves in their
outline, whilst all good ornament displays such
curves.
CONVENTIONAL DESIGN. 217

DRAWING-BOOK.
Conventional Design from the Vine.
Directions. — Before beginning to draw, divide the page
into two equal parts vertically.
The left half is to be for the de-
sign from the vine-leaf. Draw
a central line, leaving a margin
of half an inch above and below
its extremities. Divide it into five
I
equal parts. Through the first
division from the bottom, draw a
|
horizontal line equal to four-fifths
of the central line, half on each
side of it -The front view of the
j
vine-leaf occupies one-lialf of the
j
.central line. Draw it first, and
|
then the compound curves which
form the midribs of the side leaves, and next draw the leaves
! themselves. The grapes are circular, and the tendril at the
;
centre is a spiral. Draw the different forms in the order
named.
The teacher who is not an expert in drawing on

the board had better draw one-half of the design on
the board, and do it very carefully ;
and, when only
one-half is drawn, it should be the left half. When
the pupils have done this in their books, they may
be required to add the right half of the pattern,
whilst the teacher can devote the rest of the lesson
to criticism of individual drawings. In this criti-
cism, remember to be very merciful to inequality of
thickness in the lines, and let all the corrections be
in the shapes of the drawings. Try and get an
appreciation of true form, and the beaut}” of line
will take care of itself. At the same time, if the
pupil able to get the right shape of an example,

is
and isvery rude in the character of the line, the

teacher may then wisely criticise the line and work-
manship generally.
Conventional Flower-Form.
Directions. — The exercises on pages 18 and 19 of the draw-
ing-hook are intended to teach, by
comparison, the difference between
a plant conventionally treated and
one drawn from Nature. Let the
teacher compare them with the po-
tato-plant on the opposite page, and
point out the difference between nat-
nral and conventional forms to the
pupils.
The design: Draw a central verti-
cal line in the left-hand space ex-
tending to within three-quarters of
an inch of the top and bottom edge
of the paper. Divide this line into
three parts, of which the two lower parts are equal, and the
top part slightly shorter than the others. This gives the chief
divisions; the upper being for the flower, and the lower for
the leaf at the bottom and the point from which all the leaves,
flower, and buds spring. Draw the flower on the upper third
first, and then the heart-shaped leaf on the lower third. Next
draw the midribs of the side leaves, and also of the half
leaves tending upwards towards the flower.” Complete these
leaves, and then add the buds and tendrils. Be careful to
keep the outer points of the design within an oval.
Direct the pupils’ attention to the several features

of a plant here represented ;
viz., front view of leaf,
side view, flower, bud, tendrils. The leaf is heart-

shaped, and the flower cruciform ;
that is, having
four petals arranged in shape of a cross. The
example is one capable of displaying delicacy of
DRA WING-BOOK EXERCISE. 219
curvature in the outlines of the leaves, and this

should be pointed out to the pupils.
This is an arrangement which might be made a
suitable one for the convolvulus, the leaves and
flowers being not unlike these. Look out the details
of the convolvulus from a work on botany, and draw
them on the board for materials for a design, the
pupils to copy them from the board, and produce an
original design based on the above arrangement.
The arrangements on page 18 of the drawing-book
illustrate the simplest form of design ;
viz., symmet-
rical treatment of a plant or foliage on a vertical
axis, making that which is sometimes called a
sprig, and used at various times as a surface decora-
tion for walls. When not enclosed within lines
geometrically arranged, the ornamentation would be
called a powdering : if so enclosed, the pattern is
called a diaper.

The Potato-Plant.
Directions. — Tlie teacher should draw this exercise on the
blackboard so as to show
the order in which its sev-
eral parts are to be copied
by the pupils. Draw a
rectangular form on the
board, having the same
proportion of width to
height as the space in the
book in which the example
to be copied, which is
is
one-quarter of the width

higher than the width.
Suppose the teacher draws
a base of three feet for the
rectangle, the sides will be
three feet nine inches high.
Complete the rectangle.
Then let the teacher draw
the example in the space so marked out, the pupil following
step by step. Explain to the pupil® that the leaf is a com-
pound leaf, consisting of several leaflets, or little leaves,
ranged along the sides of the midrib, terminated by one at
the extremity. The first line to draw in the leaf will be the
stem, or midrib, including the stem itself, by one line only,
irrespective of interruptions or breaks made by the leaflets,
to get the length and direction of the leaf. Then draw a
single line to obtain the position of the flower-stem, observ-
ing the angle it makes with the leaf-stem. Beginning at the
|
top of the leaf, draw each pair of leaflets of the larger kind,
and afterwards add the smaller ones. In the same way begin
with the open flower, and draw it, noticing its five petals;
then the side view of the flower and the pendent buds.
Lastly, draw the balls, or berries, taking care to keep the
stems delicate.
This copy is, perhaps, more elaborate than an}’

other in the book. It is sometimes advisable to give
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE. 221
pupils an opportunity to show what they have

learned by practice, or whether they have learned any
thing. The potato-plant will probably be but poorly
copied; but it will look pretty well, whether done
well or ill, —a peculiarity generally observed of
almost all foliage drawn from Nature. A copy like
this gives the children, who have learned to observe,
a test worthy of their powers and therefore, now
;
and then, it is valuable to raise the standard of

examples used for this reason.
It has been found in drawing, as in the whole
field of general education, that variety in subject is
healthier for the pupil, and more conducive to a gen-

eral intelligence, than adhering to one subject only.
A change of subject often begets fresh interest,
besides affording an opportunity for those to whom
one subject is distasteful, for success in another.
Eveiy individual will have preference for one sort of
work above all others and it takes some people a
;
long time to find out what their predilections are.

Yariet}' of work in drawing given early will afford
them an opportunity to find out their preferences
before much time has been wasted.
Not that it is advisable, when a pupil has shown
strength in one direction, that he should practise in
that direction only ;
for this would deprive him of the
opportunity of gaining strength in the weak points
of his drawing. Better let him have the discipline
of doing that which, perhaps, he maj not
r
like, rather
than miss the opportunity of discovering a branch of
drawing which he will be strong in.
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XXI.

Type Forms of Three Styles of Ornament, Egyptian,
Greek, and Roman.
Directions. — One of the three forms is to be drawn in the
centre of the space, and is to he I
enlarged to three times the lineal

measurement of the copy. It will
be seen a circle encloses
that
the Egyptian form an ellipse, the
;
Greek; and an ovoid, the Roman.

This enclosing form is the lirst to
be drawn; the central line having
been placed in the middle of the
space, and being three times the
length of that in the example
'
selected. Begin by drawing the disc,
or base, from which the members

spring. In the cases of the Greek
and Roman, the central member or leaf
is to be first drawn, and afterwards
those of the left side, beginning from
the uppermost. Make points on the
enclosing form (circle, ellipse, or oval),
where each member touches the curve,
and see that these are opposite to each
other on the two sides. When the left
side is complete, then draw the right side. Sketch very faint-
ly, and then finish firmly.
It is conducive to a knowledge
of various styles of ornament to j
see, side by side, typical modes j
of treating the same subject in j
different styles. It is not ex- I
pected that young children will

learn more than the names of
either the styles or details of
FORMS OF ORNAMENT. 223
ornament, with the first glimmering of a notion of

the difference between them, expressed by their own
imperfect drawings, a fair measure of their percep-
tions.
In this page, three examples of an ornamental
detail show how the same subject Avas treated in as
many styles ;
the subject of the Egyptian being the
papyrus ;
that of the Greek, from the honeysuckle ;
and the Roman is a treatment of the acanthus-leaf.

From the illustrations, it will be seen that the first is
simple in curve, and straight in line ;

the Greek
very elaborate in curve, and subtle in line ;
whilst
the Roman is enriched almost to the point of con-
fusion, and loss of character. In this as in many
other details Of ornament in the three ancient styles,
the golden mean is with Greek art ;
a greater degree
of satisfying beauty being there displayed than in
other styles, antecedent or subsequent to it.
Questions. — What lines are most frequently used in Moor-

ish ornament? What is said of drawing by judgment of
eye? Of pupils drawing their copies on the blackboard
before drawing them in their books? Of criticising the work
of children? Of half-tint? Of drawing ornamental forms
instead of natural forms? Of Greek art as compared with
Egyptian and Eoman art?
CHAPTER V.
DECORATIVE ART.- EG YPTIAN, GREEK, ROMAN,

MORESQUE STYLES.
It is impossible to draw a line, and sa}', All upon
this side belongs to fine upon that side, to

art ;
all
decorative art. Certain things can be named as

appropriate to decorative art, which do riot belong
to fine art at all, — the severely symmetrical treat-
ment, and endless repetition of forms, for example.
Again decorative art, but not so fine art, is always
:
employed for the purpose of beautifying objects

created for some end independent of decoration.
Therefore ornament, the product of purely decora-
tive art, can have no independent existence, but
I
must be subordinate to the object which it beautifies.
On the other hand, a product of fine art, as a paint-
ing or statue, furnishes, in itself, a sufficient reason
for i^s existence. It is, therefore, a thing of primaiy
importance : it does not depend upon something else
for its being.
Requirements of Manufactures.
Decorative art, but not fine art, has always to do

with manufactures ;
and so decorative art is limited
by the necessary conditions of manufactures, as pre-
viously stated, while fine art is limited only by its
•
own conditions. The manufacturing conditions
result from three things :
—
DECORATIVE ART. 225
1. The material of which the object is to be made;

as, wood, stone, silver, iron, textile fibres. It is
clear that all ornaments cannot be equally well
wrought in these different materials.
2. The manner in which the object is to be made;
as, by weaving, hammering, turning, carving, cast-
ing, sawing, sculpturing. It is self-evident that

each mode of manufacture must impose certain
conditions peculiar to itself upon decoration.
3. The use to which the manufactured object is to
be put. The decoration should harmonize with this

