Augsburg Drawing 3

4
LIBRARY
Brigham Young University
From J-M. Jensen
Call No. TA7

fAM. 3
Acc. No. 93089
IT. 3
V
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2016
https://archive.org/details/augsburgsdrawing03augs
Hugsbutg’s drawing
BOOK III.
\ Text Book on Designing and Constructive Drawing for
the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Grades of
Grammar Schools, and for use in High Schools,

with Chapters on Brush Drawing, Wash
Drawing, Water Colors, Pen Drawing.
The Human Head and Figure,
Chalk Modeling.
BY
ID. 1R* Buosburcj

Director of Drawing in the Public Schools of Oakland, Cal.
EDUCATION AL PUBLISHING COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO
COPYRIGHTED, 1902
BY
D. It. AUGSBURG
PREFACE.
Augsburg’s Drawing System is embraced in three books, and is
designed for use in graded and ungraded schools. Each subject is

treated topically and is arranged so as to give the widest latitude and the
greatest flexibility in teaching.
Book I. is a teacher’s hand book, showing simple and effective
methods of teaching drawing, including color work, in the first, second
and third grades.
Book II. is a regular text book, containing the essentials of Free
Hand Drawing. It may be placed in the h^nds of the pupils of the
fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth grades, and used the same as a
text book in arithmetic or other subjects. It may also be used in con-
nection with a system of copy or blank books or drawing pads.
Book III. contains short, yet complete, courses in Brush Drawing,
Wash Drawing, Water Color Drawing, Pen Drawing, the drawing of the
Human Head and Figure, Decorative Design and Constructive Drawing.
CONTENTS
General Outline
CHAPTER J.
Brush Drawing 15
CHAPTER II.
Wash Drawing and Light and Shade 30
CHAPTER III.
Water Colors 47
CHAPTER IV.
Pen Drawing 75
CHAPTER V.
The Human Head and Figure 83
Chalk Modeling .....

. CHAPTER VI.
100
CHAPTER
Decorative Design .... VII.
119
CHAPTER VIII.
Form in Decorative Design 133
CHAPTER IX.
Foliation in Decorative Design 161
CHAPTER X
Constructive Drawing 171
CHAPTER XI
Isometric and Cabinet Drawing 178
CHAPTER XII.
Orthographic Projection 192
1
INTRODUCTION.
GENERAL OUTLINE.
Books II. and III. form a complete text-book in Drawing,
Color, Designing and Constructive Drawing and therefore contain
more than can lie compassed in an ordinary school course in
drawing. To meet the varying demands in this subject, and to
make the hooks of the widest utility, the following courses have
been outlined :
7 lie Standard Course.

The Pictorial Course.
The Designing Course.
The Constructive Drawing Course.
The Ungraded Course.
The Teacher's Course.
The High School Course.
The Standard Course is both general and fundamental in

character, and aims to aid in preparing the pupil for whatever
calling he may follow in life : to make him a better blacksmith,
carpenter, machinist, miner, farmer to make her a better dress-
;
maker, milliner, housekeeper, teacher; to prepare both for all
of life’s duties in which skill of hand and mind are factors.
The Pictorial Course is the same as the standard course,

with the addition of pen drawing and the study of the human
head and figure in the seventh and eighth grades.
The Designing Course contains a course in designing in the

sixth, seventh and eighth grades ;
otherwise it is similar to the
standard course.
6 AUGSBURG’S DRAWING.
The Constructive Drawing Course contains a course in

Constructive or Mechanical drawing in the sixth, seventh and
eighth grades ; otherwise it, also, is like the standard course.
The Ungraded Course is a course in drawing for ungraded

schools. arranged for one class containing two divisions
It is :
one composed of first, second and third year pupils, and the other
of fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth year pupils.
The High School Course is entirely in Book III. The

course is a continuation of the work of the grades in Brush and
Wash drawing, Water Colors, Pen drawing, Designing and Con-
structive drawing.
These courses are not intended to be arbitrary in character,
but suggestive. They are intended to outline, in a general way,
what can be taught to advantage in each grade.
The Mediums used in this system are those used most fre-
quently in the trades and professions, viz. : the lead pencil , water
colors ,
ink and the blackboard crayon.
,
Lead Pencils . —A soft lead pencil, capable of the widest

range of line, should be used, one capable of making light, medium
and black lines.
Water Colors . — The mechanical use of water colors should

be taught in the second and third grades, and then used in all
grades above the third as a common medium in all work in which

color can be used to advantage.
Ink is used in pen and brush drawing, and may be used in
place of the pencil in other lines of work.
Crayon is the most common medium used by the teacher in

giving instruction. The blackboard has no superior as a place for
drill work.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING.
Ambidextrous or Two-Handed Drawing may be used in

any grade as an exercise to gain freedom, speed and skill in the
use of the hands. The exercises should not be more than five
minutes long. Ambidextrous exercises may be found in Book I. ;
also in Book III. under the head of Designing by Form .
Action Drawing. It is well to take up the study of a bird

and an animal in each grade. Book I., under the head of The
In
Drawing of Birds and The Drawing of Animals this work is ,
shown in detail.
Object Drawing is given a prominent place in every grade

from the first to the eighth. In all of the courses much time
should be given to object drawing. Pupils should be taught to
seek the object as a source and perfecting element of the mental
image. Object drawing should be introduced at pleasure through
the year’s work.
The courses in detail are as follows :
THE STANDARD COURSE.

The length of drawing period should he fifteen minutes per day.
Grade IV.
Chapter 1 . Book II. The perspective principle.
Chapter 2. t i
The box as a type form.
Chapter 3. 4 4
The cube as a type form.
Chapter 4. l 4
Application of the box form.
Chapter 9. 4 4
Object drawing.
Grade V.
Chapter 5. Book II. Oblique drawing.
Chapter 6. < i
Exact drawing.
Chapter 7. i i
The cylinder as a type form.
Chapter 9. i i
Object drawing.
Grade VI.
Chapter 8. Book II. Application of the cylinder.
Chapter 9. 4 4
Object drawing.
Chapter 10. 4 4
The triangular prism as a type
form.
Chapter 1 . Brush drawing.
Grade VII.
Chapter 11. Book II. Reflections.
Chapter 2. Wash dniwing.
Chapter 9. Book II. Object drawing.
Grade VIII.
Chapter 3. Water colors.
...
PICTORIAL COURSE.
The length of dra wing period should he fifteen minutes per dag.
Grade IV.
Chapter 1 Book II. The perspective principle.
Chapter 2 “ The box as a type form.
Chapter 3. “ The cube as a type form.
Chapter 4. “ The application of the box form.
Chapter 9. “ Object drawing.
Grade V.
Chapter 6. “ Exact drawing.
Chapter 7. “ The cylinder as a type form.
Grade VI.
Chapter 8. Book II. Application of the cylinder,
Chapter 9 “ Object drawing.
Chapter 10. “ The triangular prism as a type
form.
Chapter 1 Brush drawing.
Grade VII.
Chapter 2. Wash drawing.
Chapter 4. Pen drawing.
Grade VIII.
Chapter 5. The human head and figure.
DESIGNING COURSE.
The length of drawing period should he fifteen minutes per day.
Grade IV.
Chapter 1. Book II. The perspective principle.
Chapter 2. < i
Chapter 3. i i
Chapter 4. i t
Chapter 9. 4 4
Object drawing.
Grade V.
Chapter 6. “ Exact drawing.
Chapter 7. * i
Chapter 9. t i
Object drawing.
Grade VI.
Chapter 8. Book II. Application of the cylinder.
Chapter 9. t *
Object drawing.
Chapter 10. 4 4
form,
Chapter 6. o o by
Designing line.
Grade VII.
Chapter 7. Designing by form.
Grade VIII.
Chapter 9. Book II. Object drawingo
Chapter 8. Foliation.
..
.. .
AUGSBURG’S DRAWIFG. 11
CONSTRUCTIVE DRAWING COURSE.

The length of drawing period should he fifteen minutes per day .
Grade IV.
Chapter 1 Book II. The perspective principle.
Chapter 2. 4 4
Chapter 3. 4 4
Chapter 4. 4 4
Chapter 9 4 4
Object drawing.
Grade Y.
Chapter 6 < ^
Exact drawing.
Chapter 7. i i
Chapter 9 1 1
Object drawing.
Grade YI.
Chapter 8 Book II. Application of the cylinder.
Chapter 10. t i
form
Chapter 9. Constructive drawing.
Grade YII.
Chapter 1 1 Book 11. Reflections.
Chapter 9. t <
Object drawing.
Chapter 10. Isometric and Cabinet drawing.
Grade VIII.
Chapter 11. Orthographic projection.
THE UNGRADED COURSE.

The length of the drawing lesson should he fifteen minutes per
day.
Divide the school into two divisions as follows :
Division 1 . First, second and third year pupils.

Division 2. Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth
year pupils.
Both divisions may draw during the same period, but the
teaching should alternate from one to the other.
Some subjects may be taught to both divisions in common.
For example, in Object Drawing ,
the first division may draw a
single leaf, the second division a spray of leaves.

The following subjects may be taught in both divisions at the
same time :
Object drawing.
Memory and imaginative drawing.
Two-handed, drawing.
Action drawing.
Birds and Animals.
Brush drawing.
Water colors. Book I.
The following subjects should be taught separately, alter-

nating from one division to the other in teaching :
Division 1. Book I.
Chapter 5. Place and relation of objects.

Chapter 6. The relative size of objects.
Chapter 7. Proportion.
Chapter 8. Unity.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING. 13
Division 2. Book II.
Chapter 1. The perspective principle.

Chapter 2. The box as a type form.
Chapter 3. The cube as a type form.
Chapter 4. Application of the box form.
Chapter 5. Oblique drawing.
Chapter 6. Exact drawing.
Chapter 7. The cylinder as a type form.
Chapter 8. Application of the cylinder.
Encourage individual work among the larger pupils. This

can be done if each has a text-book of his own, so that individual
work can be done the same as in arithmetic.
TEACHERS’ COURSE.
Book II. forms a teachers’ course by beginning with Chapter 1
and following the order given.
HIGH SCHOOL COURSE.

Chapter 1. Book III. Brush drawing.
Chapter 2. Book III. Wash drawing.
Chapter 3. Book III. Water colors.
Chapter 4. Book III. Pen drawing.
Chapter 5. Book III. The human head and figure.
Chapters 6, 7 and 8. Book III. Designing.
Chapters 9, 10 and 11. Book III, Constructive drawing.
CHAPTER I.
Brush Drawing.
Brush Drawing is a term applied to drawing with the brush

in one value — black and 3; or two values
as in Figs. 2 black —
and white as in Fig.
1 ; or in three values
white, —
black and gray,
as in Fig. 34. Often more than one gray is used. Sometimes
color is used in the place of the black and gray.
Brush drawing is a phase of drawing finding its suggestion
in nature.
(1) In the dark shadows on a light surface, such as those

cast by bright sunlight, moonlight, strong lamp-light, especially
those cast by the electric light. x
15
(2) In the appearance of an object between the observer

and a strong light, such as a tree silhouetted against a light sky,
or a mountain at sunset outlined against the western sky.
(3) In the appearance of objects as seen through haze,
<*moke, fog, or storm, when the details are eliminated and only the
mass is seen.
(4) In the appearance of objects on dark days and at night-

fall, when outlined against the sky or a body of water.
The Value of Brush Drawing is to lead

the pupil to see the large parts more than the
small, to represent the mass rather- than the
details, to tell the larger truths rather than the
lesser, to neutralize that tendency in nearly all
pupils to see and represent the little details be-

fore the largerand more important masses.
Brush drawing is an excellent preparation
for water-color painting. The handling of the
brush in the positive direct strokes of this work
is good drill for the more delicate handling of
water colors.
\
Materials for Brush Drawing.— Common ink, a small

camel s-hair brush, and a pad of water color or drawing paper are
all the materials necessary.
Drawing ink is much better than common ink as it is jet
black. The browns and grays of water colors also make excellent
mediums.
Nos. 3, 4, 5 or 6 round camels-hair brushes are good for this
purpose. No. 3 is small, and Nos. 4, 5 and b each a trifle larger
than the number below it. Many prefer Japanese brushes. One
brush is enough.
Objects Suitable for Brush Drawing must be strong and

characteristic in outline for example, a pear is an excellent
;
object, on account of its characteristic outline, but an orange is

not very good, because its leading feature is its color. In general,
objects that by their shape are suitable for this
are recognized
work. Hold any object between your eye and the light, and you
can easily tell whether it is suitable for brush drawing. The fol-
lowing list gives some of the most common objects that are suitable
for this work :
Nearlyall kinds of buds, as they appear in the spring, are good
models. Let each pupil pin a twig containing two or three buds
to a white card or paper, and then make a brush drawing of it.
The lilac, pussy-willow, the various catkins, and later the buds of
the willow poplar, box elder, beech, birch, maple, etc., will be
T
,
found interesting.
Nearly ail the wild flowers have good outline. They may be
placed in a small bottle by each pupil, and then drawn, bottle and
all. (Fig. 37.)
Leaves of all sorts furnish a great variety of interesting forms,

especially those that are complicated in outline, such as the
maples, oaks, and many ferns. The clover, locust, ivy, and
similar leaves are good. Pine needles are interesting. Leaves
form one of the most work.
fruitful sources for this
Grasses, seeds and seed-pods, both green and dried, are among
the best sources for brush drawing. There is no richer field and
more interesting objects than can be found among the dried
grasses, weeds and pods found in profusion along the road-side
and in fence corners. Nuts are interesting, if represented in
clusters with a small branch and several leaves. The peanut and
acorn are excellent represented alone.
Vegetables and fruits are always at hand, and many of them

form good models. Gourds, squashes, onions, turnips, carrots
and radishes are the best and among the fruits are cherries, pears,
;
grapes, lemons, bananas, currants and gooseberries. Avoid mak-

ing large drawings of any of these.
Trees are exceedingly interesting and form the best of models.
Most trees are good for this purpose, providing they stand alone
with the sky for a background, so that they stand out prominently.
The maple, poplar, oak, pine, elm, palm, as well as many shrubs
and plants, are all that could be desired.
Bits of landscape are often very effective for brush work, such
as a dead tree, a rock, a bunch of grass or rushes, a mountain,
bluff*,or hill; an island or point of land; a gate, bars, tower,
bridge, or ruins.
Articles of china and earthern ware have fine outlines and

beautiful proportions. Vases, pitchers, ju^s, jars and lamps, are
among the best for this purpose.
Articles of wear are also serviceable, such as hats, caps, shoes,
slippers, canes and umbrellas.
Objects floating on the water are excellent, such as boats,

buoys, etc. Anything that is reflected in the water is interesting,
such as a rock, ‘bush, boat-house or pier.
Small articles such as may be found in the pockets of boys
will be found very serviceable. Keys, knives, fish-hooks, sinkers,
button-hooks, nails, and tacks are very good.
1 9
Stuffed animals, birds and fishes are interesting. There is no
better way to gain the general form and proportion of an animal,
bird or reptile, than through brush drawing. The aquarium is a
good source for interesting study. Often a rooster, hen, rabbit,
dog or kitten may be brought into the school-room and the pupils
work directly from the live model.
Beetles, bugs, butterflies, and insects mounted on white cards

are fine models, as well as very interesting.
Heads in and always have been favorite subjects
profile are
for this kind of drawing. These arc interesting, whether from a
picture or photograph or from the individual.
Ask a pupil to pose before the class, and let the other pupils
make a brush drawing of his head or his whole figure. There
should be a light background behind the model.
AUGSBUKG’S DRAWING. 23
" MADE BY NELLY

UtttlKUli IMJ MARTHA WASHINGTON, KKOM "SHADOW PICTt’RES Cl'STlS AI
MOt’NT VKRNON IN 1 70.
The above process of brush drawing may be reversed, as in

the drawing of the ferns, the black being painted around the
object, as if it were cut from white paper and pasted on a black
suiface. This will be found more difficult than painting the object
direct.
The greatest interest and variety inbrush drawing are found

when using two or more values, such combining the black and
as
white together, as in Fig. 33. Figs. 1,11 and 27 are also exam-
ples of such combination. The high lights on Figs. 13, 37 and 38
would also come within the range of two values.
The heads, Figs. 39, 40 and 41, also show the use of two values.
In this kind of work guard against large, unbroken areas of black.
Figs. 34 and 35 are examples of using three values — white,

black and gray. The gray shade is made with a pen, thus com-
bining the use of the brush and pen. This combination greatly
extends the range of brush drawing and places it on a higher plane
in artistic expression.
Fig. 46 shows the manner of bending leaves. Observe that a

white space where one leaf passes behind another.
is left
Fig. 47 shows the use of the shadow in throwing out the spray
of leaves, and Fig. 48 illustrates the bending of a ribbon.
—
Teaching Brush Drawing. Teach by example. Simply
show the pupils how by letting them see you or some one else
draw with the brush, and then let them do likewise.
26 AUGSBRUG’S DRAWING.
The greatest difficulties are to procure suitable objects and the

placing them before the pupil in the best manner for reproduction.
The first difficulty is made plain under the head of " Collecting
Objects” in Chapter IX., Book II. The following are some of the
most simple means of placing the objects before the pupils so that
they may be reproduced to the best advantage.
If the object is a bud, flower, grasses, or similar things, they

may be put into a small bottle and placed on the farther left-hand
corner of the desk. Each pupil should have a small bottle of
his own, and be taught how to arrange and place his own model.
If the object is of the nature of small fruit, nuts, and objects
that may la} on the desk, then a good way to place them is on a
r
piece of paper folded L-shape, as shown in the illustration. (Fig.

38 .)
Such objects as beetles, butterflies, bugs, etc., may be pinned
or glued to a card or paper, and placed at the back of the desk.
Large objects, such as a plant, chair, or limb of a tree, may
be arranged on a board across the aisle, or against a light surface
where the object can be easily seen by the pupils.
augsmjrg’s drawing. 27
T'-.ke the class out Friday afternoon and let them make a
brush drawing of a tree, rock, bush, house, distant mountain or

forest, as it is silhouetted against the sky. This should not be
done, however, until considerable practice has been had from small
objects.
Pictures may be translated into brush drawings as an occa-

main work should be from the object.
sional exercise, but the
The pen may be used with the brush, if preferred, to put in
the finer details, but the brush will be found capable of doing as
fine work as the sharpest pen.
DRILL EXERCISES IN BRUSH DRAWING.

1. Place a bud in a small bottle as in Fig. 37 and draw
lilac
it. In like manner draw the various buds as they come out in the
spring.
2. Choose some of the more simple wild flowers and draw
them.
3. Draw maple leaf, an oak leaf, a
a spray of lilac leaves, a
clover leaf ;
from the pepper tree or the pine.
a spray
4. Draw some of the common grasses, and weeds, both green
and dried. A head of wheat, oats, rye, barley or buckwheat.
5. Draw a cluster of butternuts, walnuts, hickory nuts,

acorns, horse chestnuts, hazel nuts or beech nuts.
6. Draw a maple seed, milk-weed pod, pea-pod, box-elder
seed or poppy capsule.
7. Draw a carrot, a radish, a turnip or a beet.
8. Draw a cluster of cherries, plums, pears or grapes; a
lemon or banana.
9. Draw a pine, maple, oak, elm or palm-tree.
10. Draw a plant of simple outline.
11. Draw a rock, end or corner of fence, bars, gate, bunch
of grass, tower, bridge or some rushes.
12. Draw a jug, vase, pitcher or cup.
13. Draw a cap, hat, shoe or umbrella.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING. 9^089 20
14. Draw a boat, buoy or post in the water.

15. Draw a key, knife, fish-hook, sinker, button-hook or ring;.
©
16. Draw a mounted bird, animal or fish .
17. Draw a rooster, hen, chick or turkey.

18. Draw a dog, rabbit, cat or kitten.
19. Draw a horse, cow, sheep or pig.

20. Draw a beetle, bug or butterfiy.
21. Draw a head in profile.
22. Draw a boy walking.
23. Draw a boy from the pose.
49
:
Wash Drawing and Light and Shade.
A Wash is a term applied to water tinted with ink or color,

and then spread more or lessevenly over the surface to be painted.
A wash drawing is a drawing composed of superimposed
washes. Fig. 1 is a wash drawing of a half of a cocoanut shell.
Materials for Wash Drawing are a No. 6 camels-hair

brush, a bottle of drawing ink, a pad of water-color paper, a cup
to hold water, a small dish in which to mix the wash, and a piece
of well-worn cotton or linen cloth to use as a blotter and to clean
tliebrush and dishes with when through using them.
Black, warm gray or cold gray of the water color box may be
used in place of drawing ink if more convenient.
Preparing the Wash. — The manner of preparing the wash

is as follows
(1) Dip the brush in water and press it in the dish in which
the wash is to be mixed. Continue this until there is water
enough in the dish for the wash.
30
— —
(2) Mix a small portion of ink with this water, and the
wash is ready for use.
Applying the "Wash. — Hold the drawing pad in the left
hand, and incline an angle of about 45°, as in Fig. 2. Dip

it at
the brush in the wash, and apply it with a full or saturated brush,
working from the top downward. Keep the brush full of the wash.
The superfluous wash that is left at the bottom of the design or pic-
ture may be removed by first placing the wet brush on the cloth
this is done to draw the remaining wash from the brush then by —
touching the parts with the dried brush, all superfluous color will
readily be taken up. The first wash dries in a few moments, when
another wash may be placed over the whole or a part of the design
at pleasure.
These superimposed washes constitute the wash drawing.
Note. Keep the brush full of wash or color.
Allow each wash to dry before laying the next over it.
The best way to learn how to use washes is by practice, by

working with them. This can be done best by systematic drill
work, similar to the following :
Fig. 3 is painted as follows :
(1) Place one wash over the whole design. (2) After it is
dry place a second wash over all inside of the outer ring. (3)
Place a third wash over the triangular spaces and inside of the
second ring. (4) Place a fourth wash over the triangular spaces.
It will be seen from the above that —
A wash is simply a step or shade value based on the judg-
ment. It is not definite, like a step on the stall' in music, but
varies from dark to light and light to dark. It is a variable
quantity.
111 general it is best to work from the w hole

to the part from —
the large to the small —
on the larger and lighter washes
to put
first, following with the smaller and stronger washes.
DRILL EXERCISES.
Cut from cardboard a trefoil, Fig. 4, and a quarterfoil, Fig.
5. Cut the pattern 3| inches in diameter. Lay these patterns on
the water-color pad, and mark around them.
1. On Fig. 4 place one wash over the whole, tw o washes r
over part 2, three washes over part 3, and four w ashes over r
parts 4.
2. On Fig. 4 place one wash over the whole, tw o washes over
part 3, three washes over parts 4, and four washes over part 1.
3. On Fig. 4 place onewash over the whole, two washes over
parts 4, three washes over part 1, and 4 w ashes over part 2.
4. On Fig. 4 place one wash over the w hole, tw o w ashes over
T r
part 1, three w ashes over part 2, and four washes over part 3.
T
5. On Fig. 5 make parts 1 and 2 black, and leave parts 3 and

4 white.
6. On Fig. 5 make parts 4 black, part 3 gray, and leave parts
L and 2 white.
7. On Fig. 5 make part 1 black, and parts 2, 3 and 4 each

a shade lighter.
8. On Fig. 5 make part 3 black, parts 4 a shade lighter,
part 2 lighter and part 1 still lighter.
Wash Drawings and Pictures generally are made in very

much the same manner and 5, as repre-
as the designs Figs. 3, 4
sented in the drill exercises given above, except that the washes
are more irregular.
Look at the berry box, Fig. 6, carefully, and observe that it
is represented mainly with four washes, put on in much the same
manner as in Fig. 3. The details are added, after the washes have
been put in place, in their proper relation.
Figs. 7—10 show how to put the washes on in detail. Fig. 7

represents the first wash, Fig. 8 the second, Fig. 9 the third, and
Fig. 10 the details.
The details should generally be put in last.
Light and Shade.
No Outline in Nature. — Strictly speaking, there is no ou:

line in nature. What is commonly called outline is the beginning
of one shade and the ending of another, as shown in Fig. 11.
The Office of Light and Shade in drawing is subordinate

only to the idea. Yet, notwithstanding its importance, it must
still he looked on as an aid to expression, a means to an end, a
tool to work with. The idea is first, and the light and shade exists
for the idea as completely as the lead pencil exists for the use that
is made of it.
The Primary Use of Light and Shade is to bring out

the idea and make it plain and pleasing. Some of the subordinate
uses are to give relief distinctness solidity and emphasis to objects.
, ,
Relief is making an object stand out detached from

.
the
background, as shown by the post, Fig. 12.
Distinctness is the quality of being plainly seen. Fig. 12 is
seen plainer than if it was in outline.

Solidity is having the appearance of substance. The shading
on the rock, Fig. 13, makes it look solid like a rock.
Emphasis is making the object or idea conspicuous.
—
Shade and Shadow. For convenience an arbitrary dis-
tinction is made between shade and shadow. The shade is the
dark side of the object, the part opposite the light it is on the —
object and a part of it. The shadow is not a part of the object,
but is detached from it, and is caused by the object being in the
path of the light, shutting it oft" and casting the shadow. See
Fig. 12.
Shades and shadows have no substance, they are simply
the partial absence of light. In drawing, they exist solely for
the idea they help to express. It is possible and perfectly
practicable to represent objects without shading or to shade

objects in full, like the photograph, or partially, as in most
magazine pictures. Shade, shadow and reflections have no real
AtfGSBURG’S DRAWING.
existence in drawing, outside of the use made f them to express

iêas.
Three Methods of Shading. — There are three general

methods of shading, the natural , the conventional and the ideal.
The natural method is shading the object as nearly as possible
as it appears to the eye. It iscopying the shade as it appears on
the object. This method is used in learning how to shade, and in
making exact drawings from the object. Both the conventional
and the ideal methods are based on the natural. The photograph,
Fig. 14, is an example of this shading, and in drawing, cast draw

ing comes the nearest to it.
The conventional method is shading as if the light came ovei

the left shoulder at an angle of about 45°, as in Fig. 15. With
the light in this direction the right faces ana che under faces are
always in shade, and the left faces and the upper faces always in
light. The shadow is cast to the right and away. The conven-
tional is used when drawing and shading conceptively. It is one
position of the natural.

The ideal method is also conceptive, hut uses shade with
more freedom. The light and shade is entirely subordinated to
the idea, and used as the potter uses his clay
is —
to bring out,
make plain and beautify the idea that is being represented.
The ideal is the fruit of the study of shading from the object,,
Examples of this method may be found in the illustrated papers

and magazines, as it is used by the majority of skilled draughts-
men.
While these three methods are distinct, still there is no sharp
line of distinction between them they merge into one another at
;
every point.
—
Variety of Light. Light varies from the brightest sunlight
through many gradations to half light and diffused light; from the
brightness of noon to the darkness of night. Sunlight, moonlight,
starlight and artificial light make conditions that are infinite in*
their varietyand endless in their combinations.
All of these conditions would be confusing if they were an
end in themselves, but studied as subordinate to and attendant on
the idea, they are much simplified. They are so many helps to
aid in expressing thought.
Two Classes of Light. — All of the different kinds of light

may be divided into two classes, direct light and indirect light.
Direct light includes the direct light of the sun, moon, lamp
and fire. Fig. 18 is an example.
Indirect light includes half light, diffused light, reflex light,
the light through fog, haze, smoke, storm and partial darkness.
Fig. 17 represents partial darkness.
Direct Light is characterized by strong contrast between the

lightand shade . The shade and shadows are definite, distinct and
strongly marked. Sunlight, moonlight and firelight differ mainly
in volume or degree of light. Sunlight floods the whole picture
with bright light, the moon with a less quantity, and firelight with
less quantity still. Sunlight and moonlight are broad in effect,
flooding the whole picture alike firelight is more local and is con-
;
fined to comparatively small area.
Indirect Light is characterized by slight contrasts between

and darks. In half light which is diluted sunlight,
the lights ,
such as would come through a window, the lights, shades and

shadows are quite marked, but not so strong as in direct light.

Diffused light is such as we have on cloudy days, or similar con-
ditions there is little or no shadow and the lights and shades
;
are not separated by any perceptible line of demarcation. Fog,

haze, smoke and storm eliminate distance, shade, shadow and de-
tails,and tend to make all objects of an even shade of gray.
Darkness differs from the above in being darker and showing
distance. See Figs. 22, 23 and 24.
A Reflex light is light reflected into a shade or shadow by

some surrounding surface. In Fig. 25 the reflex light is the light
part of the shade on the left edge of the jug and next to the
shadow. Hold your hand between your eyes and the light, with
the fingers spread slightly, and you will see reflex lights between
the fingers. It is the reflex light that gives variety and complexity
to shades and shadows.
Light in Drawing is derived from the whiteness of the

paper on which the drawing is made that is, the whiteness of the
;
paper showing through the pencil lines or washes makes the

various shades and shadows. Between the whiteness of the paper

and the blackest marks of the pencil, or the heaviest washes, are
the extremes beyond which it is impossible to go, between these
two extremes all the different shades and shadows must be

included. It is not always necessary to make the light and shade
of the drawing of the same lightness and depth that it is on the

real object; in fact this is usually impossible. It should be the
aim to keep the and shade correct
relative proportions of light .
Sunlight is much brighter than the whitest paper, and the

deepest shades are deeper than can be represented by either pencil
or wash, yet both of these extremes may be represented truthfully
on common white paper, by keeping the relative proportions of
light and shade correct.
In addition to the light from white paper, Chinese white is
used as a source of light. It is used in the same manner as other
water colors.
The Mass Shade. — The shade and shadow of the mass, taken
as a whole, is of more importance than the shade of the details.
Fig. 27 shows the mass shade, and Fig. 28 both the mass and the
detailed shades. The mass shade is the one that is usually over-
looked by the beginner, as like all large parts, it is more difficult
to grasp.
The easiest way to see the mass shade is to throw the head
back, partly close the eyes, and look through the eye lashes. By
this means the smaller details are not seen and the masses of light
and shade stand out prominently.
Fig. 40 shows the mass shade of an open box, and Fig. 41

the detailed shade.
Shade Values. — The most difficult part of drawing is ren-

dering correctly shade values, or the relative strength of the
shades and shadows on an object as they appear to the eye. Only
the most careful training and patient industry is able to overcome
this difficulty. So great is it that many think it beyond the scope
of the school-room. But while this may be true in a literal sense,
still in a higher sense, we must remember these shade values are
attendant on the idea and entirely subordinate to it that as the

;
idea grows and perfects itself, then all those parts necessary to' its
perfection and growth will grow with it and become a part of the
completed whole.
Perhaps the best way to render shade values is to ignore

entirely the little shade details, reflex lights, etc., and aim to
represent only the broad masses, as in the pitcher, Fig. 29.
After this is done, the smaller details can be added with compara-
tive ease. Fig. 29 has been rendered in four values.
The four landscapes on the opposite page are each rendered in
four values or washes, not counting the clump of trees. In Fig. 30
the sky has one wash or value, the mountain two, the hill three and
the foreground four. In Fig. 31 this is reversed : the foreground
has one wash, the two, the mountain three and the sky four.
hill
In Fig. 32 the washes are varied the foreground has one wash, the
:
sky two, the hill three and the mountain four. In Fig. 33 the
washes are likewise varied : the sky has one, the mountain two, the
foreground three and the hill four. These large values or washes
are the most important and should have the closest attention.
—
Teaching Wash Drawing. Use for a background and
ground on which to place the model a piece of drawing paper
folded in the shape of an L, and placed on the right and at the
back of the desk. Use for a model a strip of drawing paper about
one inch wide and seven long, folded in the form of a square.
Place the model as in Fig. 34.
Of course any other object may be used in place of the paper
square, providing it is plain and simple. The above is given
because each pupil can make a similar model. Practice drawing
this form in various positions and in different lights, until the
washes can be laid with some degree of precision and accuracy ;
then use various objects, such as are named in the next chapter, and
in Chapter IX., Book II., under the head of object drawing.
9.
DRILL EXERCISES.
Place the model in the position of Fig. 34 and make a
wash drawing of it.
10. Place the model in the position of Fig. 35 and draw it.
15. Make a wash drawing of a berry box.

CHAPTER III.
Water Colors.
Standard. Colors are pure colors which by common consent
are accepted as types. They
are red, orange, yellow, green, blue
and violet, and are based on the solar spectrum. These colors, or
their equivalents, should be in the water color box together with
warm gray or brown and cold gray or black.
Local Color is the natural color of the object seen in ordi-

nary light. The local color is usually seen between the shade and
the lightest part of an object.
A Tint is a color made lighter. In water colors a tint is

formed by mixing water with the color.
A Shade is a color made darker. Shades in water colors are

formed by the admixture of gray, brown or black.
A Color Scale is an orderly arrangement of a color through

its tints, color and shades.
AScale of Colors is an orderly arrangement of related

colors. The solar spectrum would be a scale of colors.
48 A U G S B l J KG’S 1 ) It A W 1 NG.
Tone is a step in a color scale. It is a more general term

than tint or shade.
A Positive Color is a decided or striking color. The primary

are the most positive colors.
A Passive Color is a quiet color, like gray.
Luminous Colors are bright colors. Yellow is the most

luminous color.
Warm and Cold Colors. — Colors tending toward orange are

warm ;
those tending toward blue, cold.
Neutral or Normal Gray is white in shadow. A tint of

black is a neutral gray.
Warm —
and Cold Grays. Grays tinted with a warm colo^
are called warm those tinted with a cold color, cold.
;
Broken Colors are colors dulled by grays. For example,

gray mixed with blue would dull the blue, would make it less
luminous, would break its puiity.
Other Terms Used in Colors are advancing and receding

colors. Transparent and opaque colors. Spectrum circuit ,
color
values ,
color affinity ,
complementary colors ,
color harmony space
,
values and color contrasts.

Materials. — The materials necessary for use in water colors

are :
A Box of Water Colors containing the following colors;

red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, warm gray or brown, cold
gray or black.
Brushes. — A No. 6 camel’s-hair brush.
Paper. — A pad of water color or white drawing paper, about

Gx9 inches.
Blotter. —
A piece of old cotton or linen cloth to be used as
a blotter and to clean the box when through using it.
Water Cup. —A cup to hold water. A couple of butter

dishes will be found serviceable, in which to mix extra washes.
The Colors. — Red is a warmRed mixed with other

color.
colors tends to make them warmer. Red mixed with yellow makes
an orange ;
mixed with blue makes a violet.
The resultof the admixture of colors is to lessen their purity
and to make them more or less "muddy.”
Orange is the warmest color. Many color-boxes do not
contain orange, but depend on the admixture of red and yellow for
this color.
Yellow represents light, and is an advancing color. Yellow

mixed with other colors tends to make them lighter and brighter.
Yellow mixed with blue makes green.
Green is a cold color, if blue predominates, but light and
bright as yellow predominates. Broken greens are obtained by
admixture with other colors, especially the gray.
Blue is a receding color, and represents coldness and dis-

tance. Blue mixed with other colors tends to make them colder;
mixed with yellow it makes green mixed with red it makes ;
violet.
Violet. — Many boxes of water colors do not contain violet,

but depend for it on the admixture of red and blue.
Tints and Shades. —

Tints of all colors are formed by the
admixture of water. Shades of red, blue and violet are approxi-
mated by the admixture of cold gray. Shades of orange, yellow,
and green are approximated by the admixture of warm gray.
Washes. — A wash is water tinted with a color, and then by

means of a brush spread more or less evenly over the surface to be
painted. A water color drawing or painting is a number of super-
imposed washes representing a definite idea.
Preparing the Wash. — Prepare the wash as follows: (1)

Dip the brush into water and press it into one of the compartments
of the cover of the water-color box. Do this until there is water
enough compartment for the wash.
in the (2) Rub off a little
color with the brush and mix it with the water in the compart-
ment. It is ready now to apply to the paper.
—
Applying the Wash. Grasp the water-color pad with the
left hand and incline it at an angle of about 45 degrees, as in Fig.
2 in wash drawing. Dip the brush in the wash and apply the color ,
with a fall brush working from the top downward. Keep the brush
,
full of the color wash. The superfluous color that is left at the
bottom of the design may be removed by drying the brush on the
cloth, and then taking up this extra color by touching it with the
dried brush. A wash dries in a few moments, and then another
wash may be placed over the whole or a part of the design at pleas-
ure. These superimposed washes constitute the water-color picture.
—
Learning Color. The best way to learn colors is to use
them —work with colors. Simply learning their names is not
enough, we must know them as we know the face of a friend.
The following method is an orderly and progressive course for
learning and using color. The course is divided into five parts,
each part representing one of the common mechanical difficulties
of water colors. The parts are as follows :
Part 1. — The plain wash.

Part 2. — The single wash.
Part 3. — The graded wash.
Part 4. — The mixed wash.
Part 5. — The wet wash.
3 /
l
/ 1
/ \\ ^ \
/
/ 3 /
// n . u
Part 1. The Plain Wash. — Cut
from cardboard a 3J inch
square. On eight separate pieces of water-color paper mark a
square design and divide it into three parts, similar to Figs. 8-13.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING. 5S
If small notches are cut in the cardboard at the points of

division, these points will be marked automatically with the pencil
when the design made, thus saving time in dividing the square
is
into the three parts. (See designs 14 and 15.)