use. But use involves position so decoration must
:
give heed to that, since an ornament should always

be seen the right way up. Thus it often happens
that an ornament suitable for the wall of a room,
where it can be viewed only in one way, will not
answer for a carpet, where it will be viewed from all
sides. Again if an ornament is to occupy an ele-
:
vated position, it needs to have more breadth, with

less of minute detail, than if it is to occupy a position
near the spectator. Intensity of light is also to be
considered ;
delicate details will not show in gloom.
But this is not the place to set forth, with any
degree of fulness, the particulars of applied deco-
ration : that belongs to a more advanced stage in
the learner’s progress. It is believed, however,
that what has just been said of the general features,
together with the few matters now to be mentioned,
can be readily comprehended by teachers general^,
and that this knowledge will enable them to give a
practical character to the instruction, even in quite
elementary exercises.
The conditions of manufacture require that deco-

ration should, as a rule, have a geometrical construc-
tion, — a basis of triangles, squares, pentagons, &c.
Decorative art has, in the main, conformed to this,
j
The conditions of manufacture require that the
j
forms employed for decoration should be simple,
|
since the accurate reproduction of other forms is
|
impossible by the processes of manufacture. Hence
i
good decorative art makes no use of true natural
forms. For the same reason, it has nothing to do
with what is called cliiaro-scuro ,
or the exact ren-
dering of the effects of perspective, and of light and
and shade.
Derivation of Laws of Decorative Art.
The general laws of decorative art are derived

from Nature, — mainly from the vegetable world.
Natural forms are, as already shown, largely em-
ployed ;
as, leaves, flowers, buds, sprigs, vines. When
such forms are employed, they are always, in good
decorative art, conventionalized, and then arranged
according to the laws of natural growth. While
much of what is natural is omitted, no violence is
done to Nature in what is represented. Convention-

f alization has been quite fully illustrated on the pre-
ceding pages.
First determine the general shape of the natural
form as a whole, which is usually geometrical, and
then the general shape of each part. This is the
first step towards conventionalizing the form.
Nearly all natural forms are, as a whole, symmet-

rical. Thus, in the case of most leaves, and of the
DECORATIVE ART. 227
human form, the right side balances the left, — an

illustration of symmetry. When we come to con-
sider the parts, we find that a single feature, like
the head, is symmetrical ;
while double features,
like the arms, are unsymmetrical, if considered
separately, but symmetrical, if considered together,
the one balancing the other. Single flowers are usu-
ally symmetrical, their petals being regularly ar-
ranged about a centre ;
but in the case of clusters,
of flower-umbels, each flower, separately consid-
ered, is often unsymmetrical. Where the natural
form, as a whole, is symmetrical, the conventional
form is made strictly so.
Arrangement of the Parts.
In three ways }'ou can arrange the parts of a dec-

orative form, and preserve its symmetry :
—
1. You can arrange them about a centre, as of a
circle, square, pentagon, or other geometrical figure.
It is thus that the parts of snowflakes, of flowers,
and many other things, are usually arranged.
2. You can balance the right and left sides, as
Nature does in the case of so many leaves, animals,

and other things.
3. You can arrange the parts so that they will
radiate from a point, or stem, like a fan, as do

horse-chestnut-leaves, palm-leaves, and the petals of
most flowers when viewed sidewise.
4. There is one other kind of arrangement which
is quite unlike the above: it is called continuous
growth, and is illustrated by the vine. But, like
the above, it possesses the great distinguishing
characteristic of decorative art: it is rhythmical ,
that is, at regular intervals the same features repeat

themselves, as do leaves upon a natural vine.
It now remains to saj^ a word of the repetition of
these decorative forms ;
for theymust be repeated
in order to serve the purposes of manufactures.
1. For covering horizontal surfaces, they must be
repeated in all directions.
2. For covering upright surfaces, they must be

repeated horizontal^, vertically, or obliquely.
Rhythmical repetition of decorative forms makes
their effect more agreeable ;
not so in fine art.
Page of Mouldings.
On the opposite page are given several varieties
of mouldings drawn in outline. They illustrate
some of the principles of decorative art that have
justbeen described. The forms are all highty con-
ventional, and best adapted to the decoration of ver-
tical surface, — the first four to be repeated right
and left, the last three to be repeated up and down.
1. This is made from the leaf of the Irish shamrock, and
from the flower of the Scotch thistle. Each form illustrates

the balance of sides, right and left.
2. This is a moulding from a three-lobed leaf, trefoil. —
3. This is made from the flower and bud of the lily; highly
conventional.
4. Another moulding, or bordei’, from the flower and bud
of the lily. As
the flower is viewed in elevation, it illustrates
radiation from a point. The form is Assyrian.
5. 6, 7. Observe, that, in these mouldings, the leaves, sepa-
rately considered, are not symmetrical, but are symmetrical
when taken in groups.
The construction of these mouldings is so evident, that no
directions need be given for drawing them.
230 TEACHER'S MAN UAL.
Style in Decorative Art.
In decorative art, whatis called a style is a thing
of gradual growth : one cannot say just where it

begins, or just where it ends. It is eas}^ enough,
however, to distinguish two styles, when each has
been fully developed. Full development is not
attained until the same general characteristics mark
J
the decoration of all objects at a given period.

Different decorative styles may be distinguished
from one another (1) by their externals (2) by ;
their aims. Externals differ (1) in the motives, or

elemental forms, as the acanthus, the lotus, &c.,
|
which the dissimilar styles employ (2) in the man- ;

,
ner of treatment, which may be more or less con- j
ventional, bold, timid, elaborate, &c. The aim may j
be (1) purely aesthetic, or the expression of beauty,

strength, grandeur, for the sake of pleasing. Such
are the Greek, Roman, Moresque styles. Or (2)
the aim may be symbolic ;
that is, to instruct by an
appeal to the sensibilities. Such are the Egj-ptian
and Gothic styles, largely ecclesiastical. All good
styles equally observe certain general principles in
the construction and the application of ornament.
For various reasons, it is important that one should
|
be able to distinguish readily between different deco- i
rative styles. They should not be combined in a

design, as is frequently done by decorators.
The four pages of examples which follow will give
an idea of the general character of the Egyptian,
Greek, Roman, and Moresque styles. The}^ are not
to be used as drawing-exercises by the pupils, though
EGYPTIAN. 231
232 TEACHER'S MANUAL .
it may be well to allow some of the more expert

pupils to put them on the blackboard. Such pupils
will thushave an opportunity to show what they can
do. They
are given more especially for the purpose
of showing the teacher the practical application of
much the pupils have been learning to draw, and
that the pupil may see to what their instruction
tends.
Page of Egyptian Forms.
The Eg} ptians employed a

r
variety of natural ob-
jects for decorative purposes. The lotus, or lily of
the Nile, together with the papyrus, from which
paper was made, were extensively used. The natu-
ral forms are highly conventionalized. The general
treatment is showing great firmness and
severe,
rigidity of line. Every thing is colored. Egyptian
art was at its best about three thousand years B.C.
On the preceding page are given five specimens.
1. This is the wave scroll, symbolic of the waves of the

Nile. The added detail is from the papyrus.
2. This is a moulding, or border, made from the flower
and bud of the lotus, the Egyptian symbol of renewed life.
3. This is another variety of border, or moulding, made
from the flower of the lotus.
4. This is a pattern for the covering of surface. It will be
seen that it can be extended in all directions.
The four preceding specimens are from mummy cases and
the walls of tombs, which were always profusely decorated.
5. This is an Egyptian capital, or top of a column, from a
temple near Thebes. The papyrus-flower furnishes the mo-

tive. Compare it with the Greek and Homan capitals which
follow.
In the high school these forms are to be drawn,

and then done in color, just as they were done by
the Egyptians. For such work the publishers of

this book have already prepared large colored plates,
which are in use where sufficient preliminary pro-
gress has been made in drawing. Similar plates
have been prepared for other great styles of decora-
tive art. Thus the learner is enabled to contrast
one style with another.
3. Page of Greek Forms.
On the preceding page are given six varieties of

Greek ornament. A glance will show that the treat-
ment is quite different from the Egyptian. Greek
art was at its best about three hundred years B.C.
This is an echinus moulding, sometimes called the egg

and dart. It was usually sculptured. The curves are ellip-
tical and flat. Compare with the Roman.
2. This part of a sculptured moulding from the Temple
is
of Nemesis at Rhamnus. The lower part of the moulding is

called the astragal, and sometimes the hucklebone series.
3. This anthemion (flower) rosette is from the Parthenon.
It was done in colors. You will see that it is made from the
honeysuckle-flower.
4. This is part of a sculptured moulding from the Temple
of Erectheus at Athens. It gives us the honeysuckle-flower

and astragal combined.
5. This is a sculptured acanthus-leaf from a capital of
the Tower of the Winds. Observe that the lobes are more
pointed than in the Roman specimens. The acanthus was not
so extensively used by the Greeks as by the Romans.
0. This is an Ionic capital from the temple at Bassac. The
Ionic capital, also the Doric, was more frequently used by the
Greeks than the Corinthian. The latter was much used by
the Romans. The acanthus-leaf formed the decoration of the
latter.
The Greeks made less use of straight lines than

did the Egyptians, and less use of circular curves
than did the Romans. Observe that their curves

incline to the flat and and that their deco-
elliptical,
ration is exceedingly chaste and graceful.
Page of Roman Forms.
On the preceding page we have five specimens of

Roman decorative art. The Romans employed much
the same natural forms as did the Greeks, but treated
them in a much more elaborate and luxuriant manner,
as will be seen. Roman art was at its best about
the time of the Christian era.
1. This is part of an echinus moulding. Observe that the

curves are rounder than in the Greek.
2. This is part of a sculptured torus —
a portion of a
column. It is made from the acanthus-leaf, as indicated by
the “ eyes ” and edging. It illustrates continuous growth.
3. This is a sculptured rosette made from the acanthus
leaf.
4.This is a sculptured moulding from the Temple of Peace
at Rome. You see that it is made from the acanthus-leaf, and
illustrates continuous growth.