Color the above designs as follows Place one wash over the
:
w’hole design, a second wash over parts 2 and 3, and a third wash
over the part marked 3. Make each wash a step stronger than
the preceding one by the addition of more color. Two or three
designs may be washed together, alternating from one to the other,
thus saving the time you would wait for the washes to dry.
DRILL EXERCISES.
The aim in exercises 1 to 8 Delicacy of Wash; that
is is, the
washes are to be very light and delicate, about like Eig. 14.
The aim in exercises 9 to 16 is Strength of Wash; that is,
the washes are to be v.ery strong and heavy, as in Fig. 15.
Light Washes.
1. Color design 8 with three washes of red ;
placing one
wash, over the whole design, two washes over parts 2 and 3, and
three w ashes over part
T
3.
Note. — When the design is finished it should present three light, even tints
or steps of uniform variation.
2. Color design 9 with three light washes of orange.

3. Color design 10 with three light washes of yellow.
4. Color design 11 with three light washes of green.
5. Color design 12 with three light washes of blue.
6. Color design 13 with three light washes of violet.
Note. — If strong pencil lines are placed around the design after the washes
are in place they will add to the appearance of the work.
7. Color design 8 with three light washes of cold gray or

black.
8. Color design 9 with three light washes of warm gray or
brown.
Heavy Washes.
9. Color design 10 with three heavy washes of red.
Note. —
To make the design harmonious it may be necessary to go over it
more than three times.
10. Color design 11 with three heavy washes of orange.

11. Color design 12 with three heavy washes of yellow.
12. Color design 13 with three heavy washes of green.
13. Color design 8 with three heavy washes of blue.
14. Color design 9 with three heavy washes of violet.
15. Color design 10 with three heavy washes of cold gray
or black.
16. Color design 11 with three heavy washes of warm gray
or brown.
Part 2. The Single Wash. —

The single wash accomplishes
in one wash what was done by three washes in Part 1, Instead of
placing three washes on the design, only one is used, but that one
is of as many degrees of strength as there are differences in
color
or shade.
In exercises 1 to 8, the aim is delicacy of wash, as shown in
design 21.
In exercises 9 to 16, the aim is strength of wash, as shown in
design 22.
Cut from cardboard a diamond 4 inches long and 2 inches
wide, and notch the edges at the points of division, as in Figs. 16-
20. Use these cardboard patterns to mark out the designs, Figs.
16-20.
DRILL EXERCISES.
Light Washes.
1. Color design 16 with three light washes of red, similar to

Fig. 21, using only one wash for each tint.
2. Color design 17 with three light washes of orange.
3. Color design 18 with three light washes of yellow.
4. Color design 19 with three light washes of green.
—
Note. Try to put the wash in place at the first trial, but if it is necessary to
go over a part of the work again to make the design harmonious, do so.
5. Color design 20 with three light washes of blue.

6. Color design 16 with three light washes of violet.
7. Color design 17 with three light washes of warm gray or
brown.
8. Color design 18 with three light washes of cold gray or
black.
Heavy Washes.
9. Color design 19 with three heavy washes of red, similar
to Fig. 22.
10. Color design 20 with three heavy washes of orange.
Note. — Try the wash on a piece of blank paper before applying it.
11. Color design 16 with three heavy washes of yellow.

12. Color design 17 with three heavy washes of green.
13. Color design 18 with three heavy washes of blue.
14. Color design 19 with three heavy washes of violet.
15. Color design 20 with three heavy washes of warm gray
or brown.
16. Color design 20 with three heavy washes of cold gray or
black,
Part 3. The Graded Wash is. one that varies from light to
heavy, or from heavy to light, as Figs. 23, 24 and 25.
The graded wash may be laid as follows :
1. Draw a rectangular surface 3 or more inches wide and 6

inches long. (2) Begin at the top with the full strength of the
color, and, with the brush, gradually add water to the wash after
each stroke, until clear water alone remains in the brush. See
Fig. 23. Add the water to a heavy wash very sparingly and mix
it well in the brush before applying.
This process may be reversed by beginning with clear water

and gradually adding color until the full strength is reached, as in
Fig. 24.
Fig. 25 represents the double graded wash. If only one color
is used, then the process is the same as in Figs. 23 and 24. If two
colors are blended together, then they are put on separately ; the
second wash after the first is dry.
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. Make a graded wash of orange from light to heavy.
2. Make a graded wash of green from light to heavy.
3. Make a graded wash of blue from heavy to light.
4. Make a graded wash of cold gray from light to heavy.
5. Make a graded wash of warm gray from heavy to light.
6. Make a graded wash of warm gray, similar to Eig. 24.
7. Make a graded wash of cold gray, similar to Fig. 24.
8. Make a double graded wash of blue.
9. Make a single graded wash of violet.
10. Make a double graded wash of red and orange.
11. Make a double graded wash of cold and warm gray.
12. Make a double graded wash of yellow and blue.
13. Make a double graded wash of orange and blue.
Part 4. The Mixed Wash. —

Theoretically, by mixing
colors together any color can be imitated from the lightest and
mosu delicate tint to the heaviest and darkest shade, but in prac-
tice this is modified by the imperfections in the pigments them-
selves. Some pigments are nearly perfect, washing smoothly,
mixing well with other colors, transparent, permanent and retain-
ing their brilliancy under nearly all conditions while other pig-
;
ments are poor washers, opaque, losing their brilliancy easily, and
fading when exposed to bright light.
Experience alone can teach the possibilities and limits of each
color.
In the following designs the aim is to make each design pleas-
ing and beautiful. This can be done with every combination given
in the exercises below.
No restriction whatever is imposed on the pupil, except to
designate the colors to be used.
The plain, single or graded wash, or all together, may be used
at pleasure.
Figs. 27 to 32 are figures cut from cardboard. Each one

3^ inches in width and height. By combining these cardboard
figures,any number of pleasing designs may be made as shown by
Figs. 33 to 38. These designs are made by laying the cardboard
figures on the water-color paper and marking around them. For
example, Design 33 is made by combining forms 28, 31 and 30.
Design 34 is made by combining forms 27, 30 and 32. Design 35
is made by combining forms 27, 32 and 30. Design 3G is made
32
33 3 *
by combining forms 27, 31, and 29. Design 37 is made by com-

bining forms 27, 28 and 30 the latter form is used twice. Design
;
38 is formed by combining 28, 32 and 30.

Care must be used in making the designs not to cross a line in
marking out the forms with the pencil.
The amount of color to be used and the design should be left
entirely to the judgment of the pupil.
Passing one color wash over another has nearly the same
effect as mixing them together and then applying them as one
wash.
—
DRILL EXERCISES.
Make by combining any three of the above forms,
a design
them with the following colors
Figs. 24-32, together and painting
mixed together. See Fig. 2C>. Use the equivalent of three washes.
1 Cold gray and red.
.
2. Cold gray and orange.

3. Cold gray and yellow.
4. Cold gray and green.
5. Cold gray and blue.
Note. — A design may be washed over almost any number of times until the
exact efh-ct is secured.
6 . Cold gray and violet.

7. Cold gray and warm gray.
Note. — Use a piece of blank paper to try the wash before applying it to the
design.
8 . Warm gray and red.

9. Warm gray and orange.
10. Warm gray and yellow.
11. Warm gray and green.
Note. —
Mixing colors together tends to mar their purity and brilliancy, but not
always their beauty.
12. Warm gray and blue.

13. Warm gray and violet.
Note. Washes may be mixed together and then applied, or one placed over
the other in their pare state.
Stencils are patterns cut from cardboard or similar material,

and are used to facilitate the reproduction of designs for coloring.
Figs. 39-54 are drawings representing stencil designs suitable
for this work. Cut the stencils from pieces of cardboard 4 inches
square. Make them as perfect and finely proportioned as possible.
The shaded portions represent the parts cut away. Lay these card-
board stencils on the water-color paper and mark them out. Color
them similar to Fig. 26.
The designs are arranged to take from two to live values or

washes. For example, Fig. 39 is designed for two washes, Fig. 41
for three, and Fig. 54 for live, though a less number may be used.
Tn the following drill exercises one stencil may be used for all
the exercises, or a variety of stencils, according to the desire of

the teacher or pupil. The aim is to learn color.
Paint a design with the following colors mixed together.
14. Blue and red. 22. Green and violet.

15. Blue and orange. 23. Yellow and red.
16. Blue and yellow. 24. Yellow and orange.
17. Blue and green. 25. Yellow and violet.
18. Blue and violet. 26. Red and orange.
19. Green and red. 27. Red and violet.
20. Green and orange. 28. Violet and orange.
21. Green and yellow.
Part 5. The Wet Wash. — Applying

a wash to dry paper
is called a dry wash
applying a wash to moist or wet paper is
;
called a wet wash. All of the washes thus far have been dry
washes. Fig. 57 is an example of a dry wash. Observe that the
washes are distinct and do not run together; there is no blur, the
edges are sharp and well defined.
Fig. 58 represents the wet wash. Observe that the edges are
softand run together. The paper was wet enough for the wash to
spread, hence the softened appearance of the edges.
Between Figs. 57 and 58 there are all degrees of the wet and
dry washes.
Fig. 7 is a combination of the wet and dry wash. The tree
representing the dry wash and the reflection the wet wash. The
tree, Fig. 68, represents the wet wash and Fig.
69, the same tree in
dry wash. After Fig. 68 is dry the limbs and other details are
added with the dry wash.
Use of the Wet Wash. — In general, the wet wash is to lay

the foundation of the picture — to lay in the broad masses — and
the dry wash is for the details. Both are used in the same picture
and at the pleasure of the draughtsman. Figs. 55 and 56 repre-
sent the combination of the wet and dry wash in the same picture.
Fig. 55 represents the foundation of the picture laid with the wet
wash, and to this same picture in Fig. 56 the distant mountain and
the foreground have been added.
When laying on the dry wash, the paper is usually inclined at
an angle, but when the wet wash is put on, it lies flat in a horizon-
tal position. The process is as follows :
(1) Wet the paper with water until it has become completely
saturated — wet through. (2) Lay the paper flat on a horizontal
surface. (3) Partially dry the surface with a dry cloth. (4) It
is now ready for painting. If the water-color paper is detached
from the pad and immersed in water and then laid horizontally on
:
a wet towel will keep moist an indefinite length of time and give
it
ample time for work.

High lights, and other light places, such as in cloud and water
effects,may be represented by means of sopping out the color with
the dried brush or a piece of blotting paper, or a bit of sponge
sharpened, with scissors, to a point.
The above method is hardly practical for class work, but indi-
viduals may use it to advantage.
The following methods, however, may he taught to the whole
class.
The radish, 59, may be painted as follows

(1) Wet the paper with the brush in the space occupied by
the radish. (2) With the brush well loaded with color, paint the
two or three strokes of the brush, leaving the color to
radish with
blend in toward the high light. With the dried brush the color
may be drawn towards the proper places and modified to suit. (3)
If necessary, finish with the dry wash. Similar objects may be

painted in the same manner.
Fruits, autumn leaves, or any object where the colors are
blended together, as in the peach, Fig. 60, may be painted as
follows: (1) Paint with the lighter local color and let dry. (2)
Wet the drawing with clear water, then drop in the darker color
from the end of the brush. The color may be further modified
with the dried brush.
The two colors may be put on at the same time, if more con-
venient, by wetting the paper the same as in painting the radish,
Fig. 59.
—
Water Color Elements. In water color drawings the fol-
lowing elements are to be considered :
Form High lights

Local color Reflex lights
Shadows Color values
General shade Shade values
Detailed shade
Local Color is the real color of the object seen in ordinary
light. The local color is seen plainest between the shade and the
lightest part of the object. Local color is modified by light shade
, ,
air and distance.

The General or Mass Shade is the shade of the whole object
as seen in shadow, and as distinguished from the shade of a part
or the detailed shade. Fig. 61 represents the general shade of the
rock, and in Fig. 62 the detailed shade has been added.
The High Light is the complete reflection from a smooth sur-
face, as shown in the light spots in Fig. 67.
A Reflex Light is light reflected into a shade. See Fig. 25
in wash drawing.
Color Value is the relative strength of the colors in a picture.

For example, in Fig. 1 it is the relative strength of the color in
the markings on the wings of the butterfly. In Fig. 57 it is the
relative color strength of the sky, mountain, lake, road, trees and
foreground.
Shade values are in light and shade what color values are in
color. In water colors shade and color values are nearly synony-
mous terms, as they merge into each other at almost every point.
Their main difference is that one relates to shade, the other to
color. In teaching they should be kept separate as much as
possible.
In Fig. 66, the squash is painted in three shade values, if we
refer to black and white, or in three color values, if we refer to
color. The cup, Fig. 63, is painted in five values, the bits of land-
scape, Figs. 2, 3 and 4, in three values. (See shade values in
wash drawing.)
What Elements to Represent. — It is evident that a class of

pupils cannot represent all of the above elements at once and in
the same picture. Even an experienced artist has trouble to do
this, but, if the elements are separated,

this can be done with a fair measure of
success. The elements may be repre-
sented in groups similar to the fol-
lowing :
The form and local color , as in the
tree, Fig. 64 ;
the dandelion, Fig. 65 ;
the butterfly, Fig. 1 ;

the rose, Fig. 5
and the three bits of landscape, Figs. "2,
3 and 4. This is the most simple com-

bination, and will give excellent results
in proportion to the truthfulness with
which each element is rendered.
The form, local color and shadow ,
as in Fig. 66. By letting a strong light

fall directly on the object this condition
can be represented quite accurately.
The form local color and high
,
light. All polished surfaces
reflect light, more or less. Reflec-
tion is a characteristic of glass,
glazed ware, water, fruits with
smooth skins and similar surfaced
objects. A dark colored object sim-
ilar to the teapot, Fig. 67, will give
the best results. See the grapes
and cherries Brush Drawing and
in
Fig. 29 in Wash Drawing.
Form local color and general
,
shade. The general shade is the

shade of the whole, the detailed
shade is the shade of the part. Any
object between the observer and the
light willshow a general shade, as the rock in Fig. 61. This may
he seen by throwing the head back, partly closing the eyes and
looking through the eyelashes. In this general shade is also seen
the shade of the details, as in Fig. 62.
Memory and Imaginative Painting. — Figs. 71 and 72

70,
are examples of the three kinds of direct light — sunlight moonlight
,
and artificial light.

Figs. 73, 74 and 75 are examples of three phases of indirect
light, diffused light, fog and darkness. (See Wash Drawing.)
Using Figs. 70—75 as examples, paint the most simple land-

scapes, such as Figs. 2, 3, 4, 57 and 64, in sunlight, moonlight,
diffused light, fog and darkness.
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. O 57 in bright
Paint Fig. O sunlight.
O
2. Paint Fig. 57 in moonlight.
3. Paint Fig. 57 in indirect light.
4. Paint Fig. 57 in a fog.
5. Paint Fig. 57 in darkness.
6. Paint Fig. 57 as a sunset.
7. Paint Fig. 2 in a fo g.
8. Paint Fig. 2 as a moonlight.
11. Paint Fig. 3 as a moonlight.
12. Paint Fig. 3 in darkness.
Objects Suitable to Paint.

Fruits should be of decided colors as a red, yellow, or green
apple ;
pears, peaches, tomatoes, plums, lemons, currants, grapes,
cherries and quinces. A spray of the above containing a number
of leaves is better still.
Vegetables — radishes, carrots, cucumbers, pumpkins, gourds

and crook-neck squashes are among the best.
Flowers that are simple in form and color are good, such as
the sunflower, yellow Marguerite, some pansies, the yellow chrys-
anthemum, sweet pea, some poppies, water lily buds, roses, rose
bud, tulip, buttercup, iris, marigold, anemone, bluet, daffodil,
forget-me-nots, geranium, narcissus, and similar flowers.
Grasses and similar growths, such as the clover, sorrel, flax,
oats, alfalfa, rushes, the sprouting bean, pea, corn and wheat.
Many weeds are very interesting and make excellent models.
Trees are among the best of models, providing the form and
local or general color alone are reproduced, otherwise they are
confusing.
Buds and Leaves are always good for this work. A twig
containing several leaf buds, or a spray of leaves, should be chosen
rather than one bud or leaf. Autumn leaves are excellent for the
blended wash.
Pottery . — Bright colored articles of pottery of simple form
and free from ornament make good models. Japanese lanterns
and bright colored dolls are also good.
Birds .
—
Some birds, like the blue-bird, robin, oriole, or yellow
bird, may be used, if stuffed specimens can be procured. Butter-
flies are excellent ;
their bright colors and strong markings make
them especially adapted for this work.
Bits of Landscape . —
A stump, log, large stone, rocks, bunch
of grass, a bluff, water-trough, corner of fence, stone wall, gate,
bars, old mill, old tower, old bridge, haystack, bulrushes, dead
tree, foot bridge, road, spring, shock of corn or wheat, also any
object projecting from the land into the water, such as point of
rocks or an old tree trunk.
CHAPTER IV.
Pen Drawing.
Pen drawing method of expression, and like all methods,

is a
is learned by imitation —
by copying. There is nothing in the
object to show the technical means of its reproduction this is the ;
office of the method. The object is the source of the mental image
or idea, and the method shows how to represent the mental image
on a flat surface.
Materials. — The materials necessary for pen drawing are

pens, ink and paper.
Pens . — Steel pens are used. They should be fine and flex-
ible, capable of making a wide range of lines.
Ink . —
Drawing ink is the best kind to use. It should be jet
black and flow freely and evenly.
Paper . —
The paper should be heavy, smooth and unruled.
Cardboard and the various papers prepared for pen drawing are
excellent. For general practice the paper should be cut 5^ by 7
inches or even smaller. When drawing, the paper should rest
on a smooth firm surface.
Holding the Pen. —

There is no particular way to hold the
pen or place the paper. The general rule is to hold the pen
in such a manner as to give the most freedom and ease, and to
place the paper so the light will come from the left side.
—
Lines. One of the most desirable ends in successful pen
drawing is to acquire a wide range of line —
to be able to translate
75
with the line various surfaces and textures. Figs. 1—36 repre-
sent some of the various kinds and forms of line by which lights,
darks and textures may be rendered. These line forms are intended
to be suggestive —
to show how a surface may be represented.
Surfaces and shades may be rendered :
(1) By varying the size of the line as

,
in Figs. 1-5.
(2) By varying the distance between the lines as ,

in Figs. 6-9
(3) By cross hatching ,
as in Figs. 10-13.
(4) By dots ,
as in Figs. 16 and 17.
By varying the size of the dots and their distance apart, these
dots may be given a wide range.
(5) By cross hatches and dots as in Figs. 14 and 15.
,
(6) By short strokes as in Figs. 18, 19 and 20.