5. This is a capital from the Arch of Titus, at Rome. It
is of the composite order, employing the acanthus, the scroll,
the echinus, and the astragal. It was invented by the Romans,

and better represents their luxurious tastes than the more
simple and chaste capitals which are the favorites of the
Greeks. Compare the three capitals which have now been
given, —
the Egyptian, the Greek, and the Roman.
The acanthus was the favorite decorative ornament among
the Romans, as the honeysuckle was among the Greeks, and
the lotus among the Egyptians.
If one will use his eyes, he will almost every-

where discover applications of the historic decora-
tive forms presented on these pages. The acanthus
he will meet on all hands. When other motives are
r~
MORESQUE, 237
used, he will find them treated according to the prin-

ciples here illustrated. Again, when we desire to
!
produce decoration wholly original, our success is
promoted by a knowledge of what has been done by

others.
Page of Moresque Forms.
The specimens of Moresque ornament given on

the preceding page are from the ro}r al palace, called
the Alhambra, in Grenada, Spain. This palace was
completed by the Moors in 1348, having been a
hundred years in building. In Moresque ornament
leaves, flowers, and other natural forms, appear only
in a highly- disguised character when the}' appear at
all. no imitation of natural
But, while there is
forms, curves are often grouped in a flower-like

manner, and the general treatment harmonizes with
Nature. Interlacing and straplike work abounds.
1, 2, 3, 5. Observe that the two same general forms are

used in these ornaments, modified to suit each individual
case. These two forms, leaf and bud, are seen in 5 simple
:
as they are, they constitute two of the main elements in the

exceedingly rich and beautiful Moresque decoration. Note
that there is no loop. Almost every thing is colored in Mo-
resque decoration.
4, 6. These are two specimens of interlacing Moresque
j
foiuns. They need color to set them off.
Enough has now been given to show, by contrast,
what is meant by style in decorative art. Carefully
compare the styles here given for illustration.
Questions. — What is said of the difference between deco-

rative art and fine art? Of the conditions imposed by manu-
factures? Of the three ways to arrange symmetrically the
parts of a decorative form? Of style in decorative art? Of
l
Egyptian, Greek, Eoman, and Moresque styles?
PART III.
INTERMEDIATE COURSE.
Model and Object Drawing.
ITS GENERAL FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES EX-

PLAINED.
None of the drawings given in this course thus

far have represented more than two dimensions,
length and breadth. It is true that objects of three
dimensions have been occasionally drawn in out-
line ;
but only two dimensions were represented,
though, in a few cases, thickness was necessarily
indicated, as in the case of the silver cup, on p. 78,
where the handle is drawn lapping over. There
has been no attempt at perspective, at pictorial
effects indeed, the drawings might all be called
:
diagrams. Many of the principles of design, as

they apply both to the form and to the deco-
ration of objects, have not only been explained
in words, but have been as full}' illustrated as it
was deemed profitable at this stage of the pupil’s
progress. The applications of the kind of draw-
ing which has thus far received our attention are
mainly practical but with no other kind of ele-
;
mentary drawing could the hand and eye have been

so well trained, or the taste so well developed.
Thus general culture and a knowledge of things
directly useful have been acquired together.
Light and Shade. — Half-Tint.

Nothing has been done with light and shade, as,
indeed, nothing could be without representing the
three Nothing has been done even
dimensions.
with half-tint, whichis often employed to produce
an impression of solidity, or to indicate an irregu-

lar surface, as in sculptured ornament. Of course,
half-tint can never represent color, though it ap-
pears thatsome teachers think otherwise, if we
may judge from the way they permit their pupils
to apply it. Half-tint gives variety to the drawings,
and so tends to make the work more pleasing to the
young learner. There is, however, serious objec-
tion to any thing more than a very limited use of
half-tint by the young beginner. The value of the
use of half-tint in design is that it enables the de-
signer to give prominence to important parts of
the design. Again, it enables us to distinguish
the ornament from its background by a purely
mechanical process, which it is easy to carry out.
At the same time, without being exactly a lesson in
shading, it prepares the pupil for shading or repre-
senting the three dimensions, in the best way. As
the pupil progresses, instruction will be given in the
practice ;
but the teacher is advised to resort to it
only occasional^. Hence it has been deemed much

the better way to attend to pure outline, and to secure
variety and interest by executing a much larger num-
ber of drawings, and learning much more about the
principles of design, thanwould have been possible if
any thing elaborate had been attempted with half-tint.
MODEL AND OBJECT DRAWING. 243
In drawing, as in other studies, there is a best

time, and a best place, for every thing.
We now come to an entirely different department

of drawing, — to Model and Object Drawing, to one
of the modes of representing the three dimensions,
that is, length, and thickness. Some-
breadth,
times it is called “
Freehand Perspective.”
Freehand Perspective and Instrumental Perspec-
tive conform to the same laws of vision but they ;
are almost wholly different in their processes. Fur-

ther along, the pupil should study both kinds of
perspective. The Instrumental will help to a more
accurate knowledge of the freehand ;
that is, of
Seeing in Space.
Model and Object Drawing trains one to “ see in

space,” as it is technically called. Thus certain
parts of the object to be drawn are invisible ;
and
the mind must form a correct .conception of these,
before the visible parts can be properly represented.
The lattermust be drawn in their just relation to
the former. The power which enables one to see,
as it were, through a solid, and thus to determine
the exact relation of the visible parts to the invisi-
ble, is a very valuable power, as one can readily see,
for artist, designer, or workman. To give it is one
of the special aims of Model and Object Drawing.
Impress this fact upon your pupils, and omit noth-
;
ing in the way of needful explanation and illus-
tration. When the}' have once fairly acquired the
power to see in space, together with a few simple

principles of perspective, they will make rapid prog-
ress indrawing from “ the solid,” or “ the round,”
as Model and Object Drawing is sometimes designat-
ed. It will be seen that there are various names
for the same thing.
Light and Shade.
Model and Object Drawing may be divided into

two parts (1) the drawing of the form of the object
:
(2) the adding of light and shade to that form.

The full result is the pictorial effect called chiaros-
curo. Now, it too frequently happens, in drawing
from the the main effort is, from the
solid, that
upon light and shade yet no
outset, concentrated ;
amount of labor thus expended can compensate

for defective outline rendering of general form.
Especially should young learners make no attempt
at rendering light and shade, until general form has
been fairly mastered. Hence the exercises in draw-
ing from the solid, which are given in this book,
have nothing to do with light and shade.
But there is also another reason for such limita-
tion. Very few of the schoolrooms in which this
book will be used will be suitably arranged for
work in light and shade. Such work requires that
there be no cross-lights and hence that the light
;
be admitted from only one side of the room. It also

requires that the light be steady and hence that it
;
be admitted only from the north or north-east. If

admitted from the south, the light will change as the

sun changes its position ;
and so the object upon
wdiich the pupil is engaged will present a new effect
every few moments.
The Use of Flat Copies in Model and Object Drawing.
There is no genuine Model and Object Drawing,

except drawing from the solid itself. Yet the use
of flat copies, that is, printed copies, in connection
with the solids, greatty facilitates the progress of the
learner at the outset. Remember that the pupil is
not to be confined to drawing from the flat copies

alone : they are to be used simply as introductory
aids to drawing from the objects themselves. Re-
member, more stupid exer-
also, that there is not a
cise, one more deadening to the faculties of the
pupil, than the unthinking, mechanical reproduction
of a perspective drawing from the flat therefore :
see that the pupil understands the reason for every

line. The forms drawn in the following exer-
to be
cises are so simple, and the principles of perspec-
tive involved are so readily explained and illustrated,
that you can have no excuse for allowing a pupil to
draw a single line in any of the given copies with-
out knowing why it should be drawn as represented.
If he understands the lines in the flat copies, he will
be able to show it by making other and similar
drawings from the solids themselves. The drawings
from the solids may not be absolutely accurate ;
in-
deed, absolute accuracy is not possible in Model

and Object Drawing ;
but they will plainly show
whether or not the pupil understands the principles
involved. And that is the thing of first importance.

If the principles are understood, practice will soon
lead to satisfactory execution : on the other hand,
if the principles are not understood, no amount of
practice will avail. Above all things, there must
first be knowledge.
Geometrical Solids to be first Drawn.
When the learner began to draw forms having

two dimensions, the first forms drawn were those of
plane geometry then followed others, based upon
;
these geometrical forms. Now that he is to begin

to draw forms that have the three dimensions, he
should be first exercised upon regular geometrical
solids. They are simple they require but few lines
;
to represent them the mind can readily conceive of

;
them in space. As the general form of nearly every

object, whether manufactured, or found in Nature,
is geometrical, and as the general form, or mass,
must be correctly drawn first, otherwise the correct
drawing of the details will be in vain so it is illogi- ;
cal, is contrary to all sound teaching, to set the
learner to drawing irregular objects, natural or arti-

ficial, with their great variety of detail, before he is
able todraw geometrical solids, and simple objects

based upon these solids. See the Introduction for
more upon this point.
Meaning of Perspective.
Let us now consider a few matters of detail, with-

out a knowledge of which it is impossible to make
satisfactory progress in Model and Object Drawing.
You will find it well to devote the time of at least

one or two lessons to explaining and illustrating
these matters, before you set your class to drawing ;
and you will also find it well to revert to them as

your class advance with their exercises. Unless
the} have a clear comprehension of these things,
r
they must inevitably work in the dark.