,
(7) By graded line and hatches as in Figs. 21-24. ,
(8) By broken sketchy and irregular lines as in Figs. 25, 26

, ,
and 27.
(9) 'By peculiar arrangements of lines , as in Figs. 28-36.
An object may be rendered in outline and by means of light
and shade in many ways ; in almost an infinite number. In Figs.
37-45, a cross is thus represented in a number of ways, to show
some of the various means of reproducing the same object.
Fig. 37 is drawn in unaccented outline.
Fig. 38 is in accented outline — the nearer lines being
stronger than those farther away.
Fig. 39 is in broken line. The broken
lines have a very wide
range in both variety and and should be closely studied.
utility,
Figs. 40—45 show the various means of representing the cross

without outline.
SUGGESTIONS.
Keep the pen clean. —
Wipe the pen with a sponge or damp
cloth whe never it becomes clogged.
keep the ink corked, even when in use, for it
It is best to
is not very inconvenient to lift the cork wfith the left hand and
replace it each time ink is taken. The ink will keep better and
last longer by so doing.
Make a light outline of the drawing, with a lead pencil, before

drawing with the pen. By so doing the whole attention may
be given to the pen work.
For purposes of study make a collection of magazine pic-
tures showing how others have handled the subject. Remember
that the pen drawings seen in magazines are greatly reduced

in size, therefore much finer than the originals. I he drawings in
this chapter are about the size of the original drawings.
DRILL EXERCISES.
The following drill exercises are for the purpose of acquiring
the various methods of using the pen in the most simple ways.
The irregular and more complicated forms are omitted entirely.
1. Draw Fig. 38.
2. Draw Fig. 4(i.
3. Draw Fig. 47 in accented outline the same as Fig. 38.

Draw Fig 48 in the same manner. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Fig. 51.
4. Draw Fig. 39.
5. Draw Fig. 46 with broken lines, the same as Fig. 39.
6. Draw Fig. 47 with broken lines. Fig. 48. Fig. 49.
Fig. 50. Fig. 51.
.
82 9.
Draw Fig. 45.

10. Draw Fig. 47.
11. Shade Fig. 48 similar to Fig. 47.
12. Shade Fig. 49 in the same manner as Fig. 47.
15. Draw Fig. 51.
'
16. Shade Fig. 52 similar to Fig. 51.
19. Shade Fig. 46 in the same manner as Fig. 47. As
Fig. 51
21. Draw Fig. 54.
22. Place a dictionary in the position of Fig. 55, and draw it.
25. Draw the basket, Fig. 58.

CHAPTER V.
The Human Head and Figure.

Perhaps there is more real desire on the part of pupils to draw
a picture of the human head than to draw any other object in the
world. But it is not practical to place a human head before the
pupils and say, "Draw what you see,” without having previously
developed a plan to show them how, and to make them familiar
with the place and proportions of the different parts of the head.
The following is a good method of teaching the drawing of the
human head :
1. Teach the general shape of the head.

2. Teach the position and proportion of each part of the
head.
3. Teach how to draw each part of the head.
3. Draw from the real head.
83
Shape Head.
of the —
Choose a pupil to come forward and
stand before the class. Ask the pupils to look at the head, side
view, and note the general shape. They will see that the general
shape is oval, similar to Fig. 5. See also Figs. I, 2, 3 and 4.
Draw this oval form on the blackboard, about two feet long,
similar to Fig. 5.
The Eye, Root of Nose and Top of Ear. —

Draw a light
horizontal linemidway between the top and bottom of the oval,
A, B, Fig. 6. Ask the pupils to observe on the model’s head
points about half way between the top of the head and chin. Let
AUGSBURG'S DRAWING. 85
them measure by sighting with their pencil, if necessary. They

will find that the rootof the nose the eye and the top of the ear are
,
about on this half way line. Draw a line down through the center
of the head vertically, as at C, D, Fig. 6, and ask if the ear is back
of this line or in front of it. Generally the ear is back of this line.
Put these facts in the oval on the blackboard as in Fig. 6.
—
The Top of the Forehead. Draw a horizontal line half way
between the top of the ear and the top of the head, see A, B,
Fig. 7. Place a crayon on top of the head of the model, and ask
for the half way point between it and the top of the ear. The top
of the forehead will be found about half way. Mark this in the
drawing on the blackboard, as at A, B, Fig. 7.
The End of the Nose, the Lobe of the Ear and the Base
of the Skull. — Di•aw way between the eye and the bot-
a line half
tom of the chin, as A, B, Fig. 8. Ask the pupils for the points
on the model that are about half way. They are the end of the
nose the lower point of the ear and
,
the* base of the skull ,
or top
of the neck. Mark these in the drawing on the blackboard, as in
Fig. 8. Ask the pupils to feel on their own heads that these three
points are about even with one another.
Upper Lip, Lower Lip and Chin. — Divide the lower part
of the drawing into three equal parts, as A, B, and C, in Fig. 9,
and it be found that these thirds will about mark the upper lip
will ,
loiver lipand chin while the division points will mark the mouth
,
and upper point of the ch in.

Of course these facts are general and will not exactly conform
to every head, but still they will serve to form a standard that will
greatly assist the pupil when drawing from the real head.
It is not enough to simply know these facts. They must be
learned so well that they can be used. The use that can be made
*0 AUGSBURG’S DRAWING}.
of them is the test of understanding them. The following exer-

cises are for the purpose of learning the above facts.
1. Draw Figs. 31 and 35 on the blackboard. Ask two pupils
to step to the blackboard and mark the position, as the teacher calls
for them, of the root of the nose ;
the eye ;
the top of the ear ;
the
top of the forehead ;
the end of the nose ;
the whole ear ;
the top
of the neck ;
the upper lip ;
the lower lip ;
the chin ;
the neck.
2. Let the pupils draw an oval, similar to Fig. 31, on their
tablets,and place in position and in the following order, the eye,
root of nose, top of ear, top of forehead, end of nose, lobe of ear,
top of neck, upper lip, mouth, lower lip, chin and neck.
At this point it is well to teach the shape of the ear, nose,

mouth and eye. This can be done by the pupils copying each
separately until they are well acquainted with the general form and
can reproduce them from memory.
3. Let the pupils draw an oval on their tablets similar to
Fig. 31, and place in position the features in the following order:
neck, ear, nose, eye, hair, mouth and chin.
4. Let the pupils draw an oval, similar to Fig. 35, on their
tablets and add to it in the order given, the nose, ear, eye, neck,
hair, mouth and chin.
Have exercises similar to the above until the pupils can place
the parts of the head in the right place, form and proportion with
some degree of accuracy.
:
Figs. 19, 23, 24 and 28 represent the side views of the head.
Figs. 20, 22, 25 and 27 represent the quarter views. Fig. 21
represents the front view and Fig. 26 the bach view . All that has
been said of the side view in connection with Figs. 5 to 10 is also
true of the front and quarter views, viz.
That the general shape of each is oval.
That the root of the nose, eye and top of ear are in the same
horizontal line about half way between the chin and the top of the
head.
That the top of the forehead is about half way between the
top of the ear and the top of the head.
That the end of the nose, the lobe of the ear and the base of the
skull are in the horizontal line about half way between the chin
and the eye.
That if the lower quarter be divided into thirds they will be
occupied by the upper lip, lower lip and chin.
Fig. 29 shows the eyes, nose, mouth and ears as seen in
the front view, and Fig. 30 represents the same as seen in the
quarter view.
The front view and the quarter views are taught in the same
manner and by the same means as shown in the side view in
Figs. 5—10.
5. Draw Fig. 33 on the blackboard, about 18 inches long.

Ask a pupil to come to the blackboard and mark the position
of the eyes ;
the top of the ears ;
the parting of the hair ;
the ears ;
the end of the nose mouth the chin.

;
the ;
6. Have the pupils draw on their tablets, Figs. 33, and put in
position — the eyes ; the top of the ears ;
the parting of the hair ;
the end of the nose ;

the ears ;
the mouth ; the chin ; the neck.
7. Have the pupils draw on their tablets, Fig. 32, and mark
the position of the eyes ;
root of nose ;
top of ear ;
parting of the
hair; the nose ;
the ear; the mouth and chin.
8. Draw Fig. 34, and add the different features.
9. Draw Fig. 38, and add the ears and hair.
Drawing the Head from Life. — Begin

and draw
to study
the real head along with the study of above exercises. Both are
mutually helpful. The drawings show how to study and what
to look for on the real head they are the source of the method,
;
while the real head is the source of the idea.
Posing the Pupil.— The pupils should take turns in posing

and the poses should not be over ten or twelve minutes lono-.
It is scarcely practical for all the pupils in the class to draw
from the same model. There should be as many models as is
necessary for each pupil to draw under favorable conditions. The
model should be placed somewhat higher than the other pupils,
and should be posed by the teacher.
Copying heads such as are found in magazines and other
periodicals is permissible if the motive is worthy. The motive
should be to learn the human head and the best methods and means
of representing it. To this end it is well to collect the pictures of
heads and paste them on cardboard to be used for studying.
:
The General Plan is to begin the drawing of the whole

human figure at once and to gradually teach the following
The general facts of the human figure.
The position and proportion of each part.

How to draw each part.
The joints and their limitations.
Posing. —
Have a pupil step upon a table or similar elevation
where all can see him under favorable conditions. Place him in as
simple a pose as possible. Let the pupils draw from this pose five
to ten minutes. In this time there should be no attempt at
making a complete drawing; the aim being to reproduce the large
parts as in Figs. 51—62.
Unity. — The tendency among pupils in beginning to learn

how to draw is to seeand represent the small parts rather than the
large ones. Pupils must be taught to see the hand before the
fingers ;
to see the head before the eyes, nose and mouth ;
the arm
before the wrinkles in the sleeve ;
the long lines before the short
ones — to see the whole before the part. To do this — to repre-

sent the general proportions with some degree of accuracy — is the
end to be accomplished.
first If this is done, the details will give
very little trouble and will fall easily into place.
The Method. — There is no w ell defined method r

of drawing
the human figure that is simple, direct and easy to understand.
The following is perhaps as simple and direct as any :
1. Take the length.

2. Draw the long lines.
3. Locate the principal points.
4. Block in.
5. Finish.
Take the Length as in A, B, Figs. 63 and 64. Drawings are
usually limited in size to a particular space which they are to fit
into agreeably. The size of the paper is the usual limit of the
drawing.
Drawing the Long Lines . — The general direction of the long
lines give the character and action to the pose. These lines
should be established first, as it is not easy to change the action
after these lines are in place.
In Figs. 63 and 64 the heads were drawn first and then
the long lines about in the order of their numbering. Such lines
should be drawn with the greatest freedom and with the unaided
hand then they may be varified by means of simple measure-
;
ments and tests with the pencil.
“Blocking in” and Finishing. "block in” with — Always

light lines before These drawings are all carried
finishing.
through the "blocking in” point and left in that condition. This
is about as far as a drawing can be carried in the class-room.
For examples of finished work, cut drawings from magazines *

and other periodicals to show the different degrees of finish in
drawing, as well as the different kinds of work. Use these illus-
trations as examples in posing and for study.
U <>7
Suggestions for Observation.

The head varies from childhood to maturity than
less in size
any other part of the body, and for that reason is the most stable
unit of measure. A child two years old is less than four heads
tall. This gradually increases to four, five, six, seven and even
eight heads in maturity. The size of a well-formed figure may be
taken at seven and one half heads, as shown in Fig. 68. The size
of the head as compared with the body is one of the characteristic
differences between children and grown people. Figs. 65, 66 and
67 are the same size and proportion, except the head ; and this
proportion suggests the child in Fig. 65, the youth in Fig. 66 and
the man in Fig. 67.
The standard proportion of a well shaped man is about seven
and a half heads. This division is serviceable in many ways, but
the division of the human figure into quarters is generally more
practical. It ranges as follows :
First quarter from the top of the head to the armpits.

,
Second quarter from the armpits to the bottom of the trunk.

,
Third quarter from the trunk to the knees.

,
Fourth quarter from the knees to the sole of the foot.

,
The hand reaches to about the middle of the thigh when dropped
naturally at the side. The elbows are about even wfith the belt.
The body from the shoulders to the belt, does not vary much
,
from a square, in the front and back views.

In children, the distance from the shoulders to the belt is
about one third the distance to the feet. In adults it is about one
quarter.
There is a tendency in first efforts to represent the feet, hands
and head too small. Guard against this. The feet are half the
length
© © from the knee to the sole of the foot.
of the leg The hand
is about the length of the face, from the chin to the parting of the
hair.
While the above facts may be aids in drawing the human
figure, still they are only aids. The judgment is the final test, it
is the supreme court to which the relative size and the correctness
of all proportions are referred as to whether they are right or wrong.
The ability to draw the general proportions and to keep the rela-
tive size of the parts should become largely automatic, so that the
attention may be given solely to the idea the figure is to represent.
Memory and Imaginative Drawing is the real test of

what the pupil understands. Frequently have exercises in memory
and imaginative drawing. In general, figures representing action
cannot be obtained from a pose, but must be gotten through study,
observation and thought.
The following are excellent subjects to observe and represent
in action :
walking jumping
running- dancing
climbing shoveling
playing horse pounding
playing marbles nailing
O
shooting a gun hoeing
shooting a pistol mowing
shooting a bow spading
throwing a spear pitching hay
rolling ahoop picking up
rowing a boat drawing a wagon
paddling a canoe pushing a cart
playing tag sowing seed
swimming pushing a wheelbarrow
diving climbing a ladder
fishing carrying a pail
riding a bicycle carrying a rock
pulling a rope carrying a post
flying a kite blowing a horn
coasting playing the piano
catching a ball playing the violin
throwing a ball
—
SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES.
1. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 69; allow ten minutes
for the drawing.
Note. The light lines that cross the face are direction lines to find the slope
of the shoulders.
2. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 70; allow ten minutes

for the drawing.
3. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 71 ;
allow ten minutes
for the drawing.
4. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 51, and draw it.
5. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 52, and draw it.
6. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 53, for the class to draw.

dfi AUGSBURG’S DRAWING.
14. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 61, for the class

to draw.
15. Prepare a pose similar to Fig. 62, for the
class to draw.
16. Prepare poses similar to Fig. 64, 73, 80.
Note -Poses of all kinds may begotten from the various magazines
papers.
and
If these clippings are well chosen they may be pasted on pieces of
bo-ml and used for study as well as a source card-
for poses.
—
17. Represent a boy walking.

18. Represent a boy running.
Note. It is well to have a number of lessons on the same action, as long as

you hold the interest of the class. For example, the single action of running
away may be represented in many positions a boy or girl may be made to run to
;
ight, to the left, front, back, run fast, slow, etc.
19. Represent a boy jumping over a stone

20. Represent a girl jumping a rope.
21. Represent a boy pushing a cart.
22. Represent a woman sweeping.
CHAPTER VI.
Chalk Modeling.
J unction of Chalk Modeling. — Chalk modeling is not so

much a medium to represent nature as to represent some truth of
nature, some thought about nature. It is to bring out an idea,
emphasize it, and make it plain. We cannot represent all the eye
sees nor all the mind thinks. Perhaps the less number of ideas we
try to represent the better. A single idea clearly pictured is more
than an attempt at many. The "supreme excellence is simplicity”
and simplicity is oneness. It is the chief function of chalk-model-
ing to represent ,
not imitate ,
to translate , not copy ,
to interpret
ideas and express the individual thought about them rather than
become a human camera receiving whatever is before the eye.
Chalk modeling is modeling with chalk on the blackboard
very much as one would model in clay. This method of modeling
is perfectly practical and can take the place ot clay and sand
modeling with but a small fraction of the time. Chalk modeling is
100
rapid work, so rapid that a class can use it and be back in their
seats while getting ready for modeling in either clay or sand.
—
Unity of the Idea. Chalk modeling includes both line and
mass. The mass is used to represent the large parts, such as
the body of a mountain, valley, or hill, and the line to represent
the smaller details, such as the grasses, branches, stones and

pebbles. Mass drawing and line drawing are not antagonistic,
but mutually helpful. Their mechanical process differs somewhat,
but the mental process is the same. An idea may be reproduced
many ways — by many processes — and not change. For example,
the tree, Fig. 8, may be drawn in outline or in mass; it may be
represented with lead pencil, crayon or charcoal; it may be
painted in oil or water colors, cut from paper with scissors,
modeled wood, chiseled from stone, etched in
in clay, carved in
copper, engraved on or drawn on a lithographing stone,
steel
without changing the idea at all. The idea does not change, the
mental process does not change, but the medium or mechanical

process does change. If we know the idea so well that we can
reproduce any one of the above processes we can reproduce it
it in
in all as soon as we have overcome the mechanical difficulty of
working in each. The idea is spiritual and does not change, the
medium is material and does change.
Lines. — It is the chief function of a line to show direction.