In the first place, see that your pupils get a clear
conception of what is meant by the word “ per-
spective,” as emplo} ed in drawing; for
T
Model and
Object Drawing is freehand perspective, as already
stated. word means “seen
Etymologically the
through ” but this needs illustration.
;
Place an object, as a cube, before the pupil be- :
tween the object and the pupil place a piece of glass,

or wire cloth, in a vertical position. Now, request
the pupil to close one eye, and, with a soft
crayon, to draw on the glass, or wire cloth, the
object just as seen through the glass, or cloth. The
position of the eye must not be changed during the
progress of the drawing. Objects out of doors may
be drawn in a similar manner on a pane of glass in
the window. Each pupil should make such a draw-
ing for himself ;
and you will find it well to have the
exercise repeated, since various things essential to
Model and Object Drawing can be learned in this
better than in almost any other way.
Anillustration of this kind will show clearly what
is meant by a perspective drawing. It will show
that the sheet of paper upon which the drawing is
made really stands for a transparent vertical plane,
and that the drawing represents the object as seen
through the plane, and projected upon it. Any

object, however may, so far as outlines
intricate,
are concerned, be readily drawn upon a transparent
|
plane in the manner indicated but it is quite a
;
I difficult thing to obtain a similar accurate result

on paper.
Draw What You See, not What You Remember.

In Model and Object Drawing, the learner is often
simply told to draw what he sees. This direction
would seem very easy to follow but the first attempt
;
to draw even such a simple object as a cube w ill r
convince any one that something more explicit is

required than this altogether general direction. The
truth of the matter is, that, without some special
|
training, we never understand what it is that we
really do see. The accurate seeing which drawing
requires is seeing not only with the eyes, but with
|
the understanding.
When the pupil first undertakes to draw from the
i
draw from
actual object, the chances are, that he will
j
memoiy, instead of drawing* what he actually sees.
I
For example, set a plate before a class so that they
|
can look down upon it obliquely then, without ;
giving them any instruction, request them to draw

wliat they see. Most of the class will, probably,
make circular drawings of the plate. They know
that plates are circular. They have been accustomed
to look directly down upon them at their meals, and
thus the picture impressed upon the eye was circu-
lar;
and therefore they make their drawings circu-
lar, giving a representation of what the}' have in
MODEL AND OBJECT DRAWING . 249
theirmemory, instead of making the drawings

which would give what they see at the
elliptical,
moment. For the same reason, in drawing a chair

viewed obliquely, they will be apt to make the seat
too large, to make it of the remembered shape, in-
stead of drawing what is actually seen. And so,
if they are given a cube to draw, the}' will be apt,
if they are familiar with the cube, to represent the
edges all of the same length, though some may be
viewed obliquely, and others not. Indeed, now and

then one, remembering that a cube has six sides,
will attempt to represent four, five, and even all six,
though more than three sides can seldom be seen at

once, and never, except in a distorted view.
Effect of Distance.
Another thing that must be duly considered is

the effect of distance. Given to be drawn two ob-
jects of the same size, but at unequal distances from
the e}-e, the more distant should be represented the
smaller. And so, in the case of two equal parts of
the same object, the drawing of the more distant
part should be made the smaller. The beginner,
knowing that both parts are equal, and drawing what
he remembers, and not what he actually sees, will
usually draw the two parts of the same size. The
apparent size of an object (and it is the apparent size
with which we must deal in Model and Object Draw - r
ing) depends upon the angle of vision. Suppose two

equal straight lines, placed as ab and cd in Fig. 1,
cut A, with the eye ate. The rays of light from
the ends of the lines will enter the eye as indicated
by the converging dotted lines. You perceive that

the angle of
vision aeb is
considerably
larger than
the angle of
vision c e d,
and that the

apparent
length of cd ,
as compared
with ab, is
onty equal to
c'd ', or about
one-half of
the apparent length of ab. This apparent differ-
ence in the length of the two lines is the same at

whatever common point we take the measure of the
two angles of vision, as at vp. Now, this apparent
difference must be shown in the drawing.
To make an application illustrating this effect of
j
distance. In Fig. 2, the line ab is drawn of the
I
same length as ab in Fig. 1, and the line c'd' is
j
drawn of the same length as c'd' in Fig. 1 which ,
I
is the apparent, or perspective, length of cd as
|
compared with ab, the eye being at e. Now, by
I drawing straight lines connecting the points a and
j
c', and b and d we have the perspective represen-
1
i
tation of a horizontal rectangular plane, as a floor,
for example. We will suppose the floor to be square.
Then all the lines in Fig. 2 are in reality of the
same length.
In Fig. 1 ,
the eye is represented on a level with
the lines ab and cd : consequently cd, when viewed
from e, lies directly behind ab, and can only be rep- j
resented as a part of ab, as shown by c'd'. But

e} e to be raised perpendicularly above
r
suppose the
e,and then to look obliquely down upon the floor, or
square. The lines ab and cd will separate in ap-
pearance as they are separated in reality. The
more the eye is elevated, the more they will appear
to separate, with this limitation : since the floor is l
assumed to be square, and to be viewed obliquely, j
the lines at the right and left, that is, the conver- |
ging lines, will never appear to be as long as ab. In j
Fig. 2 you perceive they have not been represented

as long. They might have been represented some-
what longer than they are represented, or much
shorter, since, for our present purpose, it is not
necessary to regard the eye as at any particular
elevation. The length of these lines will vary as
j
r
the elevation of the e} e varies.
To proceed : in Fig. 3 we have, first, what is
shown in P'ig. 2, —a perspective view of a square

plane. Next, at the point a, the perpendicular line
ag drawn, of the same length as ab; and, at the
is
point c', the perpendicular line c'li is drawn, of

the same length as c'd'. Drawing a straight line
to connect points g and h, we have the perspective
representation of a vertical rectangular plane, stand-
ing on the edge of the horizontal plane. As we called
the horizontal plane a square, this must be a square ;
and, as we called the horizontal plane a floor, we

will call this the side of a room. Observe the
252 TEACHER'S MANUAL ,
difference between the perspective representations

of the two. Remember that every line given is a rep-
resentation of the same length, or distance. And
now observe that the converging lines, which are all
horizontal, and which represent the horizontal edges

of the plane retreating from the eye, and which are
in reality parallel, upon being continued, meet in
the common point o. This point shows the height
of the eye.
By erecting other perpendicular lines at points
6 and d', and connecting the upper ends of all
the perpendiculars, as the lower ends are con-

nected, we have the perspective representation,
in mere outline, of
the inside of a cu-
bical room. This is,
together with several

other things, shown in
cut B. Observe that
all the converging
lines, being in reality
parallel, — those of the
floorand windows, as
well as main lines of
the room, would —
meet, if prolonged, as indicated b}' the dotted lines,
at a common point, which is on a level with the e}r e
of the spectator. Observe that the centre of the
room is obtained by drawing the diagonals, and that
the position of the window, which is in the centre
of the side of the room, is thus determined.
Now for the things to be learned from these sim-
pie illustrations, and to be remembered. Observe

that in Fig. 3, cut A, the line c'cl which is really of
the same length as ab, is represented shorter, be-
cause it is at a greater distance from the eye. For
thesame reason, the line c7i, which is really of the
same length as ag is, nevertheless, represented as
,
shorter. Observe, further, that the vertical lines

ag and c'h, which are really parallel, are so repre-
sented ;
and c'd', which
that the horizontal lines ab
run directly right and and are really parallel,
left,
are so represented but that the lines ac' and bd',

;
which retreat from the eye, and are really horizon-

tal and parallel, are not so represented, but as con-
verging, or getting nearer together, the farther they

proceed from the eye and that the lines ac' and gh
; ,
which retreat from the eye, and are really horizon-

tal and parallel, are not so represented, but as con-
verging. Observe that the lines bd', ac', and gh,

which are all parallel, and all retreat from the eye,
would, if prolonged, meet in a common point, this
point being on a level with the eye of the spectator.
Hence, in Model and Object Drawing, we have, as
the effect of distance, the following
Rules Applicable to Straight Lines.
1 . Lines which are vertical in the object must be ,
represented vertical ,
and consequently parallel .
2. If any. two points in a horizontal line or the ,
line produced, are at equal distances from the eye the ,
linemust be drawn horizontally.

3. Two equal lines running in , the same direction ,
but at unequal distances from the eye , will appear
unequal in proportion to the difference in tlieir dis-
tance from The more distant will appear

the eye.
the shorter and should he so drawn.
,
4. All lines which are parallel in an object and ,
retreat from the eye must he represented as conver-

,
ging and, if sufficiently prolonged as meeting in a

.
, ,
common point.
5. Hence ,
lines in an object which are horizontal ,
which are above the level of the eye and which

,
re-
treat from the eye, appear to point downwards ; if
they are below the level of the eye , they appear to
point upwards. They must be so drawn.
So much for those effects resulting from distance,
which must be observed in the perspective repre-
sentation of solids, and which you will be able, by
a little effort in the way of illustration, to make
plain to your pupils. A few more words explana-
tory of these effects and of their representation may
be well.
In rules 1 and 2 it is stated that vertical lines,
and horizontal lines running directly right and left,
must not be represented as converging, though at
no two points can the lines be at just the same dis-
tance from the eye. They are not to be represented
as converging, however, because the amount of such
lineswhich can be taken in by the eye at once, with-
out a change of its position, is so small, that the
convergence is not worth noticing. But not so
when the lines from the eye, and especially
retreat
when they are horizontal, and retreat directly, that
is, in a line parallel to the central ray of vision.
When the object to be drawn is at a great dis-
tance from the eye, the apparent convergence of

lines, unless the object is of immense size, becomes
too slight to be heeded. The distance of an ob-
ject should be only a few times greater than its
greatest diameter. A distance equal to three or
four times this diameter will enable the eye to see
the whole object at once. And it is this single gen-
eral view, and not the view obtained where the ob-
ject is so near that it must be looked at piecemeal,
which the drawing is intended to represent. This
distinction, however, is made between Model and
Object Drawing, and Instrumental Perspective in :
the former, if a group of objects is to be drawn, each

object is treated independently ;
in the latter, the
group is treated as a single figure.
It is only shown by the illustrations that hori-
zontal lines retreating directly from the eye must,
if sufficiently prolonged, be represented as meeting
in a common point, which is often called the centre
of vision. But from this necessarily follows all
that is stated in rule 4. That common point must
be where a line, drawn from the eye of the spectator,
parallel to the actual line in the object, would ter-
minate ;
for towards that, as may be easily shown
by drawing on a transparent vertical plane as al-
ready described, all lines converge.
The Effect of Foreshortening.
The effects of distance having been studied, it is

now necessary to consider foreshortening, the only
other element in perspective. Something has al-
; ;
ready been said of this on pp. 91, 94, to which you

are referred.
Divide a line ab into two equal parts, as shown
in Fig. 1, cut C.
Suppose this line
to be viewed ob-
liquely, with the
eye at an infinite
distance, as in
orthographic projection. The rays of light pro-
ceeding from the points «, 6, and c, towards the eye,
cannot converge in the slightest degree, since they
I
must continue on towards the eye for an infinite dis-
tance. They must, therefore, be parallel, nowhere
meeting. Draw the line vp which
,
you may imagine
to represent a vertical plane, at right angles to the
rays of light rrr. Where vp crosses the rays of
we shall have the foreshortened length of ac,
light,
shown by a'c\ and of cb, shown by c'b'. It is easy
to be seen that a'c' is less than ac that c'b' is less
than cb and that, as ac is equal to cb, so a'c' is
equal to c'b'. Such is always the effect of foreshort-

ening in orthographic projection, upon which work-
ing-drawings are based. Equal parts of the same
straight line are foreshortened alike, because distance
is not regarded- The same, of course, is true of
equal and similar portions of the same plane surface.
In Fig. 2, cut C, we have every thing just as in Fig.
1, except that the eye supposed to be at a limited

is
distance, at e, for example, as it must always be in

perspective. Consequently the rays of light, indi-
cated by the dotted lines, converge, and meet at e.

In this case, vp is drawn at right angles to the cen-

tral line of vision, ce. Now, observe that a'c' is
less than c'b ', though ac and cb are equal. Hence

in perspective equal parts of the same straight line
are not foreshortened alike, the most distant parts
being foreshortened the most. The same, of course,
is true of equal and similar portions of the same
plane surface. Thus, in perspective, the effects of
distance are combined with the effects of oblique
view, or foreshortening.
Orthographic Representation of a Circle viewed
Obliquely.
Let us now consider the effect of foreshortening
upon the orthographic representation of the circle,
and of both distance and foreshortening upon its
perspective representation. It will be well to con-
trast the one with the other.
It may be stated, in the outset, that perspective
cannot deal directly with circles, or curves of any
kind : it must treat them T
indirectly, b} the help of
straight lines.
In Fig. 1, cut D, we have a circle inscribed in
a square.
Now, sup-
pose the eye
at an infi-
nite distance
in the direc-
tion indicat-
ed b} the dot-
T
ted lines tt,
but elevated
,
somewhat, so as to look obliquely down upon the

square and circle. The lines ab, sr and dc, will be
foreshortened ;
not only that, each half will be fore-
shortened alike. The appearance of the whole as
thus viewed isshown at Fig. 2. The square becomes
in appearance an oblong and the circle, a perfect
;
ellipse. Observe that the centre and diameter, pq,

of the circle, coincide with the centre and diameter,
pq, of the ellipse, and that each quarter of the
circle becomes a quarter of the ellipse.
Perspective Representation of a Circle viewed

Obliquely.
In Fig. 1, cut E, we have a square with an
inscribed circle. The
eye is supposed to be
at e. As compared
with ad, the near side
of the square, b'c'

shows the perspective
length of be, the far-
ther side of the square ;
p'q' shows the perspec-

tive length of pq, the
diameter of the circle ;
and shows the perspective length of tt, the line

t't’
connecting the two points of the circle touched by

tangents drawn from e. It is thus seen, that,appar-

ently , the longest straight line which can be drawn
in the circle is not the diameter of the circle, pq ,
but the parallel line tt, which is nearer the eye.

Remember this fact.
Now, suppose the eye to be raised for a short dis-
tance perpendicularly above e, so that the circle and
square will be viewed obliquely, and you have in
Fig. 2 what will then be seen. To obtain this, draw
ad equal to ad in Fig. 1 ;
b'c' equal to b'c' in Fig. 1.
The distance between these two lines must, of
course, be less than ah, as the square is viewed
obliquely. Complete the figure. Draw the diago-
nals of the irregular quadrilateral thus obtained.
Through the point o, the perspective centre of the
square, draw the line p'q ', which will be found
just equal to p'q' in Fig. 1. Through g, the centre
of rs, draw the line t't', making it equal to t't' in
Fig. 1. Taking this line for the long diameter,
and rs for the short diameter, of an ellipse, draw
the ellipse and it will touch the points p' and q',
;
as the perspective circumference of the circle

should. Now
observe (1), that, in drawing per-
spectivety a circle viewed obliquely, it must be
represented as a perfect ellipse ; (2), that the centre
and diameter of the circle do not become the centre
and diameter of the ellipse; (3), that the quarters
of the circle do not become quarters of the ellipse.
Compare this perspective representation of the
circle, which shows the effects of distance and
foreshortening combined, with the orthographic
representation of the circle, which shows only the
effects of foreshortening. If carefully studied, this

will prove a valuable lesson.
Usually, in the perspective representation of a
circle viewed obliquely, the perspective centre and
diameter of the circle do not differ so much in po-
sition from the centre and diameter of the ellipse,
as in Fig. 2. The eye is represented, in the given

illustration, as unduly near the circle : this produces
a distorted view, though not inaccurate from the
given point, and so makes more readily evident the
thing it is desired to teach.
And so we conclude, that, in Model and Object
Drawing, the effects of foreshortening and distance
combined require the following
Rules to be Observed.
Equal parts of the same straight line and

1. ,
equal and similar parts of the same plane surface,

must not he represented equal. The more distant
must he represented the smaller.
27 A circle vieiced obliquely must he represented as
a perfect ellipse.
3. But the perspective centre and, diameter of the
circle when it becomes necessary to draio them must

, ,
not he represented as coinciding with the centre and

diameter of the ellipse.
What has now been said about the effects of dis-
tance and foreshortening upon the appearance of
objects, if understood, is quite sufficient to explain
all the perspective features involved in the exercises
which this book contains. Indeed, it is sufficient
to explain nearly all matters relating to Model and

Object Drawing, so far as inherent form is concerned.

Light and shade would, of course, present new fea-
tures not thus to be explained.
Measurements.
In Model and Object Drawing, all measurements
must be determined by the eye, since the exact

shape, size, and distance of the object, or model, are
not given. All available mechanical aids may be
employed, however ;
but, after the best has been done,
absolute precision cannot be secured.
A scale, or pencil, is the mechanical aid most
commonly employed. The former is preferable,
since it has inches and parts of inches marked upon
it. The scale, or pencil, is alwa) sto be held at full
T
arm’s-length from the eye, and at right angles to the

central ray of vision. If one line in the object
covers two inches of the scale thus held, and another
four inches, it is clear that the latter must be drawn
twice as long as the former. If the former is drawn
one inch, or four inches, long, then the latter
must be increased in the same proportion, and
be drawn two inches, or eight inches, long. All the
lines must be increased or decreased alike. When
these measurements are made, the eye must, of course,
be kept at the same distance from the object, and
in the same position for each line.
It is only the larger proportions, as the height
and breadth of the object, which should be deter-
mined in this wa} The minor features should be
r
.
drawn by judgment of e} e alone, for it is a waste of

T
time to attempt to measure these. Require your

pupils carefully to observe the comparative size of

the different parts of the object to be drawn. The
first direction given your class should be, “ Compare
the width of the object with its height ;
which is
the greater?” With that accurately determined,

the class can proceed with the minor features.
It will require some practice for your pupils to
become expert in making the measurements. At
first, they will often forget to extend the arm to the
utmost, while they will be apt to hold the scale, or
pencil, oblique to the central ray of vision. In this
way they will get the proportions all wrong. There-
fore look well after this matter.
A plumb-line may sometimes be used to advan-
tage, since, by you can readily determine
its help,
whether or not one point in an object is directly
above another.
Geometrical Solids Defined and Described.
Before your pupils begin Model and Object Draw-

ing, they should be made familiar with certain geo-
metrical solids. They should not only be able to
recognize and name these solids, but able to give
some rational account of their leading features. The
definitions which follow grow out of the definitions
previously given for plane geometrical figures. It
is not essential that your pupils be able to repeat
these definitions with mechanical accuracy ;
but it is
essential that they have an intelligent comprehen-

sion of what the definitions involve.
Surface. — Surface has two dimensions, — length
and breadth. It is usually bounded by lines , but is
sometimes endless.
A Solid. —A solid has three dimensions , — length ,
breadth , and thickness. It is bounded by one or
more surfaces.
A Sphere. — The solid described by the revolution
of a circle about its diameter is called a sphere.