The mass represents the surface, the lines the direction of this
surface. Fig. 10 represents an imaginary arrangement of surfaces
to show how thedifferent plains and slopes are represented.
In this observe that the direction of the line indicates the
direction of the surface —
the vertical lines indicate a vertical
surface, the horizontal lines a horizontal surface, the oblique lines
an oblique surface, and curved lines a curved surface.
Both the side and the end of the crayon are used in chalk
modeling —the side to represent the masses and the end to mark
in the details. If the crayon is grasped between the thumb and
may be made varying in width from the full
three fingers, lines
length crayon to those made with the end. Pieces of
of the
crayon about an inch in length are the most serviceable. A soft
lead pencil with a blunt point lends itself to this work very
perfectly.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING 103
Flat Surfaces.- —A flat surface is represented by horizontal

lines. In Fig. 11 the main horizontal lines are the shore lines ;
these character to the surface more than the fine lines that
«five
represent the surface. Those shore lines which are drawn oblique,
such as A and B, are in reality horizontal — they are horizontally
curved lines. Figs. 11—14 represent an island and in the midst of

the island a lake.
Fig. 11 is merely a flat surface. In Fig. 12 this flat surface

has been elevated, forming a low plateau. In Fig. 13 the surface
has been broken up into round-top hills, and in Fig. 14 into
mountains. These four drawings contain nearly all the mechan-
ical elements of chalk modeling.
Observe in all of the drawings (1) that the shore lines
toward you are accented and those away from you unaccented.
(2) That the horizontal distances are long and the vertical
distances short.
Measure the whole length of the island with your pencil and
compare it with the vertical width. Compare the length and
width of the lake in the same manner.
A great rule to follow in chalk modeling as well as in
picture making generally is make the horizontal distances long and
the vertical or receding distances short.
17 H
Mountains. — Fig. 15 represents a single ridge or divide
sloping to the right and left. In Fig. 16 this ridge is broken into
a regular range of mountains. In Fig. 17 the range is more
irregular, the separate peaks not being in a continuous line ;

and in
Fig. 18 the range is still more broken and rougher in appearance.
Figs. 15-18 are intended to be progressive in showing the working
of the same principle.
Figs. 19-22 are practically the same as Figs. 15—18, but

represented with crayon on the blackboard. In Figs. 21 and 22
a valley is represented in each.
Figs. 23 and 24 are excellent examples showing the handling

of the crayon. Observe strength and firmness of
in particular the
compared with those of the right.

the lines of the left slopes as
In chalk modeling one must not try to represent everything,
but to pick out some central truth and then to represent it with all
the directness possible. For example, Fig. 24 represents a canon
in the mountains. Observe in the representation that trees,
bushes, boulders, trails, and everything a canon contains are

omitted, except the canon itself.
Figs. 25-27 are examples of directness in representing the

idea. One is apt to be confused with the multiplicity of details
and the many phases of the idea which nature presents, but if the
abstract question is asked, What canon? What is a moun-
is a
tain? What is a valley? What is and the answer in its
a lake?
simplest form is kept before the mind, it will greatly aid one in
representing the idea with simplicity.
Accuracy and Exaggeration. — Technical accuracy cannot

be expected in the representation of general truths. In chalk
modeling the vertical distances must be more or less exagger-
ated as compared with the horizontal distances. This is especially
true in the representation of large areas, such as a state, water-
shed or river system. For example, the depth of the lake,
Fig. 30, would be imperceptible if made in exact proportion
to its width, and the highlands of California, Fig. 35, would
be more than twenty miles high if drawn in proportion to the

horizontal distances. The aim is to make the idea that is being
represented as plain and truthful as possible, not truthful in
technical accuracy and proportion, but truthful in idea. A
valley is not less a valley because the enclosing hills and
mountains are exaggerated, nor is it necessary to represent all the
curves in a railroad to show that it extends from New York to
Chicago. It is when the likeness of a particular object is wanted
that accuracy of all proportions is necessary.
Map Sketching. — The aim in map sketching is :
(1) To lead the pupil to grasp the map as a whole. To see

it with the mind as we see a circle or square, to see the general
shape or form. To see that North America is triangular. (Figs.
31 and 32.)
AUGSBURG’S drawing. 109
(2) To see the general proportion and relation of the parts to

the whole, as the proportion and relation of Alaska, Hudson Bay,
and the Gulf of Mexico to North America. (Fig. 32.)
(3) To see the great slopes, the flow of waters, the trend of
the coast, and the highlands and lowlands. (Figs. 33 and 34.)
To lead the child to see and grasp the above is perhaps easiest
done through some familiar measure, through some familiar form he
already knows. The most familiar figures for this purpose are the
geometrical forms —
the triangle, square, diamond, rectangle or
oblong, circle, oval, and ellipse. (See Chapters VII. and VIII.,
Book I., for the teaching of these forms.)
There are few forms of land or water that cannot wholly or in
part be seen through these geometrical figures. For example,
North America is in general triangular in shape. (Fig. 31.)
Note. — To draw the general proportion of North America, Fig 31 : (1) Draw
the right angle EA D. AB one quarter of this angle. (2) Draw A B any
is
length, according to the size of the map. (3) The angle B is a right angle and
B C is equal in length to B A. (4) A D is a vertical line and from D curves
uniformly around to C. (5) Add Alaska, Lower California and Central America,
and cut out Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, as in Fig. 32. Have the map
before the pupil when studying it.
Alaska is also triangular. (Fig. 32.) Labrador is a triangle

with one angle at Lake Ontario. The main part of Hudson Bay
is round and the Gulf of Mexico is elliptical.
Note —
Often a single line as a unit of measure is very serviceable in
sketching in the proportion as, for example, in drawing California. Fig. 37 is
drawn as follows: (1) Draw A B the northern boundary and take it for the unit
of measure. (2) B is a right angle and B C is equal to A B. (3) From A through
C draw C D, making C I) twice A B. (4) Draw D E and E F about two-thirds as
long asA B. (5) From A draw a vertical line to a point opposite C (Pt. Arena).
(6) Pt. Concepcion is at the opposite ofD and a little to the left of C. The point F
isunder the middle of C D. San Francisco Bay is opposite the angle C. The
northern part of the state forms nearly a square The state is a little longer than
three tims A B, the unit of measure. Have a large accurate map before the
pupils when studying these facts.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING. Ill
Suggestions in Map Sketching. —

See the whole before the
part. The general shape of the map is more important than the
part.
Don’t represent too much. A single big truth is often more
than many little ones. If we see the dents in the coast we lose
sight of the continent.
The mountains are only wrinkles on the plateau and the hills
but a roughness of the great slopes. The highlands and the great
slopes are more important than the mountains and hills.
If we look for the bends and turns in the river we lose sight
of the stream. The flow of rivers indicating the trend of the land
should be first.
The general trend of the coast is more than the bays and
inlets.
Chalk Talks. —A chalk talk is reproducing on the blackboard

a drawing that has been memorized. The talk may or may not be
accompanied by verbal language.
Chalk talks are valuable :
Because of the clearness and definiteness of the thought

required in preparing them.
Because of the skill, freedom and speed acquired in using the
hands rapidly toward a definite end.
Because the knowledge thus acquired is permanent.
Because they are interesting; so much so, that when success-
fully tried, an entertainment or Friday afternoon exercise will not
be complete without several.
Preparing a Chalk Talk. — The method of preparing a chalk •
talk is to draw the picture representing the idea over and over until
it is- memorized — until it can be reproduced from memory quickly,
easilyand with a fair degree of accuracy. The first drawing in

the memorizing process should be drawn slowly and much thought
given to it, and then in each succeeding one to make the drawing
more rapidly.
A chalk talk should not require more than two minutes in its
delivery and one minute should be the average time.
Groups of from two to five pupils may give their chalk talks
at the same time, providing there is no oral language to go with
them.
Sources of Chalk Talks. — Chalk talks may be drawn from

all sources ;
there is no limit. Ideas of form, size, and relation,
forms of land, water and air, events of history, facts of geology,
the achievements of science, and the triumphs of art, all lend them-
selves as sources from which these pictures may be drawn.
Many of the drawings in this book and Books I. and II. form
excellent chalk talks. Chapter X., Book T., is a complete talk
ready for use.
Excellent "chalk talks” may be made in both brush drawing
and water colors.
Chalk modeling is a source of very effective chalk talks.
The following subjects are sources from which very inter-
esting talks may be gotten. They may be given singly or in
groups.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING. 1 15
Trees — leaves, buds, flowers and fruit from each kind of tree,
shrub and plant.
Fruits — vegetables, nuts and seeds.
Bridges — stone, swing, arch, truss, cantaliver and suspension.
Houses — Colonial, Mission, Gothic, English, French, German
and Italian.
Churches and Temples — Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine,
Saracenic and Gothic.
Sailing Boats —sloop, schooner, brig, brigantine, bark, bark-
entine and ship.
Steamboats — side-wheeler, stern-wheeler, screw-propeller, tug,
steam barge, whale-back, ocean steamer and battle ship.
Fences— stone wall, hedge, board, rail, picket, iron and wire.
DRILL EXERCISES.
The following objects are excellent subjects for chalk modeling :
Springs— cold, hot, well, flowing well, geysers.

Streams — rivulet, brook, canal, creek and
rill, river.
River— still water, rapids, waterfall, cascade, high bank, low
bank, bluffs, rocky shore, marshy
shore, bends, bars, delta, estuary.
Water — bay, strait, inlet, sound,
gulf and waves.
Land — island, peninsula, isth-
mus, point, promontory, plain, valley,
hills, mountains, plateaus.
Shores —
Sandy beach, rocky
shore, swampy shore, sand dunes,
low shore, bold shore.
Islands — flat, rocky, volcanic,
islands formed from bars.
Plains — grassy, wooded, desert,
plateau, level, rolling.
Valleys — canon,
dells, gorge,
pass, gully, gulch, ravine.
Slopes — smooth, rough, steep,
gradual, long, short and broken.
Mountains — volcano, rocky, round top, symmetrical, bold
and low.
Hills — partings, ridges, knolls, bluffs.
Sections — Section of a lake, spring, well, sand bar, river.
Section of burrows, such as the woodchuck, chipmunk, musk rat
and kingfisher. Sections of nests, such as the squirrel, wood-
pecker and swallow.
CHAPTER VII.
Decorative Design.
The aim of this course is twofold (1) To give a short,

:
complete course in the elements of decorative design.

direct, yet
(2) To develop skill, freedom and speed in the use of the hands.
The course is divided into three general parts: (1) Lines,
(2) Forms, (3) Ideas.
LINES.
Lines are divided into three general classes : Straight lines ,
curved lines and angular lines.
Straight Lines are divided into vertical , horizontal and

oblique lines . Fig. 1.
Curved Lines may be vertical, horizontal or oblique, as in

Fig. 2. Fig. 3 represents the double curve , which may also be
vertical, horizontal or oblique.
When the curved lines, represented by Fig. 2, curve outward,
as in Fig. 5, they are called outward curves and when inward, as
,
in Fig. 6, inward curves . The principal use of these lines in

119
120 AUGSBURG'S DRAWING.
designing is to modify the shape offorms.

For example, Fig. 4 is
an equilateral triangle. In Fig. 5 the shape has been modified
by
substituting for the straight lines of Fig. 4
outward curved lines,
and Fig. 6 inward curved lines, and in Fig.
in
7 double curved
lines. In Fig. 8 the inward curved line has been
substituted in
one side and outward curves in the other two
sides. Fig. 9 is the
.
reverse of Fig. 8. In Figs. 10 and 11 the sides are double curves

and the tops single curves they are the reverse of each other.
;
Any form or line may be modified in a similar manner.

The practical application of the use of these lines is seen in
modifying the shape of the cup (Figs. 12—26). Cup 12 is com-
posed of vertical and horizontal lines. The vertical lines alone are
changed The vertical lines of cup 12 are changed to outward
curves in cup 13, inward curves in cup 14, and double curves in
cups 15 and 16. The vertical lines in cup 12 are changed to
oblique outward lines in cup 17 and to oblique inward in cup 22,
and then each one is modified, as in the vertical set.
Curved lines may be further modified by making them

irregular. Fig. 27 is a regular curve , that is, it is a part of a
circle, but Figs. 28 and 29 are irregular. Fig. 30 is a regular
double curve, and Figs. 31—35 are irregular double curves. The
variety is infinite.
This method of modifying forms by changing the line is chiefly
useful in giving the mind a regular pathway along which it may
travel when representing objects, choosing that which is best

suited for the end in view. For example, if a handle is to be
fitted to a pitcher or vase the mind can readily adapt one by this
process, as in Figs. 36—41, which is handle 36 modified by the

outward inward and double curves.
,
Figs. 42-47 are squares, with each side divided into three
parts. One or all the parts of each side may be changed by
changing the parts to outward or inward curves. In Fig. 42 the
middle spaces of the lines are changed to outward curves, and in
Fig. 43 thisis reversed. In Fig. 44 all of the parts are changed
tooutward curves, and in Fig. 45 part to inward and part to out-
ward curves. Fisrs. 46 and 47 are the reverse of each other, and
angles are used in the place of curves.
Suggestions for Work. — Do not use instruments of pre-

cision, such as compasses, rulers, measures, etc. ; they only
prolong the course, lessen the results, and defeat a most important
end — skill of the hand.
Use hand and eye, or more properly speaking,

the unaided
the mind, in of this work.
all Trust the hand, trust the eye, and
they will become swift, accurate and true.
Work for skill and power rather than to produce a pretty
drawing. Accurate drawings, made at the expense of freedom,
are not good.
Do not form the habit of constantly erasing. Do not erase
at all. Erasing implies incomplete thought. The remedy is
complete thought.
Do not be afraid of making mistakes, but let your drawings
be full of “tries.” Show the actual battle — misplaced lines,
faltering curves and all, as shown in Figs. 64-67.
DRILL EXERCISES.
In the following ten exercises substitute in place of the
straight lines of the figures, inward ,
outward and double curves
after the manner of the triangles, Figs. 4-11.
1. Draw with light lines three squares similar to Fig. 4#.
Substitute inward curves in one, outward curves and double curves
in the others.
2. Modify the rectangle, Fig. 49, in four ways.

3. Modify the diamond, Fig. 50, in five ways.
4. Modify the triangle, Fig. 51, in six ways.
5. Modify the kite form, Fig. 52, in eight ways.
6. Modify square 48 by substituting line 31 in place of the
straight lines.
7. Modify square 48 by substituting line 33 in place of the
straight lines.
8. Modify triangle 4 by substituting line 32 in place of the
10. lines.
straight
9. Modify triangle 4 by substituting line 33 in place of the
straight lines.
Modify triangle 4 by substituting line 35 in place of the
straight line^.
11. Modify rectangle 53 by changing parts A and B to

outward curves.
12. Modify rectangle 53 by changing parts A to inward
curves and parts B to outward curves.
13. Modify rectangle 53 according to your wish.
14. Modify triangle 54 by changing parts A to outward
curves.
15. Modify triangle 54 by changing parts A to inward
curves.
16. Modify diamond 55 after the manner of Fig. 47.
17. Modify diamond 55 after the manner of Fig. 42.
18. Modify diamond 55 according to your fancy.
I . i
7=3 J (= L —
(—
Q
I
r—
$ 7
i
1
U 0 S3
r
i
j
Tf
I I II
63
Interlacing Work, sometimes called strap work and some-

times twisted rope consists of lines, bands, or forms, interwoven or
,
plaited together, similar to the plaits in a basket. Figs. 83

and 84.
Figs. 56-67 represent two rectangles or oblongs woven
together. Fig. 56 may be taken as the type, and Figs. 57-63
represent different methods of treatment.
Figs. 58 and 62 are not interwoven.
Figs. 64—67show the method of work, and also how Fig. 56
may be modified by the substitution of inward outward and ,
double curves .
In the following exercises Figs. 56-63 are used as types

for the treatment of the various designs ,
and are referred to by
number.
1. Interweave design 68 after the manner of 56.

ST3 H
25. Substitute triangles in place of the squares in design 72,
and finish after the manner of 60.
Figs. 86—90 are designs for corners. They may he of more
than one line and, interwoven the same as Figs. 56—67.
26. Interweave corner 86 after the manner of 56.
Designs 85, 89 and 93 are based on the square. Designs 91

and 94 are based on the hexagon or double triangle.
33. Interweave design 93 after the manner of 59. Design
93 is the same as 73 doubled.
n
The Scroll. — The double curve (Fig. 95) is considered the

most beautiful of lines, and the combination of the single and
double curves (Fig. 90) is the most beautiful combination of lines.
This union of the single and double curves is, perhaps, the most
common combination to be found in decoration. There is scarcely
a piece of decorative design that does not contain it in some form,
and often the whole piece is made of it.
The elements of the scroll (Fig. 97) are the single and double
curves combined. To draw these lines with ease and freedom
requires a great deal of practice and much persistent effort. These
scrolls are foundational in character and are the basis of so much,
that they ;should be practised until they can be made with freedom
and precision — until they have become largely automatic.
Fig. 97 represents the scroll in its most elementary form.
Fig. 98 is the same as Fig. 97, but with branches curving outward
from the main stem. These branches form combinations of the
single and double curve. Fig. 99 is the same as Fig. 97, ‘but the
branches curve inward toward the main stem. The branching in
Figs. 98 and 99 are opposite in direction.
Figs. 100—107 represent the most common forms of the scroll.
Figs. 108-115 represent some simple branches or crockets and

scroll endings that can be used with the scrolls while learning
them.
They will add variety and interest to the scrolls.
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. Draw scroll 97.
2. Draw scroll 97 extending to the left.
3. Draw scroll 97 running vertically.
4. Draw scroll 98.
6. Draw scroll 98 doubled. The same as scroll 100.
7. Draw scroll 99.
9. Draw scroll 99 doubled.
10. Draw scroll 100.
11. Draw scroll 100 and add crocket and ending 108 to it.
13. Draw scroll 101 and to it add crocket and ending 109.
15. Draw scroll 102 and add crocket and ending 109.
23. Add to scroll 100 branching similar to Fig. 98.
28. Double scroll 108.

;
*Tv\u.wo\<i, 5ci wmc. Pvtctunolc. PenVc*.Qtf>\ Keustune. Otamoncl t>t<xr A rr c

' b b 5'
Z. 3 ( 7
\ /f V
/"'VY'i J
l
\
/
,4
CwcAe EVWy?bfc Ovc*A Ltrxs A«-or*\ tfa.Uooi\ K Utile Ct eseenl
CHAPTER VIII.
Form.
Beauty of Form depends on a pleasing proportion of the

parts of which it is composed, or if the object is composed of only
one part, like a rectangle or keystone, then the beauty is in the

pleasing relation of its dimensions. Beautiful lines alone cannot
make a beautiful form, but beautiful lines combined with a pleas-
ing proportion can. Beautiful forms are not produced by meas-
urements, but by cultivated perception or feeling. This " feeling ”
is the mainspring of expression in both form and color. The culti-
vation is acquired by persistent and intelligent effort.
Use of Form in designing

O C is to suggest
CC a basis on which the
mind may build. For example, in designing a pitcher, the shape
of the bowl would be based on some form — say an oval for the
central form, as in Fig. 11, to which the handle, nose and standard
are to be added.
Figs. 1-17 represent some of the most serviceable geometrical
and conventional forms. These forms are to give or suggest to
the mind something tangible with which to work. They are ser-
vants of the mind, and as such may be used as wholes, or as parts
133
?
can be added to, taken from or used in any way the mind may
devise.
These forms must be well learned before they can be thoroughly
used. The best way to learn forms is to use them.
00
ib n
Modifying Forms. — Forms may be modified (1) by chang-

ing the size. The square or circle may be made larger or smaller.
(2) By changing the width. The keystone, Fig. 19, is of medium
width. It may be made narrow, as in Fig. 18, or wide, as in
Fig. 20. (3) By changing the position. The lens may be
narrow, medium, or wide, as in Figs. 21, 22, 23 ; or it may be
changed in position to the obl’que, or horizontal, as in Figs.
24 and 25.
The heart (Fig. 13 may be drawn any size. It may be
)
drawn narrow medium or broad. It may be drawn with the point

,
down, up, to the right left, or pointing obliquely. In like manner

,
nearly all forms may be changed.
How to Design. —For example we are to design a pitcher.