Illustrateby thus revolving a penny or a plate.
A sphere is bounded by one endless curved sur-
face, that is, by a surface unlimited by lines. Every
point of thig. surface is at the same distance from a
point -within called the centre of the sphere. A ball
can be used for illustration.
A Cone. — The solid described by revolving a right
triangle about its perpendicular is called a cone.
Illustrate by thus revolving a right triangle cut
from a piece of cardboard.
The top of the cone is called the apex the bot- ;
tom, the base. A

straight line from the centre of
the base to the apex is called the axis of the cone.
A cone has two surfaces : 1. The plane, bounded
by a which forms its base 2. The
circular curve, ;
curved surface which forms its sides, bounded by

the point called the apex, and by the circular curve
of the base. Use the cone itself, and thus make it
easy for your pupils to comprehend the instruction.
—
A Cylinder. The solid described by revolving a
rectangular plane about one of its long edges is called
a cylinder.
Illustrate by thus revolving a rectangular piece of
cardboard. If a door could swing entirely around on
its hinges, it would describe a cylinder. Of course
;
the term “solid,” as used in these definitions, has

no reference to hardness, but simply to space, to
volume.
A cylinder has three surfaces. Two of these are
planes, bounded by circular curves, and form the
ends of the cylinder. They are parallel. The third
is a curved surface, bounded by the circular curves
of the ends, and forms the sides of the cylinder.
A straight line joining the centres of the ends is
called the axis of the cylinder. Illustrate your
teaching by the use of a cylinder.
A Cube. —
A solid bounded by six square planes
is called a cube.
Thus a cube has six surfaces bounded by twelve
edges, or lines of limitation. It has eight corners,
being the points where the edges terminate. The
junction of two straight lines forms an angle ;
of
two planes, a dihedral angle of three or more planes,
;
a solid angle. So a cube has twenty-four angles

produced by the lines which form its edges
twelve dihedral angles produced by its plane sides,
or faces and eight solid angles, or corners, each
;
produced by the junction of three sides.

—
A Parallelopipedon. A solid bounded by four
equal rectangular oblong planes and by two equal ,
square planes, is called a parallelopipedon.

It will be seen that much of what was said of the
cube can be said of this solid. Make use of the
actual solids for illustration.
A Square Plinth. — Any rectangular section of
a cube is called a square plinth.
The opposite sides will be parallel.
All the geometrical solids the pupil will have

occasion to draw in this book have now been de-
fined, and, in part, described.
Sight-Lessons.
You can make Model and Object Drawing much

simpler and easier for your pupils by giving them a
few preliminary sight or object lessons that will
familiarize them with the general features of the
solids which they are to draw. As these sight-les-
sons will prepare your pupils to see, comprehend, and
describe in words, the objects placed before them,
they will prove especially valuable in helping them
to draw the same, and all similar objects. It has,
indeed, been repeated again and again, that there can
be no good drawing that is not preceded b}' defi-
nite knowledge. Hence these sight or object les-

sons, instead of consuming, will, in the end, save,
much time.
You will find it best thus to acquaint your pupils
with all the geometrical solids given in this book
before they draw any one of them. Two or three
lessons should be enough for this work, as but a
few solids are given. This will afford }’our pupils
an opportunity of comparing one solid with another ;
and it should be remembered that we learn with

much greater ease, when wc have a chance to ob-
serve wherein things agree or disagree. Indeed,
where two or three things are related, it is frequently
less trouble to learn them all together than to learn
one of them alone. It is, also, an essential part of
the teacher’s business to develop in his pupils the
power of comparison. After these general sight-

lessons, each solid, or object, should be submitted to
a preliminary analysis, after the manner described
on p. 120, before the pupils begin to draw it.
The following will indicate, in a general way, how
the sight-lessons should be conducted :
—
1 . Require your pupils to give descriptions of the
solids as they are, then as they appear when you
place them in different positions. The last will
obligethem to observe carefully, and to distinguish
between what they see and what they remember.
2. Require your pupils to place the solids in dif-
ferent positions, as you direct. As you proceed

with the exercises, many things proper to be done
will suggest themselves. Do not follow any mere
mechanical routine.
To illustrate. Take a sphere : a ball or round
apple will answer. By suitable questions obtain
from your class that this solid has a single endless
surface ;
that no one can see more than one-half of
it at the same time that if they were to draw a line,
;
marking the separation of the visible from the in-

visible part, it would be a circle and that a sphere ;
drawn in outline can only be represented by a circle.

Again if a cone is taken, the sight-lesson will
:
show your pupils that the solid has two surfaces, —

a plane surface and a curved surface. It will show
that the plane surface, forming the base of the cone,
is a circle ;
that the curved surface is limited by the
circumference of the base, and a point called the
apex of the cone. It will show that the view of the
cone in one position is a perfect circle ;
in another,
an ellipse ;
in another, an isosceles triangle ; and, in
another, something quite different. Various other
things, which need not be enumerated, can also be
taught.
The little that has now been said should be
enough to show the manner in which all the solids
may be treated in the sight-lessons. Not only the
simple solids, but any more complicated objects
your pupils may have occasion to draw, should be
thus anal}'zed and studied before their representa-
tion is attempted.
Questions. — What
is said of the use of half-tint? Of
seeing in space? Of light and shade? Of the use of flat
copies in model and object drawing? Of the importance of
understanding principles ? What is meant by a perspective
drawing? What is said of drawing what one sees? Describe
the effect of distance. Of foreshortening. Name the de-
rived rules to be observed. What is said of sight lessons?
Of measuring the solid? Define a solid, a sphere, a cone, a
cylinder, a cube, a parallelopipedon, a square plinth.
CHAPTER I.
EXERCISES IN MODEL AND OBJECT DRAWING.
Circle and Ellipse. Cone and Cylinder: Figs, i, 2 .
Directions for the Circle. — The appearance of the

circle depends upon how it is viewed. If it he a full front-
view, then the circle appears of its true shape. See 1. If it
be an edge-view, then it appears as a straight line. See 2. If
it be an oblique view, then it appears an ellipse. See 3 and 4.
The more oblique the view, the flatter the ellipse.
;
First draw the diameters of the circle and ellipses, then add
the curves.
Directions for the Cone. — Fig. 1. In the copy, the base
of the cone is supposed to be horizontal: hence the apex of
the cone is, in reality, directly above the centre of the base.
The eye is supposed to be looking obliquely down upon the
cone: hence the base, which is really a circle, appears to be
an ellipse, the invisible part of which is indicated by the
dotted line.
Draw the axis, ab then, at right angles to the lower end of
this line, draw the long diameter of the ellipse. Determine
the breadth of the ellipse, and extend ab to correspond. Draw
the ellipse, which will represent the base of the cone. From
the apex, a, draw straight lines tangent to the ellipse these :
will give the sides of the cone. Impress upon your class the
importance of this tangential union of lines, by which it is
meant that the straight line so joins the curve that the two
lines, at theirpoint of union, have the same direction, and
the straight line nowhere does, or can, by extension, cut the
curve. In drawing the ellipse, the pupil may, if he choose,
use a slip of paper as described on page 112.
Directions for the Cylinder. —
Fig. 2. The cylinder is
supposed to be vertical, with its ends, therefore, hori-
zontal. The eye is supposed to be higher than the cylinder,
and to be looking obliquely down upon it: hence the circular
ends of the cylinder appear to be ellipses. The upper end
being nearer to the level of the eye, and so viewed more ob-
liquely than the lower end, is represented by a flatter ellipse.
Here is an important principle in perspective drawing:
when two or more parallel circles in horizontal planes, are viewed
,
obliquely, they should be represented by broader and broader

farther they recede from the level of the eye.
ellipses, the
Draw the axis of the cylinder; (2) draw the long diame-
(1)
ters of the ellipses perpendicular to the ends of the axis; (3)
determine the breadth of the ellipses; (4) draw the ellipses;
(5) draw the sides tangent to the ellipses. In this case, the
ellipses are the same as 3 and 4.
Before your pupils begin to draw the cone and

cylinder, show them the actual solids, and explain
the features to be illustrated by the drawings.
CONE AND CYLINDER. 271
Cone and Cylinder Lying on their Sides : Figs. 3, 4.
Here we have the same solids to be drawn that

were drawn in the last exercise. They occupy dif-
ferent positions, however.
Directions for a Cone lying on its Side. — Fig. 3. The

cone is supposed to be lying upon a horizontal plane, as a
floor: hence the line ad is, in reality, horizontal, though its

end a is drawn higher than its end d. But why is it repre-
sented higher? Because ad is a retreating horizontal line, and
below the eye; and every line of that character appears to
; ;;
from the eye, and must be so represented.

rise as it retreats
It is thebusiness of perspective drawing to represent things
as they appear, and not as they are. See p. 249. The base of
the cone is supposed to he visible, but turned partly away
from the eye, and so it must be represented as an ellipse.
Furthermore, as the cone lies upon its side, the base in-
clines, and the ellipse must be so drawn. Before your pupils
begin to draw, explain these things by the aid of a cone.
Draw (1) the axis, ab (2) draw cd perpendicular to ah at
b ; (3) make bf equal to eb ; (4)draw an ellipse through c, e,
d,f (5) from a, draw tangents to the ellipse. Observe that ef,
the conjugate or short diameter of the ellipse, lies in the same
straight line with the axis of the cone; and that cd, the trans-
verse or long diameter, is perpendicular to the axis at its end.
Directions for a Cylinder lying on its Side. — Fig. 4.
The cylinder is supposed tO'be lying in a-ltorizontal position on
its side hence the lines dd' and cc' are, in reality, horizontal,
:
while the circular ends of the cylinder are vertical. The end
at the right is supposed to be visible, but partly turned away
from the eye: hence the lines dd' and cc' are retreating lines;
and, since the eye is supposed to be higher than the cylinder,
they are represented rising as they retreat.
Draw (1) the axis, ab (2) make af equal to ae ; (3) draw cd
perpendicular to ab at a, making ca and ad equal; (4) through
the points c, e, d, f, draw an ellipse (5) draw cd' perpen-
;
dicular to ab at b, making it less than cd; (0) make e'f' about

the same as ef; (7) draw the farther end of the cylinder;
(8) draw the lines cc
1
and dd' tangents to both ellipses.
Observe that the which represents the farther end of
ellipse
the cylinder is broader than the one which represents the
near end. This greater breadth, as compared with the length
of the ellipse, is secured by making c'd' shorter than cd,
while e'f is made about the same as ef, all of which is done
agreeably to the laws of perspective; for c'd', being actually
of the same length as cd, parallel to cd, but farther from the
eye, it should be drawn shorter. For the same reason, e'f
should be drawn shorter than ef, and would be so drawn, but
for the effect of foreshortening, which counterbalances, in part
at least, the effect of distance. The farther end of the cylin-
der is viewed less obliquely than the near end; consequently,
the foreshortening being less, its comparative breadth appears
greater.
DRAWING FROM THE SOLID. 273
Model Drawing from the Solid.
Directions for drawing a Cone from the Solid. —

On the left-hand half of p. 3 of the drawing-book, a cone is
to be drawn from the solid. Place a cone in sight of all the
pupils, above the level of their eyes, with both its base and
side plainly visible. Draw the cone in the order that Fig. 1,
p. 269, was drawn: (1) the axis; (2) the base; (3) the sides.
If the base of the cone is horizontal, then the axis must be
drawn vertical; but, if the former is oblique, then the
latter must be drawn oblique also.
Directions for drawing a Cylinder from the Solid. —

The right half of the third page is to be filled with the draw-
ing of a cylinder from the solid. Place a cylinder in sight
of all the pupils, above the level of their eyes, and in a
vertical position, as in Fig. 2. The lower end will then be
visible; the upper, invisible. The latter, being viewed less
obliquely than the former, should be represented by a broader
ellipse, — just the reverse of what is seen in Fig. 2. Draw in
the same order that Fig. 2 was drawn.
Each pupil must draw the cone just as he sees it.