What is a pitcher for It is to hold a liquid. Then it must
possess :
A bowl to contain the liquid.

A base on which to rest, so the pitcher will not tip over.
A spout to conveniently pour the liquid.
A handle with which to hold the pitcher.
, ,
Then our task is to construct a vessel composed of a bowl

standard, spout and handle, associated together form a pleasing to
whole. The bowl being the largest and most important part will
naturally receive the first attention. We look oyer the list of
forms and decide on, say the keystone (Fig. 5), and to this
form attach a spout and handle, as in Figs. 26 or 27. The
keystone being broad does not need a special base or standard.
The handle and spout may be modified to harmonize with the bowl
by changing the line to inward, outward or double curves. The
bowl of Fig. 28 is lens shaped. The top of the lens has been
removed and added as a base. The bowl of Fig. 29 is based
on the palette in which the nose of the palette is utilized for
the spout of the pitcher. The bowl of Fig. 30 is a crescent to
which a handle has been added, the point bent over for the
spout and a base added. The bowl, being largest and of the
most importance, should in general be drawn first. The handle,
spout and standard should harmonize with the bowl. These
may be changed by changing the lines from straight to outward,

inward or double curves.
Beauty, harmony and adaptability are the three ends that
should be sought in this work. Is it pleasing? Is it adapted to
purpose for which it is designed? are questions that must be

tice
answered in the affirmative.
To Design Any Object.

1. Find out its use.
2. Determine its parts.
3. Determine its size and form.
4. Associate the parts together harmoniously.
5. If desirable, decorate the object.
For example, we wish to design a teapot (Fig. 33). What is
its use? To hold a hot liquid. What parts are necessary? A

bowl to hold the liquid ;
from cooling rapidly a
a cover to keep it ;
standard on which to rest a spout through which to pour the

;
liquid and a handle with which to hold the pot in the hand.
;
What shall be the size and shape of the teapot? We will say the
size is to be 6 x 4 inches and the bowl balloon shaped. Then the
task is to associate all of the above together forming a harmonious
and practical utensil.
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. Draw a broad, medium and narrow triangle.
2. Draw a narrow, medium and broad diamond.
3. Draw an arrow form in three widths.
4. Represent an ellipse in three widths and the longer axis
horizontal.
5. Represent the heart form as narrow and broad.
6. Modify the acorn in three ways.
7. Change the crescent to slender, medium and thick by
changing the size of the inner circle.
8. Design a pitcher with a triangular shaped bowl.
9. Design a pitcher with a diamond shaped bowl.
10. Design a pitcher with an elliptical shaped bowl.
11. Design a pitcher with an oval bowl.
12. Design a pitcher based on the acorn.
13. Design a teapot from the diamond, Fig. 6.
14. Design a teapot from the arrow, Fig. 8.
15. Design a sugar bowl from the pentagon, Fig. 4.
16. Design a vase from the acorn.
17. Design a fruit dish from the arrow. Fig. 31 is based
on a triangle.
18. Design a wine glass from the oval, Fig. 11.
19. Design a goblet based on the ellipse.
20. Design
O a fruit dish based on the crescent.
21. Design a vase with a triangular bowl.
22. Design a vase with a lens shaped bowl.
:
Units. — A unit in decorative design is one of the parts or

forms used in making up a design.
Sources of Units. —
The sources of units are :
Geometrical forms such as the triangle, square, rectangle

,
or
oblong, diamond, pentagon, circle and ellipse.
Plant forms, such as the branch, stem, leaf, bud, flower, fruit
and root of any kind of tree, shrub or plant.
Animate forms such as the head, body, legs, tail or product
,
of any kind of animal, bird, insect, fish or reptile.

Natural forms such as water, snow, ice, icicles,
,
waves,
running water, smoke, clouds, w ind, shells and minerals.
T
Artificial forms ,
such as ribbons, flags, streamers, banners,
ropes, chains — in fact any object made by man.
It will be seen from the above that it is quite impossible
to give even a superficial list of units that may be used.
Modification of the Unit. — Most units may be modified in

the following manner
By changing the width to narrow, medium and broad, as in
Figs. 36, 37 and 38.
By changing the position of the shorter axis, A B, making it
low, medium or high, as in Figs. 39, 40 and 41.

By changing the lines from straight, as in Fig. 42, to outward
curves, as in Fig. 43, to inward curves, as in Fig. 44, or double
curves, as in Fiss. 45 and 46.
By dividing or multiplying the unit, as in Figs. 47, 48,
49 and 50.
By changing the position of the longer axis from vertical to
oblique or horizontal, as in Figs. 23, 24 and 25.
b~r ^ nzj an u Units
JBlazie Trumpet Whorl Loop I Shoulder

SL S3 S4
\ 'SS __
^ ...
Standard Units. — There are certain elements, common to all

decoration, that have had their origin in the universal mind prin-
ciple, and have been handed down to us from the past. They
represent the essence of that which has been proven good in
decorative design. These elements have, as near as possible, been
reduced to their most simple form in the live standard units. Figs.
51—55. These units include about all the elements used in historic
ornament and modern decoration.
These standard units are very similar and have elements that
are common to all. Carry the point A of the blade around farther
and the trumpet is formed, carry it still farther and the whorl is
formed. Eliminate the point entirely and the looj) is formed, and
add to the blade another point and the shoulder is formed.
The names of the standard units are given from a real or
fancied resemblance to the objects after which they are named.
Range of the Standard Units. — The combinations of these

standard units are practically unlimited; their elements enter into
every form of decorative design. These units are of so much
importance and so far reaching in their range that they should be
fully memorized. We must know them as we know the letters of
the alphabet, or as a carpenter knows his tools.
When the top part of the standard units curve outward they
are called outward curved, as in Figs. 56-60 and 76-80.
When the top part of the standard units curve inward they
are called inward curved as
, in Figs. 61-65 and 81-85,
When the standard units are double curved they are called
inward double curved ,
as in Figs. 66-70 and 86—90, or outivard
double curved as in Figs. 71—75 and 91—95, according as the top
,
curves inward or outward.

Fig. 56 would be called an outward curved blade; Fig. 61, an
inward curved blade; Fig. 66, an inward double curved blade; and
Fhg. 71, an outward double curved blade. In like manner all the
standard units are named.
Fdgs. 76-80 represent the outward curved standard units
doubled.
Figs. 81-85 represent the inward curved standard units doubled.
Figs. 86-90 represent the inward double curved standard
units doubled.
Figs. 91-95 represent the outward double curved standard
units doubled.
Wing Units are formed by combining two standards. Fig.

96 formed by combining the blade with itself. Fig*. 97, the
is
blade with the trumpet; Fig. 98, the blade with the whorl; Fig.
99, the blade with the loop, and Fig. 100, the blade with the
shoulder.
Figs. 101-105 are the same as the above except that the main
line is a double curve, thus making a more graceful unit. Figs.
106 and 107 are two very beautiful units ;
the by
first is formed
changing A, Fig. 101, to a double curve, and the second by
line
changing line B of the same unit to a double curve.
Figs. 108-114 are formed by combining two like wing units,
forming a single unit, and Figs. 115-121 are formed by simply
doubling two like units. Each vertical row in the illustration
on page 144 is a modification of the same wing unit.
Fdgs. 122-127 show to what an extent units may be modified.
They are principally modifications of wing units, 101 and
102. These units, Figs. 36-133, are not an end in themselves,

but are to represent regular channels of thought along which the
mind may travel in working out a design or pattern. The greatest
liberty may be taken with the units in adapting them to a decora-

tive purpose ; they may be added to, subtracted from, multiplied,
divided, or modified in any way the mind may devise. They are
simply a means to an end, tools to work with, decorative words to

express decorative thought, figures of design to work out examples •
of ornamentation. They are servants of the mind.

Very often we see units that seem entirely different in form

from those with which we are familiar, such as the standards, and
are apt to think they are entirely new, when they may be the
same elements a little differently arranged. For example, Fig.
128 is the blade, change the inside line to a double curve, and
Figs. 129 and 130 are formed. Fig. 131 is the trumpet, change
the inside line to a double curve, and Figs. 132 and 133 are
the result, thus forming new units based on the old.
Figs. 134, 135, 130 and 137 represent the outward curved,
outward double curved, inward curved and inward double curved
trumpet quadrupled. In like manner the remaining standard units
may be quadrupled.
The Anthemion — Anthemion means to spread out like the

fingers from the palm of the hand or the leaves from a palm tree.
Figs. 138-152 are anthemion units.
Figs. 138—148 represent some very serviceable combinations
for two-handed drawing. In these figures the small x shows the
point of beginning when drawing these figures. The first row
contains one unit on a side, the second row, two, and Fig. 148,
three.
Fig. 149 represents the central feature of the Greek anthe-

mion, one of the most perfect and beautiful of ornamental figures.
Fig. 149 is the outward curved loop; Fig. 150 is the inward
curved loop; Fig. 151, the inward double curved loop, and Fi«\
152, the outward double curved loop. The other standard units
may be used in the same manner, especially the blade, tiumpet,
and shoulder. Unit 130 lends itself very nicely to the forming of
the anthemion.
Scroll Endings. — The standard units may be used as the

terminations of scrolls, and as such are called scroll endings.
Figs. 153-158 represent double line scroll endings, and Figs.
159 and 134 single line scroll endings. Figs. 158 and 164 are wing
units. The first row of endings represent the single curve, and
the second row the double curve.
—
Learning the Standard Units. The standard units should
be learned so thoroughly that they can be drawn from memory
with ease and facility. The drawing of them should, in part,
become automatic.
In the learning of these units the pupil very rapidly develops

freedom, speed and skill in the use of his hands.
The following is a good plan to follow in teaching these units
to the class :
V /W
,/
,//^' //
(/ Kl> !/ /(7
/ /
/ "
fs'
1 19 / / no
Dutwû. Iplw/\h(n Dutwako
JJouble UausLE
1. Teach the pupils to draw a unit, say the trumpet,

Fig. 165.
2. Teach the pupils to represent the unit in three widths —
narrow, medium and broad, Figs. 165, 166 and 167.
3. Teach the pupils to represent the unit in outward curve,
Fig. 168, inward curve, Fig. 169, inward double curve, Fig. 170,
and outward double curve, Fig. 171.
Each one of the standard units may be taught in the same or
a similar way.
Ambidextrous Drawing. — Symmetrical units are best

taught on the blackboard through ambidextrous, or two-handed,
drawing. Forms similar to Figs. 36-50, 76-95, 108-121, 138-
?
148 are drawn with two hands on the blackboard with great
facility. For example, Figs. 76-80 can be drawn by a class in
less than two minutes after the standard units have been learned.
The aim in ambidextrous drawing is as follows :
To co-ordinate the two hands so they will work together freely

and harmoniously.
To develop skill, freedom and speed in both hands working together.
The aim is not to teach the left hand to do the work of the
right, this is practically impossible; but to teach each hand to do
its part —to do that which each can do to the best advantage.
The painter who can use either hand can work with less effort than
if confined to the use of one. The carpenter who can, with either
hand, push the plane, drive a nail, work the gauge and use the
saw, finds his powers greatly enhanced, and the amount of work
that can be done with the same amount of energy much increased.
Two-handed drawing is not a system of drawing, but an exer-
cise for a specific purpose, and limited in scope to large, free
movements of a symmetrical character. In the class-room its use-
fulness is confined mostly to drawing on the blackboard, though in
reality there is no limit to its scope. All symmetrical objects are
readily drawn with both hands.
Can the ambidextrous use of the hands be taught to pupils ?
Yes, with comparative ease.
Where ? In the drawing class at the blackboard.
ITow? By following an orderly course, such as is given below.
Hoiv much time will it take Less than five minutes per day.
Do pupils like this work ? Very much indeed, and as they
gain skill, confidence, and facility, their pleasure grows with each
acquisition of power.
How is an ambidextrous class conducted ? (1) The class is
divided into as many divisions as can be accommodated at the
blackboard, allowing about thirty inches in width for each pupil.
(2) Each pupil is provided with two pieces of crayon and an

eraser.
(3) The work for each week is placed at the top of the black-
board where it can be plainly seen by all. A director is appointed
for each division. He gives three commands : look ,
draw ,
erase.
At command " Look,” all the
the pupils look at the first figure. At
the command "Draw ” all draw
?
the first figure. At the command
:
"Erase,” all pupils erase their work ready for the next figure. In
this way five figures can be easily drawn in five minutes after the
foundational units are learned.
Chalk Dust. — Chalk dust in the room is caused (1) by

quick erasing, (2) by the upward stroke of the eraser. The
remedy is to erase slowly downward. There is no excuse for
chalk dust in the room if the teacher cares to stop it.
Perfecting Exercises are for the purpose of raising the

standard of excellence, correcting mannerisms and perfecting the
unit or design in the mind of the pupil. For example, all may be
able to draw the trumpet but very imperfectly. Then a perfecting
,
exercise would have for its object the perfecting of this unit
learning how to draw it more perfectly, making it more beautiful,
and raising the ideal.
The manner of conducting a perfecting lesson is by compari-
son. The leader places on the blackboard the unit, or element, to
be perfected, say the trumpet, as perfectly as he can. The pupils
make a similar one, copying it again and again, receiving such
help and suggestions as can be given.
The x in the two-handed figures, such as 76-90, 108-121,
138-148, show where to begin in the drawing of the exercise.
All symmetrical objects are adapted to two-handed drawing.
Drawings similar to Figs. 172-178 are good. In the double
figures, 177 and 178, the one on the left is drawn with the left
hand, and the one on the right with the right hand. It is well to
use one of these symmetrical figures each week in with the follow-
ing Twenty Weeks’ Course, whenever time will allow; but it is
not well to pass the five-minute limit.
See Two-Handed Drawing, Book I., for further illustrations
and details of the work.
TWENTY WEEKS’ COURSE IN AMBIDEXTROUS

DRAWING.
The following is an orderly and progressive course in two-
handed drawing arranged in groups of what can be done by an
ordinary class in five minutes. Each group is for one week’s
work five minutes per day. By this plan each group is drawn five
times per week.

First Week.
Learn the standard units, Figs. 51, 52, 53, 54 and 55. Use
one hand in learning the units, and learn them thoroughly.
Second Week.
Figs. 76, 77, 78, 79 and 80.
Third Week.
Figs. 138, 139, 140, 141 and 142.
Fourth Week.
Figs. 143, 144, 145, 146 and 147.
Fifth Week.
Fig. 148 and the other standard units used in the same
manner.
Sixth Week.
Figs. 81, 82, 83, 84 and 85.
Seventh Week.
Figs. 86, 87, 88, 89 and 90.
Eighth Week.
Figs. 91, 92, 93, 94 and 95.
Ninth Week.
Learn the wing units, Figs. 96-100 and 101-107. Use one
hand in learning these units.
Tenth Week.
Figs. 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113 and 114.
.
Eleventh Week.
Figs. 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120 and 121.
Twelfth Week.
Figs. 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41.
Thirteenth Week.
Use Fig. 112 in the twelfthweek combinations.
Fourteenth Week.
Use Fig. 109 in the twelfth week combinations.
Fifteenth Week.
Figs. 42, 43, 44, 45 and 46.
Sixteenth Week.
Figs. 134, 135, 136 and 137.
Seventeenth Week.
Double Figs. 122-127 after the manner of Fig. 108.
Eighteenth Week.
Double Figs. 122-127 after the manner of Fig. 115.
Nineteenth Week.
Double Figs. 129, 130, 132 and 133 after the manner of
Fig. 148.
Twentieth W eek.
Figs. 100, 101, 102, 103, 106 and 107, Chap. VI.
Application of the Standard Units. — Decoration is usually

applied in three general forms, as centers as bands as flat patterns
, ,
Centers are units arranged around a common point, or center.

In shape they are usually geometrical, taking the form of a tri-
angle, square rectangle, diamond, pentagon, circle, or ellipse.

Figs. 185-191. Centers form centerpieces for rugs, ceilings, tiles,
rosettes, panels, doilies, etc.

Bands 'And Borders. Repeat units side by side, running in'
one direction, and a band or border is formed. Fiirs. 198-203.

Bands and borders are used to surround centers and flat patterns
to inclose space. In Fig. 208 a black border surrounds the center.
Flat Pattern is a term applied to a surface covered by an

arrangement of units. Figs. 204-206. Flat pattern is used to
cover the body of wall paper, carpets, curtains, rugs, dress
patterns, etc.
Free Patterns are irregular in design, that is not repeated

according to a geometrical plan or rule. A design representing the
wind scattering autumn leaves would necessarily be a free pattern.
In Figs. 185-212 the same unit is used, the shoulder so as to ,
show more plainly the application.

Figs. 185-191 represent the most common forms of centers.
In Fig. 185 the center is in shape triangular, in 186 square, and in
188 diamond, in 189 hexagonal, in 190 a rectangular panel in
which only half is represented, and in 191 octagonal. It is,
perhaps, easier to think of the hexagon as a double triangle, and

the octagon as a double square.
Figs. 192-197 show some of the most simple arrangements of

a unit around a center. The center is a square, and the unit used
is the shoulder.
Figs. 198-203 represent simple bands or borders. Each one
shows a different arrangement of the shoulder.
Figs. 204, 205 and 206 are examples of flat pattern. In Fig.
204, the unit is repeated regularly over the entire surface. In Figs.
205 and 206 the unit is doubled and repeated more irregularly.
Figs. 207-212 are six centers alike in form and the arrange-
ments of the units, but differing in the manner of finishing. The
unit used is the shoulder. In Fig. 207 the units and border are
white, but in Fig. 208 they are black, and in Fig. 209 they are
gray. In Figs. 210, 211 and 212 a combination of white, black
and gray are used. These six centers are useful in showing or
suggesting similar arrangements in other designs.
Thus far only one unit has been used in the designs — the
shoulder. But in like manner all of the standard units may be
used, as well as units derived from all other sources.
Fig. 213 is maple leaf, and in Figs. 214-

a conventionalized
217 this leaf as a unit is arranged form of centers based on
in the
the triangle and square. Fig, 216 is based on the square, merely
being inclosed by a circle. Fig. 217 is best studied as being based
on a double triangle rather than a hexagon.
Method of Work. — Use only the unaided hand in all of this

work. Do not use a ruler or compass at all. The training that
comes from the use of the unaided hand is in every way superior
to that derivedfrom instruments, and in the end the quality of the
work is higher and better. The use of instruments should follow,
not precede, the use of the hand.
Give much attention to the laying out of the work and the use
of construction lines. Use the blackboard constantly. It is the
best place for drill work.
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. Design a triangular center, using the blade as a unit.
2. Design a triangular center, using the trumpet as a unit.
3. Design a triangular center, using the whorl as a unit.
4. Design a triangular center, using the loop as a unit.

5. Design a triangular center, using the shoulder as a unit.
6. Design a triangular center, using a wing unit.
7. Design a square center, using the blade as a unit.
8. Design a square center, using the trumpet as a unit.
9. Design a square center, using the whorl as a unit.
10. Design a square center, using the loop as a unit.
11. Design a square center, using the shoulder as a unit.
12. Design a square center, using Fig. 129 as a unit.
13. Design a square center, using a wing unit.
14. Design a pentagonal center, using the trumpet as a unit.
15. Design a pentagonal center, using a shoulder as a unit.
16. Design a hexagonal center, using a whorl as a unit.
Note. — Figs. 207-212 may be used as models in finishing the designs. Any
design may be inclosed by a circle similar to Fig. 216.
17. Design a diamond-shaped center, using a blade as a unit.

18. Design a diamond-shaped center, using a trumpet as a unit.
19. Design a diamond-shaped center, using the whorl as a unit.
20. Design a diamond-shaped center, using a loop as a unit.
Note. — Designs 218-224 may be drawn narrow, medium, or broad.
21. Place a design in 218, using the blade as a unit.

22. Place a design in 219, using the shoulder as a unit.
23 Place a design in 220, using the whorl as a unit.
24. Place a design in 221, using the loop as a unit.
25. Place a design in 223, using the shoulder as a unit,

26. Place a design in 224, using a wing unit as a unit.
27. Design a border, using a blade as a unit.
28. Design a border, using a trumpet as a unit.
29. Design a border, using a whorl as a unit.
30. Design a border, using a loop as a unit.
31. Design a border, using a shoulder as a unit.
CHAPTER IX.
Foliation in design is to decorate with leaves. It is a

general term applied to a wide range of decoration, a good
example of which is seen in the Corinthian capital.
The principle of foliation is found in the combinations of the
single and double curves, as shown in Fig. 1, and the various
forms are found in the eight leaf forms, Figs. 2—9.
161
1G2 AUGSBURG’S DRAWING.
The letter above and to the right of each drawing indicates

the principle that has been used. For example, 1,2,A in Figs.
10, 18and 27 indicates that the outward curve has been used in
each. In Fig. 2, and those marked A, the outward curve is the
predominating line. In Fig. 3, and those marked B, the inward
curve is the predominating line. In Fig. 4, and those marked C,
the inward double curve is the predominating line.
The square-lobed figure, and those marked D, are based on
the shoulder.
Figs. 6, 7 and 9, and those marked E F H, are round-lobed
and have for their basis the loop.
Fig. 8, and those marked G, have for their basis the wing units.
Pigs. 10-17 are the same as Figs. 2-9, except that they
represent the half leaf. The half leaf is better adapted to the
scroll; in Figs. 18-25 it is shown fitted to various scrolls.
Figs. 26-34 represent rosettes. These rosettes follow the

general plan outlined in Figs. 2-9. They may be used as endings,
as in Fig. 22, or as the base of leaf forms, as in Figs. 39,
57, 59 and 60.
Figs. 35 to 52 represent examples of foliation taken from
various sources. All of them represent the same elements as are
found in the standard units.
These bits of leaf work can be used in connection with various
kinds of scroll work, and for suggestions in the application of
units.
Figs. 53-60 represent various forms of leaf decoration illus-

trating some of the most simple forms and combinations Figs.
:
61-67 show the application of these principles to various

animal forms.
AUGSBURG’S 1)RAWING. 165
DRILL EXERCISES,
OUTWARD CURVE.
1 . Draw Fig. 2.
2. Draw Fig. 10.
3. Draw Fig. 10,
4. Draw Fig. 18.
5. Draw Fig. 26.
6. Draw Fig. 27.
7. Draw Fig. 40.
INWARD CURVE.
8 . Draw Fig. 3.
9. Draw Fig. 11.
9
10. Draw Fig. 19.
11. Draw Fig. 28.
DOUBLE CURVE.
12. Draw Fig. 4.
13. Draw Fig. 12.
14. Draw Fig. 20.
15. Draw Fig. 29.
16. Draw Fig. 38

17. Combine Fig. 29 with Fig. 40.
18. Draw Fig. 5. Fig. 13. Fig. 25. Fig. 33.
21. Draw Fig. 8. Fig. 16. Fig. 24. Fig 32.
Fig. 40.
23. Combine 34 and 37.
24. Combine 29 and 35.
25. Place 35 in the form of 74.

28. Add 42 to 76.
29. Add 43 to 76.
30. Add 44 and 49 to 79.
31. Add 45 to 76.

32. Add 46 to 78.
33. Add 47 to 80.
34. Add 48 to 74.
35. Add 50 to 81.
36. Add 51 to 80.
37. Add 52 to 76.
38. Add a simple leaf form, similar to Fig. 58. To 68.

To 69. To 70. To 71. To 72.
39. Draw Fig. 57. Fig. 59. Fig. 60.
Fig. 66. Fig. 67.
41. Combine Figs. 61, 77 and 43.
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING. 16 !)
THE IDEA.
In decorative design the object decorated is the idea ; as, for
example, a door knob, a key, or a rug. The idea is and should

be primary, and the decoration secondary. The decoration is to
beautify the idea, and as such is subordinate to it. The idea may
exist without the decoration, but the decoration has no legitimate
existence without the idea.
Aim of Decoration. — The end and aim of decoration is to
please ,
to make the idea more beautiful, more pleasing. If the
decorative design does not please, it is a failure — the end has not
been obtained.
There are many, many laws governing decorative design, laws
of magnitude, laws of relation, laws of form, laws of position, laws
of direction, all aiming to express harmony, rhythm, unity, full-
ness and richness in form. But all of these laws may be summed
up in the question: " Does your design please you?” The
arranging of the decorative elements is based on your taste and
judgment; and this taste and judgment is developed through your
understanding of the elements of design and skill in arranging
them in a pleasing manner.
Decorating the Idea. — The steps necessary in the decora-
tion have in part been given before. They are :
(1) Know the idea to be decorated.
(2) Know the units or elements with which the idea is to be

decorated.
(3) Associate the decorative elements together in such a
manner as to make the idea more pleasing and beautiful.
Forms of Decoration may in general be divided into :
Centers, borders, bands, flat patterns, endings, supports,

trophies, emblems, symbols, the study of which is based on ele-
ments already given.
The lists of objects suitable for decoration include everything

from a pin head to a tower, from a common finger ring to the
frieze of a temple. All objects may be decorated : vessels, uten-
sils, furniture, toilet articles, jewelry — anything that has form or
occupies space ;
but it rests with you how and in what manner the
work shall be done.
CHAPTER X.
Constructive Drawing.
Constructive drawing is the language of making — the language

of modern industry. Every manufactured thing, and all the
mechanism of manufacture of this teeming industrial age, has first
to be expressed on paper in the language of form. All the
millions of busy hands in the industrial world are directed by the
drawing, and without it the revolving wheels of industry would
cease. There is not a steamer crosses the ocean, not a vessel
sails the seas, not a bridge spans a river, not a railroad crosses the
continent, not a temple points toward heaven, without the aid
of this industrial art called drawing. This style of drawing is
called constructive or mechanical drawing and the drawings them-
,
selves are called working drawings.

A working drawing then is a drawing to show workmen how
to construct an object. It aims to give the size structure and
,
material of the object, but not its ordinary appearance.
Four Methods of Constructive Drawing. — There are four

ways of representing a constructive drawing. They are :
1. By Isometric drawing.
2. By Cabinet drawing.
3. By Orthographic projection.
4. By a Sectional drawing.
Fig. 1 represents a perspective or picture drawing of a
common brick, which is 8" long, 4" wide, and 2" thick.
171
Fig. 2 represents an isometric drawing of this brick. This

drawing differs from the perspective drawing in the lines of the
faces not converging, hut being perfectly parallel. All of the lines
of isometric drawing slant 30° from the horizontal, and the meas-
urements are exactly as they measure on the drawing in the
direction of the 30° lines.
Fig. 3 represents a cabinet drawing of the brick. This kind of
drawing varies from isometric drawing in that the receding lines may
be any angle and the front and back faces are in vertical planes. The
,
measurements are likewise exactly as they measure on the drawing.

Fig. 4 represents an orthographic projection of the brick in
which the top view the side view and the end view of the brick are
,
shown separately. Each face is represented as it actually appears

looking straight at it when the face is directly in front of the eye.
The side view is often called the front view.

Figs. 5 and 6 represent sectional drawings of the brick. Fig.
5 is the longitudinal or lengthwise section, and Fig. 6 is the trans-
verse or cross section.
Sectional drawings show the construction of objects on the

inside as they appear when cut in two parts.
Materials. —
The minimum of materials necessary for con-
structive drawing are :
A pair of compasses with pencil attachment.

A T square with a 0" to 12'' blade.
A 45° and a 30°-60° triangle.
A hard pencil, H or No. 3.
A common foot rule.
A pad of paper 6"x 9" or 9"x 12". The pad should be made
with a stiff back and with perfectly straight edges and square
corners so that it can be used in place of a drawing board.
If ink is used, then to the above should be added a bottle of
drawing ink, a ruling pen and a pen attachment for the compasses.
A piece of old linen or cotton cloth is serviceable to keep the
instruments clean.
7\ :p~rr
L1__ LlU 1 _
1
-3 L \
z \i
SL
\
\
~P~T
Lj
_
~TT~
A J_._ V VV A Y Z
Lettering. —A simple form of letters and figures is indis-
pensable in constructive drawing, and is also very serviceable in

the general work of the school-room.
Both teacher and pupil should acquire some neat and service-
able form of lettering.
Below are given two forms of letters, which are perhaps as
simple as lettering can be made.
Fig. T represents the straight line letters , so called because
each letter is made with straight lines.
a— —
All the letters may be made of the same width except I M

and W. I is merely a straight line, and M and W are double the
width of the other letters.
In lettering, the guide lines may be made with the T square
or straight edge, but all lettering and spacing should, from the very
beginning be done with the unaided hand and eye
,
. By depending
on the free hand the work may not be as neat at first, but in the
end it will not only be neater, but far more rapid, and a very
desirable power of judgment will be acquired that will have a wide
range of use in other lines of work.
The chief beauty of printing lies in keeping the main or verti-
cal lines parallel and the spacing of the letters equal. So impor-
tant is this that these steps should be done separately. The four
A
HI. A i'i
T\ r •1 T~
!-. .1- V AT! IN

• i h AV
dll- i
mi 1- M !-,!-
*
1 1
‘
A I h
9
1
1
1
—/yrT
All P l_ A“1N
Y_L j Li — r Li t~i
-
T TV 7T —n
T1 ETLTETV ATI ON
—nrp —— -
LLt A.
‘
T7nTiT" TT T7TT 1=nT- TTTT -T.J5E
.711 A 1 1 //, Scale- r- z. >/
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING. ns
steps are :
The line spacing, Fig. 8. (2) The letter spacing,
(1)
Fig. 9. (3) The drawing of the main Lines of the letters, Fig.
10. (4) Finishing the letters, Fig. 11.
When the printing is symmetrical, as in Figs. 8—11, then a
median line , as A drawn, and half of the letters and
B, Fig. 8, is
spaces placed on each side of it. This is done by counting the

letters in each line, and working from the middle letter right and
left from the median line. For example, in Fig. 11, the line
school-house contains eleven letters, and counting the space between
the words as one letter, there are twelve letters in all, which will
make six letters on each side of the median line.
UWUWWU '
12
AUV'VfWWW
AHVAVWSBlS "\^ Ksnsz:
/3
D
14
Z7 EDD IS
DDIBflB 16
Steps 2 and 3 may be combined after a little practice, and the

spacing and the main lines made at the same time, as in Fig. 12,
and then finished, as in Fig. 13.
The straight line letters may be made the basis of all styles of
capital letters. They may slant to the left , to the right, or remain
vertical , as in Fig. 14.
They may vary in width, be narrow , medium or wide, as in
Fig. 15.
They may be round ,
angular ,
blocked or decorated ,
as in
Fig. 16.
] 76 AUGSBURG’S DRAWING.
J JILL < m n o J c s
t
u
»/ w x uJ 7 \? S
/y
4 1) 6 7 ft 9 0
Fig. 17 represents a simple form of small letters which is very
serviceable where considerable printing is to be done. Printing
with small letters is more rapid than with the capitals. This
alphabet, as well as the figures, where they are curved in part, is
based on the letter O.
T
w
-
o a j c c D c c e s V
_ ... / J
18 19 IQ
n m n r jLLU 0U36tid9
2/ ZZ 23 24
In Figs. 18-23 the letters that are similar in construction are
grouped together.
Letters p and q are formed by the addition of a
a, b, d, g,
vertical line tangent to the letter o, and c, e and s are merely

modifications of o. Letters i, j, k, 1, f and t are straight lines with
slight additions to distinguish them apart, w is a double v. h,m,
n, and r are alike in construction u and y are also similar, x and z
;
are in a class by themselves, being unlike any other letter, but

easy to understand.
Drill Exercises in Printing. — In printing, words should be

given prominence in proportion their importance as shown in
to ,
Fig. 11. Unimportant words should occupy a subordinated place-

both in size and position.
Print the following readings in straight line letters :
1. Post-office.
2. Reading-room.
3. Principal’s office. Hours from 8 to 10 a. m.
4. Map of the State of Oregon.
5. Chamber of Commerce, Denver, Colorado.
6. Second floor plan, Markham School, Oakland, Cal.
7. Section drawing of a Globe valve. Exact size.
Print the following readings in small letters , using the same

size letters for all words.
8. Giving is receiving.
9. To do is more than to know.
10. We alone can limit ourselves.
11. Substitute a love thought in place of a hate thought.
12. Skill is the expression of power.
13. Nothing can be truly great that is not right.
14. The more cheerfulness we spend, the more remains.
15. You cannot do or act above your thought.
16. Neatness, accuracy and speed are the big words in Con-
structive Drawing.
^TYws s\^n *
cAotm a wu\\ca\e,s and IVws
s\c^v\ mcWs. "
2. 6 wou\d vecvA 2.êA and
6 mcWb.
^\^0Yfcsen\s v\s\\oW \\nes.
myn>\VW \ww*.
T\^vesen\s cen\^v
«
^roiwimjTkcL
~T3 rcAwm^
*30°Tnomojie,
-T 3a uare
‘<V
CHAPTER XI.
Isometric and Cabinet Drawing.
The advantage of Isometric and Cabinet drawing is that they

combine much of the intelligibleness of the picture, and the exact-
ness of the projection. They also possess the advantage of being
more readily understood by those unacquainted with drawings of
plans arid elevations.
Isometric Drawing. —
In isometric drawing the T square
and the 30° triangle are used together, as in Fig. 1. All right
angles are made with 30° lines, or 30° lines and vertical lines.
(The vertical lines are in reality 30° lines that slant directly away.)
The lines are made 30° from the horizontal edge of the T square.
All measurements in isometric drawing are made on the 30° or
vertical lines.All other measurements are not true.
For the purpose of learning isometric drawing, have several
models made like Fig. 2. Give these models to the pupils and let
them make isometric drawings of them until they understand the
process. Let them do as many of the following exercises as is
necessary to gain this understanding.
178
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. Make an isometric drawing, exact size of the model, in
the position
10. of Fig. 3 (see Fig. 2).
2. Draw the model in the position of Fig. 4.

Draw the model in the position of Fig, 12,
1*0 AUGSBURG’S DRAWING.

Joints. — After the pupils have learned the process of iso-

metric drawing, take up some other form of work as an application
of the process. The various kinds of joints are excellent for this
purpose, and may be made by any carpenter or cabinet maker.
Have a set of joints made out of stock l"x 1 and about 6"
long. If preferred, a variety of sizes may be made.
Figs. 15-21 representsome of the most common joints, and
also different ways of representing them in isometric drawing.
Each joint may be represented in a variety of ways. For ex-
ample, Fig. 16 could be represented in the same manner as.
Figs. 17, 18 and 19, as well as several other ways.
.
All the joints are made with 30° and vertical lines, except
Fig. 20, the brace joint. The brace is at an angle of 45° from the
main stick. In isometric drawing, measurements can be made on
30° and vertical lines only. The lines of the brace are found by
drawing a diagonal through the square A B. A 45° line may also
be represented by the 60° triangle.
The joints are to be placed in the hands of the pupils to be
drawn exact size in any position that to them seems best to
represent the joint
Figs. 22-20 represent the various ways in which joints may

be drawn. Each joint may be drawn in most of the above
positions.
Drill Exercises. — Draw the joints, exact size, in the following

positions. Use the real joint for a model.
1. Draw the open mortise and tenon joint.
2. Draw the open mortise and tenon joint in the position of
Fig. 23.
3. Draw the open mortise and tenon joint in the position of
Fig. 26.
Arrange the joint before you in the position it is to be drawn.
4. Draw the halved T joint.
5. Draw the halved T joint in the position of Fig. 23.
6. Draw the halved T joint in the position of Fig. 27.

7. Draw the halved joint.
8. Draw the halved joint in the position of Fig. 24.
14. Draw the mortise and tenon joint.
15. Draw the mortise and tenon joint in the position of Fig. 25.
16. Draw the brace joint.
17. Draw the scarf joint.
Gi
—
The Triangular Prism. In isometric drawing, measure-
ments can be made only on 30° and vertical lines. On all
other lines the measurements will not be true. For example, in
Fig. 30 lines F A and F D are in reality equal, but in the figure
they do not measure the same.
The triangular prism is drawn Draw the

as follows: (1)
the base ABCD, Fig. 30. (2) Bisect A D as at E. (3) From
E draw a vertical line as high as the apex F is to be. (4) Draw
the lines E H, H G, and F G, also the lines F D and F A, G C
and G B.
are drawn in the same manner.

Figs. 35-38 are triangular prisms similar to one half of Fig.
30, and are drawn in the same manner.
In each of the above triangular prisms, the part marked X is
to be removed from the prisms and all lines , both seen and unseen,
are to be represented .
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. Draw Fig. 31, and remove the part marked X. Show
ill lines, both seen and unseen, in the finished drawing.
2. Draw Fig. 32, and remove the part marked X.
5. Draw Fig. 35, and remove X.
CABINET DRAWING.
Cabinet and isometric drawing are very similar ;
their chief
points of difference are :
(1) In cabinet drawing all measurements in the vertical planes

are true as well as those along the main receding lines, while in
isometric drawing only those measurements on vertical and 30° lines
are true. For example, the oblique lines of Fig. 39 are true 45°
lines, and all the lines in Fig. 42 are lines of true measurement.
(2) Circular and curved lines can be represented in true

measurement on the vertical planes of cabinet drawing, while in
'
sometric drawing it is impossible. See Figs. 51-55.