To one the base will appear more nearly round than
to another, and so must be represented by a broader
ellipse while the axis, if oblique, will appear more
;
oblique to one than to another, and must be so

represented. Yet each can best draw what he sees
by following the order indicated. See that each
pupil, before he begins to draw, has a correct idea
of what is required. Question, -explain, refer to
Fig. 1. If the pupils understood what they were
really about when they copied Fig. 1, the}" will have
little trouble with this. Much of this will apply to
the drawing of the cylinder.
Objects to be Completed : Figs. 5, 6, 7.
Directions for a Greek Vase. — Fig. 5. Here the left

half of the vase is drawn correctly :the pupil is to add the
right half. Draw, first, the elliptical curves, beginning at the
top, and working downwards; next, draw the contour, seeing
that the contour and the two ellipses on the body of the vase
unite tangentially. Observe how the lines representing the
sides of the vase terminate in the pedestal. It will he seen
that the eye is supposed to he higher than the top of the vase:
hence all the ellipses gradually broaden from the top down-
wards.
Directions for a Greek Tazza. —
Fig. 6. The right half
of the tazza is correctly drawn: the left is to he added, and
made just like the right. Observe that the tazza is repre-
sented as lower than the level of the eye.
Directions for a Greek Vase. —
Fig. 7. The right half
of the vase being correctly drawn, the left is to be added by
OBJECTS TO BE COMPLETED. 275
the pupil. Observe that the bocty and pedestal of this vase
are not joined, as in Fig. 5, but that, in the present case, an
elliptical curve indicates the junction. The distinction hero
made in the drawing of these two vases is worth noting and
remembering.
If 3*011 r school is not already provided with models

representing the geometrical solids, 3*011 can, if 3*011
possess a little ingenuit3*, make some of paper,

which will answer 3*0 ur purpose tolerably well.
Remember, your pupils cop3* the drawings
that if
in their books, without understanding the principles

of perspective which they illustrate, it will prove a
very stupid and profitless exercise, — hardly an3r
thing more so. Now, all the principles of perspec-
drawing of these Greek vases
tive involved in the
and tazza may be illustrated and explained by
means of the cone and cylinder, those much sim-
pler forms. The vases and tazza 3*011 ma3 not -be r
able to secure ;
but the geometrical solids any one
can have in his school, if he will. With these solids
children should be made as familiar as with com-
mon household objects.
It will be seen, that by giving the pupil forms to
be completed, as in these figures, we graduate the
difficulties of perspective, making the advancement
of the pupil comparatively easy, provided he mas-
ters each difficulty in its order. Though the ascent
be gradual, a high elevation is at last attained.
Perspective simply needs the same rational treat-
ment which is accorded to other school studies.
27G TEACHER' 8 MANUAL.
Drawing from Objects.-
Directions for First Object. — Place in view of the

whole class a large white howl, or other similar object, to he
drawn on the left half of p. 5 of the drawing-hook. Place
the bowl so that all of the pupils can see into it slightly,
which will cause the circular top to appear as a narrow ellipse.
Sketch the general appearance of the object on the black-
board, showing the pupils the steps to be taken in drawing
it. Erase the sketch, and let each pupil now draw the object
just as he himself sees it. Remember that each is to draw
what he himself sees, and not merely reproduce what you
put on the blackboard.
Directions for Second Object. — For filling the right
half of the page, provide a pitcher, with simple outlines, or a
glass bottle. Put it in whatever position you please. This
time, let the pupils draw without the help of a blackboard
sketch. This will be genuine object and model drawing.
Call the attention of your pupils to the fact that

drawn on this page are sjunmetri-
the objects to be
cal,and that they should begin the drawing of them
with a central straight line, on which they can
mark points indicating the breadth of the ellipses.
Next, the long diameters of the ellipses are to be
drawn. Proportions to be determined as described
on p. 2G1.
You will find it well to have 3’our pupils make
several rough drawings of the objects, before they
do them in their books. These drawings should be
of different sizes, as the main purpose is to familiar-
ize the pupils with making measurements with the
pencil or scale.
j
;
VASES TO BE COMPLETED. 277
Vases to be Completed: Figs. 8, 9, io.
Directions for Figs. 8, 9, 10. — Here are the left halves of

three vases perfectly drawn: the pupil is to add the right
halves, making them exactly like the left, except that, in Fig.
10,the right ring will not be drawn. These figures will show
that lines on vases and similar objects should he drawn tan-
gential to the contour also that concentric circles, when
viewed obliquely, are not to he drawn as concentric ellipses,
hut as shown by the tops of vases 8 and 9. Call the par-
ticular attention of your pupils to these things.
Compare the drawing of these vases with the drawing of
those on page 141. The latter are geometrical representa-
tions, as required by the manufacturer; while these are per-
spective, or pictorial representations.
Drawing from Objects.
Directions. —Page 7 of the drawing-book is to be filled

with drawings made from vases, or other similar symmetrical
forms in glass or pottery. For this purpose require your
pupils to divide the page vertically into two or three equal
parts —into three, if the height of the objects to he drawn is
greater than their breadth. Select such objects as will fill the
spaces agreeably. If suitable objects cannot be obtained,
I
then have your pupils execute from memory two vases pre-
viously drawn.
The pupils having already executed several vases from flat
copies, they should have little trouble in making similar draw-
ings from the objects themselves. Draw (1) the central con-
struction line, (2) the diameters of the ellipses, (3) the ellip-
ses, (4) profile of the object. As the accuracy of the final
result must depend on the accuracy of the straight construc-
tion lines, see that your pupils have these right before they
proceed to draw the curves.
Each object, before your pupils attempt to draw

it, should be used' for a sight-lesson, as described
on p. 265. Require your phpils to describe the
actual shape of the object, and to make some esti-
mate of its leading proportions. Next, require
them to describe the object as it appears, since it is
the appearance, not the reality, which they are to
represent in their drawings. Finally, require them
to state the order in which the form should be
drawn. You may call upon one pupil after another
to answer your questions, while the others act as
critics.
A GLASS GOBLET. 279
A Glass Goblet: Fig. n.
Directions for Fig. 11. — Draw construction lines

the
in the order of the numerals. Make 3 and
3 4 equal; also 3 5
1
and 3 G. Observe the same equality with the other ellipses.

As the goblet is supposed to be below the level of the eye, the
ellipses must be drawn broader as they descend. Make the
thickness of the rim at 4 somewhat greater than at 1, since
the rim at 1 is not only farther from the eye than it is at 4,
but is foreshortened more. Also make the rim at 5 and 6 con-
siderably thicker than at 4. The pupils should not measure,
without your permission, and then only to test their work.
Egg and Egg-Cup: Fig. 12.
Directions for Fig. 12. — The curve next in importance

to the ellipse the ovoid, or egg-shape. It is here shown by
is
the outline of an egg, a part of which appears above the egg-

cup, while the rest is indicated by a dotted line in the cup.
Draw the central vertical line, and then the horizontal lines,
following the order of the numerals. Notice that the ovoid
form is symmetrical only on its long axis. The top and bottom
of the cup must, of course, be represented as ellipses. Note
how the stem of the cup is drawn, the lines vanishing in the
base, and that, too, before they reach the line 9 0.
CUBES AND OBLONG BLOCKS. 281
Cubes and Parallelopipedon : Figs. 13 14 15 .

, ,
Directions for Figs. 13, 14, and 15. —

The same direc-
tions will serve fordrawing each of these figures. The solids
are all supposed to rest upon a horizontal surface, and to he
below the level of the eye. All lines which are vertical in
the solids are to be drawn vertical; all retreating parallel
lines are to be drawn converging. Due allowance is to be made
for foreshortening. See pp. 255-260. Draw in the order of
the numerals : edge of the cube, 1 3 towards
1 2 the nearest
the right, and 1 5 towards the left; then 2 4 and 2 6 pointing
upwards more than 1 3 and 1 5, so as to make 3 4 shorter than
1 2, though they are actually of the same length. You can
show your pupils, that, if the retreating lines in these figures
were continued far enough, they would meet in a common
point. See p. 284.
Chair, Box, and Table : Figs. 16 17 18 , ,

.
Directions for Figs. 16, 17, and — The

cubes and
18.
parallelopipedon of the last exercises are converted into ob-
jects of utility. Draw the cubes somewhat smaller than they
were drawn in the last exercise, but make the parallelo-
pipedon of just the same size. This will he enough for one
lesson. For the next lesson, beginning with the chair, draw
the legs and back at the angles of the cube then the rails and
;
bars which join the legs and back. Follow the same order
with the box and table. If the geometrical solids can be first
correctly drawn, there will be little trouble in converting them
into the required forms.
EWER AND CUBE. 283
Ewer and Cube : Fig. 19 .
Directions for Fig. 19. — The two objects here grouped

illustrate the two principles always to be remembered in this
kind of drawing: ( 1 ) that a circle viewed obliquely appears
an ellipse; ( 2 ) that retreating parallel lines appear to converge
as they go away from the eye. Make a sketch of the cube
first, then of the ewer. When you have a satisfactory sketch
of the group, line in. You will, of course, follow the direc-
rections previously given for drawing similar objects. Ob-
ewer are
serve that the long diameters of the ellipses in the
drawn horizontal. The cube is supposed to rest on a hori-
zontal plane consequently the cube and ewer are level, and
:
the eye is supposed to be at a higher point than the top of

the ewer, and to look obliquely down upon the objects.
Drawing from Solid Models.
Directions. —
Tlie left half of p. 13 of the drawing-book
is be filled with the representation of a cube. Place a cube
to
in view of all the class. Make a few rapid sketches on the
blackboard to illustrate different views of the cube. These
sketches will serve as a guide to the class. Of course each
pupil will get a somewhat different view of the cube; and
each will draw what he sees, not the sketches on the black-
board. He will draw according to the principles which have
been explained, and will obtain his proportions by the aid of
his pencil, or a scale, held at arm’s-length, and at right angles
to the central ray of vision.
The right half of the page is to be filled with a representa-
tion of a parallopipedon, made from the solid, without thp aid
of blackboard sketches. Stand the oblong block on its square
view different from the view
base, so that each pupil will get a
he had of the cube. Make certain that the pupils under-
|
stand what they are to do before they begin to draw.
Do not permit your pupils to begin to draw the

figures on p. 281 until they understand why they
are drawn as represented. See that they under-
stand the effects of distance and foreshortening.
Make use of the actual solids for illustration and
preliminary sight-lessons. A skeleton cube, or
parallelopipedon, which can be quickly made of
wire, will be of much assistance in showing how the
invisible edges run. These skeleton forms will
greatly help the learner in making his first drawings
from the actual rectangular solids, as they will
enable him to realize how the invisible lines run.
After a little, his imagination will become suffi-
ciently developed to stand in no need of such helps.

CONE CYLINDER
, ,
,4AZ> SQUARE PLINTH . 285
Cone, Cylinder, and Square Plinth Combined : Fig. 20 .
Dibections fob Fig. 20. — Draw the cone and cylinder

and then the square plinth on which the cylinder rests.
first,
Draw the straight lines in the order of the letters, and then
the curves through the points indicated by the letters.
This exercise reviews all the principles which the preceding
lessons illustrated. As it introduces no new features, special
instructions should not he needed. Before your pupils
begin to draw, question them on all the points involved.
Directions. — Request each pupil to bring to school an

apple, to he drawn on
the left half of p. 15 of the drawing-
hook, and an orange or lemon, to he drawn on the right half.
Have the fruit placed on the desk, in front of each pupil, and
drawn of the real size. The drawing of the apple should
show the eye of the apple, and its stem if it has one. Draw
the outline of the fruit first, then the eye and stem. Any
marks on the surface of the fruit must be drawn lighter than
the outline. For the apple, begin by drawing a circle, then
change this to the required irregular outline. For the lemon,
begin with an ellipse.
In these two exercises you have an illustration of

-what is meant when we say that geometrical forms
should be made the basis of all drawing, even from
Nature. If we regard the general outline of any
i
natural object as seen from a given point, we
usually find that it bears a near resemblance to
some plane geometrical figure. We usually find the
same to be true of its parts separately considered.
Again if we regard the solid form of the object,
:
we usually find that it bears a near resemblance to

some geometrical solid. Hence it happens that a
prior knowledge of these geometrical figures, and
of the right mode of drawing them, proves of the
greatest service to one when he comes to draw from
Nature. It is the logical order to proceed from
simple universal forms to irregular specific forms.
'
EARTHENWARE MUG. 287
Earthenware Mug: Fig. 21 .
Directions for Fig. 21. — Draw the straight construction

lines in the order of the numerals. Draw the ellipses on the
body of the mug make use of their long diameters, and
;
draw the ellipses full, afterwards erasing the invisible parts.

When the body of the mug and the ellipses on it are right,
add the handle. Notice that where the handle joins the mug
at 3 and 5, the straight outline of the mug is hidden, and the
handle laps over somewhat.
Compare the drawing of the top of this mug with

the drawing of the top of the pitcher in the next
exercise, and note the difference.
288, TEACHER'S MANUAL.
Directions for Fig. 22. —This pitcher is to he drawn of

the same size as the copy in the drawing-book. No special
instructions are required; hut the pupils will need to exercise
much care. Make the two sides of the neck and body of the
pitcher symmetrical first, and then add the spout and handle.
As there are so many ellipses, they will afford an opportunity
to show accurate and delicate drawing.
If you turn the drawing so as to view it sidewise,

you will find it will help you in judging of the
accurac}r of the ellipses.
SILVER MUG AND SQUARE BLOCK. 289
Silver Mug and Square Block: Fig. 23.
Directions for Fig. 23. — Draw first the body of the

mug, then the square block on which it stands, lastly the
handle of the mug. Better to give two lessons to this exer-
cise, and thus have the handle well drawn. The handle, if
carefully drawn, will be enough for one lesson.
By way of preliminary analysis, question your

pupils about these forms before they begin to draw
them. A score of questions can be readily asked,
and should be readily answered, about the position
of the objects, foreshortening, &c.
.
290 TEACHER'S MANUAL
DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE XIX.
Bowl, and Book with Clasp: Fig. 24.
Directions for Fig. 24.— Draw the howl first, with all j
its ellipsescomplete. Next draw the book as if it were a |
block, similar to the one in Ex. xiv. or xviii. When the block
has been perfectly drawn, convert it into a book by adding i
the thickness of covers, and the clasp.
By learning to draw simple objects with accuracy,

you will acquire the power to draw more elaborate
ones in difficult positions, when you are required to
do so.
DRAWING FROM OBJECTS. 291

To one or more groups

finish this course of lessons, place
of objects, as a teacup and saucer, on a book, so that each
pupil can see one group without interruption. The book
should be about twice the width of the saucer, and about
half as thick as the teacup is high. The drawing should be
on a scale large enough to fill the last page of the drawing-
book. Require each one of your pupils to draw this group of
objects without any help from yourself or any one else, and
thus show what they have learned about Model, and Object
Drawing.
Exercises enough have now been given for a good

beginning in the freehand representation of models
and objects, so far as outline is concerned. The
pupil who has advanced and has been
thus far,
taught the reason of what he has drawn, will hence-

forth look at all objects as he never did before.
His eyes will have been opened, and he will have
taken an important, though a short, step towards
the pictorial representation of all objects whatever.
Questions. — How should the sides of a cone be drawn?

How two or more above one another? How
parallel circles
should the farther end, as compared with the nearer end, of a
horizontal cylinder, partly turned from the eye, be repre-
sented? What is using the actual solids before
said of
the pupils draw the copies? What is said of the use of
flat
skeleton solids? When a class are drawing from the solid,
what should each pupil draw ?
DATE DUE SLIP
F. 255
11 ALrltKb HANUAL r UK r KttrlANU
DRAWING IN INTERMEDIATE
39560003 CURR HIST
mil
0000 0967263
- 1
-
NC 615 £66 1876

Smith* Walter
Teachers* manual for freehand
drafting in intermediate
3S560003 CURR HIST

15.8 Teachers' Manual For Freehand Drawing in Intermediate Schools

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15.8 Teachers' Manual For Freehand Drawing in Intermediate Schools

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maaui Curves . 133

.METgv, Conventionalization, and Repetition. . . 161

«)NVE]J^50NALIZATION AND APPLIED DESIGN . . . .175

Decorative Art.— Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Moresque

Model and Object Drawing. — Its General Features

Exercises in Model and Object Drawing .269 . . .

General Directions, and Principles and Methods of

Straight Lines combined. — Angles. — Triangles. —Quad

Decorative Art.— Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Moresque

Model and Object Drawing. — Its General Features

The size and arrangement of the books belonging

much larger scale, for the purpose of more fully

THE FIRST BOOK.

the silversmith, and the like. The principles of

are understood, and that the knowledge acquired is

of real worth. Thus the learner, from these five

different modes of drawing, cannot fail to obtain a

books. Detailed directions are given for filling each

THE SECOND BOOK.

several important features, between the three historic

THE THIRD BOOK.

drawing, and not drawing from the solid. The

of models and objects, of the given flat copies : on

all her works, and so does man, either wittingly or

worse than useless to attempt light and shade.

can be easily illustrated, and is of such simple char-

be seen that circular forms are taken before rectan-

CHARACTER OF THE MODELS AND OBJECTS.

imagination, the training of the pupil to “ see in

to develop it as model and object drawing. Now,

itbecomes absolutely essential that the models and

THE PRIMARY COURSE REVIEWED.

pupils, according to age, can begin this system of

Drawing (instrumental), Perspective Drawing (in-

which the leading features and minor details of each

which the principles present to the understanding (4) ;

by the quality of the manual execution demanded at

any one feature alone. Thus, to say that the

are to be much better executed than in the Primary

CERTAIN FEATURES WHICH CHARACTERIZE

under all circumstances. Those methods are pre-

it is regarded as a matter of vital importance, that

wise spirit and boldness, as well as knowledge, will

the rule of the best schools.

IMPROPER USE OF THE BLACKBOARD.

can do good work, and do it easily.

development of taste in class instruction. Only the

more or less obliquely and so for them nearly every

line would be distorted, the whole figure losing its

glance, that it is impossible suitably to grade the

a suitable series of text-books. When such books

DRAWING MATERIAL, AND ITS CARE.

In addition to suitable books and models, the

poor materials. The best pencil is the cheapest. |

No instruments are needed for this Intermediate

their cleanliness, a thin shaving being removed from

The teacher will find in this Manual all needed

many of them. The drawings are small ;