(3) The receding lines of cabinet drawing may be extended

in any direction or angle, while isometric drawing is confined
to 30°.
In Fig. 41 the receding lines are 30°, but in Fig. 42 they are
45°. In Fig. 43 the receding lines are vertical, in Figs. 45 and
49 they are horizontal, in Figs. 4b and 48 they are 45°, and

30° in Figs. 44 and 50.
Isometric drawings can easily be made in cabinet drawing.
Fig. 39 represents the brace joint. Fig. 40 the halved T joint. Fig.
41 a cross lap joint, and Fig. 42 a triangular prism ;
all of which
were represented in isometric drawing.
Figs. 43—50 represent cylinders drawn in cabinet drawing to
show the wide range of angle that may be used in this kind of
work.
True measurements may be made on the vertical faces and in
the direction of the receding lines of any of these figures.
188 AUGSBURG’S drawing.
—
A Drill Model. Use for a drill model a cylinder with a
round hole through it, similar to Fig. 51. These models may be
made by sawing the ends from spools, but a better plan is to have
made on a lathe as many models as necessary. Have a number of
the models cut in two parts, similar to Fig. 52.
The is drawn as follows:
cylinder, Fig. 51, (1) Draw the
center line AB
any angle you wish 45° is the usual angle. All
;
measurements are made on or from this line. (2) Measure on the

center line the length of the cylinder, as C D. (3) With C and
D as centers, and radii equal to C F and C G, draw circles at both
ends of the cylinder. (4) Draw the connecting lines tangent to
the circles.
DRILL EXERCISES.
In the following exercises represent all lines, both seen and
unseen, and draw the cylinder represented by Fig. 51, exact size.
1. Draw the cylinder in the position of Fig. 46.

Fig. 52 one half of Fig. 51, and Fig. 53
is is the same with a
round core added.
9. Draw Fig. 52.
10. Draw Fig. 52 in the position of Fig. 48.
12. Draw Fig. 53.
A common spool is an excellent model for cabinet drawing.

Make all measurements on the center line A B, and the drawing
will be found less complicated than it appears. Procure a common
spool and draw it exact size, as follows :
15. Draw the spool in the position of Fig. 54.

The Arch. — Fig. 55 is a very serviceable model for cabinet

drawing. Make the models according to the dimensions given in
figure on opposite page, and let the pupils draw them exact size.
19. Draw the arch in the position of Fig. 55.

20. Draw the arch, at an angle of 60°, in the position of
Fig. 48.
21. Draw the arch in the position of Fig. 47.
22. Draw Fig. 55 inverted.
23. Draw Fig. 55 inverted, and in the position of Fig. 48.
Draw the following joints in cabinet drawing.

24. The open mortise and tenon joint.
25. The halved T joint.
26. The halved joint.
27. The mortise and tenon joint.
28. The brace joint.
29. The cross lap joint.
Figs. 56 and 57 are Figs. 32 and 36 drawn in cabinet draw-
ing, and the part marked X removed. In like manner draw the
following triangular prisms in cabinet drawing, and remove the
part marked X.
30. Draw Fig. 31 in cabinet drawing, and remove X.

Orthographic Projection.
A Projection shows one face only of the object represented,
therefore there should be asmany projections shown in the draw-
ing as there are different faces on the object.
Fig. 1 represents the side or front view ,
or projection ,
of a
common spool. The two dotted lines running through it repre-
sent the round opening in the spool. The dot and dash line is
the center line from which measurements are made.
Fig. 2 is the end view , or projection ,
of the spool. The
dotted circle represents the barrel of the spool, and the round ring
the circular opening marked by the dotted line in Fig. 1.
Figs. 3 and 4 represent sectional drawings of the spool.
Fig. 3 is a lengthwise section, representing the spool cut
through on the line A B, Fig. 2.
193
Fig. 4 is a cross section ,

representing the spool cut through on
the line CD. The parts actually cut are shaded to distinguish
them from parts that are not cut.
Sectional drawings are to represent the inside of objects. In
botany, sections of seeds, buds and flowers are thus shown. In
geography, sectional drawings are used to represent the inside of a
hill, spring, river, or valley, and such drawings give the idea far
more clearly than it is possible with words.
TopVufw
front- Trortt Side

View Vi*w View
7 9
Fig. 5 represents a top view and a side view of a square
prism ;
a side view is unnecessary because it is exactly like the
front view.
Fig. 6 represents the top, front and side views of a rectangu-
lar prism . Three views are necessary because there are three
different faces.
Fig. 7 represents the top and front view of a cylinder.
Fig. 8 represents the top, front and side views of a half
cylinder.
Fig. 9 represents the top, front and side views of a triangular
prism.
Each view in the above drawings is a projection. There
should be as many views, or projections, as there are different
form to be shown.
faces or different facts of
Often the projection and sections are combined together in
the same drawing, as in the rolling pin, Fig. 10.
AUGS3UKGS DRAWING. 195
Fig. 10 represents the side view of a rolling pin . Three

fourths of the rolling pin is represented in projection, and one
fourth in half section, cut lengthwise. A is a cross section of the
barrel of the rolling pin, and B is a cross section of the handle.
Observe in each separate piece of the sections that the shade lines
are drawn in different directions. This is to show the parts more
distinctly, so they can be recognized easily and quickly.
Often the inside of an object is represented on the projection

by means of dotted lines, as in Figs. 11 and 12. The crosses
mark the centers for the curved lines. A B is the center line,
from and on which measurements are made.
Drawing to a Scale. — not practical or possible to draw

It is
all objects the exact size. Drawings are usually made smaller
than the object they represent but they should always have the
same proportion as the object. Maps are many times smaller than
the country they represent, yet
if the scale of the drawing is
known, it is easy to tell how far
it is from place to place. If the
map is drawn so that each inch on
its rurface represents fifty miles
of the country, then we know
that if two places are an inch
apart that the distance between
them is in reality fifty miles.
The most common scales used
in constructive drawing are 1,
J, J, and jg the size of the object.
These scales are written, exact

size, 6" = 1
',
3"=1\ l\" =z T,
and »" = 1'.
Pupils should at first be re-

quired to draw their work exact
size.
The tumbler, Fig. 13, is

drawn to a scale of one half the
size of the real tumbler. That
is, for every inch on the real
tumbler only one half of an inch
is represented in the drawing.
The real tumbler is 3" in

diameter, and 4" high, but the
drawing is only 1J" in diameter,
and 2 " high. The scale is .marked 1

2—", and reads 1 on the
drawing is equal to 2 on the real tumbler.
3" R means that the curved dotted line that marks the bottom
of the tumbler has a radius of 3 inches.
Q -
-|f)n)
-
& T'cA.eWuOî. \\cX_\A.ck\<d ft

\
U
u.. 17 M b
! "H * S<t<.Wl.
o\ an <lt
;
Ikv |
boftVfc.
I
t
_
^ t^-_Z
/c>
"PxwcV^xs . J C)
ezz?zzzzzmzM2fflmm0
Vnw^t &Vm>\ai\v\u^ \V\{c b\ovn\c\
£
The real measurements are put in the drawing, not the meas-
urements of the drawing itself.
Fig. 14 represents two views of a clothes hook. The drawing

is one half the size of the real hook.
Fig. 15 represents, exact size, three views of a key, and Fig.
16 represents three views of a riveting hammer, drawn one half
size.
Mechanical Sketching. — The ability to sketch an idea in

projection or section, without the aid of instruments, is perhaps
one of the most desirable attainments for the mechanic or trades-
man. To represent an idea easily, quickly, and with some degree
of accuracy, is more to be desired than the slower and more
laborious drawing made with instruments. Facility is sometimes
more than accuracy.
;
The aim in this work is to give the idea by means of the

drawing, and show the accuracy by the figures indicating the
measurements. For example, Fig. 22 is a sketch of a brad-awl
handle. The sketch gives the idea of the different parts — their
relation, position, and, in a rough manner, their proportion, and
the figures give the size. Finished drawingsmay be made from
these sketches. It is usual among draughtsmen to make a prelim-
inary off-hand sketch containing data for the finished drawing.
Such a sketch is full of suggestions, facts, and points to aid the
memory.
Sections. — There
no kind of drawing that tells so many
is
facts about an drawing, and there is no

object as a sectional
kind of drawing that so satisfies the curiosity to see the inside and
know how things are made.
By sectional drawings we can show how a spring is formed
show the bed of a lake or river, the formation of a valley, how the
bud grows, and the seed is formed. We can show where the
squirrel lives, where the turtles and frogs stay in winter, as well
as to tell all about the inside of a house, a valve, or a steam
engine.
A lengthwise or longitudinal section is a section cut in the
direction of the longer axis. Figs. 19, 22, 26, 28 and 29 are
examples.
A cross or transverse section is a section cut at right angles to
the lengthwise section. A section cut through A B, Fig. 23,
would be a cross section. Figs. 24, 25 and 27 are examples of
cross sections.
and horizontal section are terms often used in
Vertical section
place of lengthwise and cross sections. Fig. 25 is a horizontal
section of a poppy capsule, and Fig. 26 is a vertical section.'
Figs. 30 and 31 are vertical sections of nests.
Figs. 30 and 31 represent a vertical section of a woodpecker’s

nest and a chipmunk’s burrow. The source of such drawings
must, to a certain extent, be conceptive in character, but the
conception should never be based on the imagination alone, but on
description ,
a museum model or original research. The drawing of
the woodpecker’s nest is based on original research, the chip-
munk’s burrow on description, and Fig. 29 on knowledge gained
by observation.
Constructive drawing is not necessarily confined to building
and making. It may also include natural objects, such as buds,
flowers, fruits, animals, birds, reptiles and insects. Fig. 32
represents the side, top, bottom, front and back views of a fish.
Fig. 33 is the side front and top views of a bug.
:
A map is a plan of a part of the earth’s surface. It varies in
size from a great continent to a child’s playground or flower bed.

Fig. 34 is the plan of the author’s home in Oakland, Cal., and
represents a plot of ground 50 x 150 feet.
I nr si 3 ack ov I'Voii.i' Ro rscd

J 5 VentYod Fms
£ Second 3 <*ck oiHinderUovsj
) 6 A w ixV
Tuvl or CcxvaxIcAV Tkv\. J GvVW Covers
Orecist orPectoml ^'uxb S
TERMS USED IN CONSTRUCTIVE DRAWING.

Pupils are to find these terms in the dictionary and draw
figures to illustrate the meaning of each
Angles, right angle, acute angle, obtuse angle.
Altitude, base, apex, vertex, longer axis, shorter axis.
Bisect, trisect, quadrisect.
Curves, reverse or double curve, spiral curve, regular curve,

irregular curve.
Lines, vertical line, horizontal line, oblique line, curved line,
straight line, angular line.
Inscribe, circumscribe, longitudinal, transverse, perimeter,
perpendicular.
Concentric, eccentric.
Circle, circumference, diameter, radius, semicircle, arc, chord,
segment, sector, tangent, degree, quadrant.
Trefoil, quartrefoil, cinquefoil.
Core, frustum, truncated.
Circle, semicircle, sphere, hemisphere, ellipse, ellipsoid, oval,
jvoid.
Polygons ,
equilateral, equiangular, triangular, square, rect-
angular, pentagonal, hexagonal, octagonal.
Prism, plinth.
Objects suitable to use in constructive drawing from which
projection and sectional drawings can be made:
teapot drawer-pull
cup and saucer lock-bolt
funnel clamp
oil can bracket
frying pan pulley
sad-iron caster
pail faucet
lamp valve
candle wrench
vase hammer
tumbler hatchet
clothes-pin axe
nail brad-awl
table tack
chair rope
chest chain
stand hosepipe
cupboard croquet lawn
bird-house base-ball diamond
dog-house tennis court
tent school-yard
shed house-yard
dumb-bell rolling-pin
skate umbrella
trunk pencil
desk rubber
wash-tub shoe
wash-bench slipper
book hat
jar cap
jug gate
cart knife
wheelbarrow spoon
top fork
ball-club melon
scoop cherry
sprinkler plum
mallet orange
saw strawberry
hyacinth bulb walnut
lily bulb acorn
crocus bulb butternut
onion hickory nut
pumpkin filbert
squash almond
ear of corn pecan
AUGSBURG’S DRAWING 205
pea-pod grasshopper
apple butterfly
pear moth
peach beetle
trout dragon fly
sun fish spider

perch bird’s tail
catfish bird’s foot
bass bird’s bill
cocoa nut bird’s wing
DRILL EXERCISES.
1. Represent the top and side views of a cylinder. Of a
square prism.
2. Represent the top and two side views oi a rectangular
prism. Of a triangular prism.
3. Represent the side, end, and top views of block 2 in
Chap. X.
4. Represent two views of an open mortise and tenon joint.
Of a halved T joint. Of a halved joint. Of a brace joint.
5. Represent the side, top and end views of block ,55 in
Chap. XXII.
6. Represent three views of a key, exact size.
7. Represent three views of a hammer. Hatchet. Axe.

8. Represent two views of your lead pencil. Pen and pen-
holder.
9. Represent two views of a funnel.
10. Represent three views of a caster. Drawer-pull.
11. Represent two views of a knife. Clothes-hook.
Represent the folioicing objects by means of an off-hand sketch ,
similar to Figs. 17-22:
12. Represent two views of a frying pan.

13. Represent three views of a sad-iron.
14. Represent three views of a tack.
15. Represent three views of a table, or bench.
16. Represent two views of a dumb-bell.
17. Represent two views of a bicycle wrench.
18. Represent two views of a chair. Mark the measure-
ments on it as in Fig. 22.
19. Represent two views of your hat or cap.
20. Represent two views of a moth, butterfly or grasshopper.
21. Represent five views of a fish.
AUGSliURGS DRAWING 207
22. Repre>sent the sid e and top views of a beetle.

23. Draw the plan of a croquet lawn. Base-ball
24. Draw the plan of your front or back-yard.
25. Draw the plan of the school-yard.
26. Draw the plan of the coal- shed.
27. Draw the plan of the room you sleep in.
28. Draw the plan of the school-room.
Represent the following objects bg means of a sectional drawing :

29. Make a sectional drawing of a walnut, hickory, or
butternut.
30 Make a sectional drawing of a filbert, almond, or pecan.
31. Make a vertical section of an apple. A cross section.
32. Make a sectional drawing of an onion or carrot.
33. Make a sectional drawing of an ear of corn.
34. Make a sectional drawing of a pumpkin or squash.
35. Make a sectional drawing of a melon or cucumber.
Weuge \VY ReQGE

O Ho**.
n J
u
y v
V\uusv
V
Skov.cle,TrefcS
tE5' H\£H 33QARD TtUCE

RfDC E
34
Augsburg’s Drawing
iscontained in three books Book I., Book II. and Book III.
;
These books contain about 2,000 drawings, illustrating every phase

of the work.
BOOK I. is a Teacher’s Hand Book, showing simple and
effective methods of teaching drawing in the first, second and
third grades, which correspond to pupils six, seven and eight
years old.
BOOK II. is Free Hand Drawing for
a regular course in
pupils of the fourth, and seventh grades. This course
fifth, sixth
lays a broad and firm foundation on which any branch of drawing
may be laid.
BOOK III. contains short yet complete courses in Brush

Drawing, Wash Drawing, Water Colors, Pen Drawing, Chalk
Modeling, Drawing the Human Face and Figure, Designing and
Mechanical Drawing.
With these books there is a system of copy books for pupils
containing an abundance of blank paper for practice purposes,
and on each fifth leaf an outline for the week. Each copy book
isarranged to cover seventeen weeks or one-half a year. These
copy books are uniformly graded for each year.
BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY
97 01156 5006
DATE DUE
~wafts i
ie
Gleb i 9 2( )9
FEB 1 2 200
—
DEMCO 38-297

Augsburg Drawing 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Augsburg Drawing 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Augsburg Drawing 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4

From J-M. Jensen

Call No. TA7

\ Text Book on Designing and Constructive Drawing for

the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Grades of

Grammar Schools, and for use in High Schools,

ID. 1R* Buosburcj

EDUCATION AL PUBLISHING COMPANY

designed for use in graded and ungraded schools. Each subject is

Chalk Modeling .....

7 lie Standard Course.

The Standard Course is both general and fundamental in

maker, milliner, housekeeper, teacher; to prepare both for all

of life’s duties in which skill of hand and mind are factors.

The Pictorial Course is the same as the standard course,

The Designing Course contains a course in designing in the

The Constructive Drawing Course contains a course in

The Ungraded Course is a course in drawing for ungraded

The High School Course is entirely in Book III. The

Lead Pencils . —A soft lead pencil, capable of the widest

Water Colors . — The mechanical use of water colors should

grades above the third as a common medium in all work in which

Ink is used in pen and brush drawing, and may be used in

place of the pencil in other lines of work.

Crayon is the most common medium used by the teacher in

Ambidextrous or Two-Handed Drawing may be used in

also in Book III. under the head of Designing by Form .

Action Drawing. It is well to take up the study of a bird

Object Drawing is given a prominent place in every grade

The courses in detail are as follows :

THE STANDARD COURSE.

CONSTRUCTIVE DRAWING COURSE.

THE UNGRADED COURSE.

Divide the school into two divisions as follows :

Division 1 . First, second and third year pupils.

single leaf, the second division a spray of leaves.

The following subjects should be taught separately, alter-

Chapter 5. Place and relation of objects.

Division 2. Book II.

Chapter 1. The perspective principle.

Encourage individual work among the larger pupils. This

work can be done the same as in arithmetic.

and following the order given.

HIGH SCHOOL COURSE.

Brush Drawing is a term applied to drawing with the brush

(1) In the dark shadows on a light surface, such as those

(2) In the appearance of an object between the observer

(4) In the appearance of objects on dark days and at night-

The Value of Brush Drawing is to lead

pupils to see and represent the little details be-

Materials for Brush Drawing.— Common ink, a small

Objects Suitable for Brush Drawing must be strong and

object, on account of its characteristic outline, but an orange is

Nearlyall kinds of buds, as they appear in the spring, are good

Leaves of all sorts furnish a great variety of interesting forms,

Vegetables and fruits are always at hand, and many of them

grapes, lemons, bananas, currants and gooseberries. Avoid mak-

Articles of china and earthern ware have fine outlines and

Objects floating on the water are excellent, such as boats,

Beetles, bugs, butterflies, and insects mounted on white cards