Unit 3

Long answers ( 5 marks each)

1. Explain the Distance vector routing algorithm.

The Distance vector algorithm is iterative, asynchronous and distributed.

• Distributed: It is distributed in that each node receives information from one or more
of its directly attached neighbors, performs calculation and then distributes the result
back to its neighbors.
• Iterative: It is iterative in that its process continues until no more information is
available to be exchanged between neighbors.
• Asynchronous: It does not require that all of its nodes operate in the lock step with
each other.
• The Distance vector algorithm is a dynamic algorithm.
• It is mainly used in ARPANET, and RIP.
• Each router maintains a distance table known as Vector.

Three Keys to understand the working of Distance Vector Routing Algorithm:

• Knowledge about the whole network: Each router shares its knowledge through the
entire network. The Router sends its collected knowledge about the network to its
neighbours.
• Routing only to neighbours: The router sends its knowledge about the network to
only those routers which have direct links. The router sends whatever it has about the
network through the ports. The information is received by the router and uses the
information to update its own routing table.
• Information sharing at regular intervals: Within 30 seconds, the router sends the
information to the neighbouring routers.

Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

Let dx(y) be the cost of the least-cost path from node x to node y. The least costs are related
by Bellman-Ford equation,

dx(y) = minv{c(x,v) + dv(y)}

Where the minv is the equation taken for all x neighbours. After traveling from x to v, if we
consider the least-cost path from v to y, the path cost will be c(x,v)+dv(y). The least cost from
x to y is the minimum of c(x,v)+dv(y) taken over all neighbours.
2. Explain the Link state routing algorithm.

Link state routing is a technique in which each router shares the knowledge of its
neighbourhood with every other router in the internetwork.

The three keys to understand the Link State Routing algorithm:

Knowledge about the neighbourhood: Instead of sending its routing table, a router sends the
information about its neighbourhood only. A router broadcast its identities and cost of the
directly attached links to other routers.

Flooding: Each router sends the information to every other router on the internetwork except
its neighbours. This process is known as Flooding. Every router that receives the packet sends
the copies to all its neighbours. Finally, each and every router receives a copy of the same
information.

Information sharing: A router sends the information to every other router only when the
change occurs in the information.

Link State Routing has two phases:

Reliable Flooding

o Initial state: Each node knows the cost of its neighbors.

o Final state: Each node knows the entire graph.

Route Calculation

Each node uses Dijkstra's algorithm on the graph to calculate the optimal routes to all nodes.

o The Link state routing algorithm is also known as Dijkstra's algorithm which is used to
find the shortest path from one node to every other node in the network.
o The Dijkstra's algorithm is an iterative, and it has the property that after k th iteration
of the algorithm, the least cost paths are well known for k destination nodes.

3. Explain the path-vector routing algorithm.

A path-vector routing protocol is a network routing protocol which maintains the path
information that gets updated dynamically. Updates that have looped through the network
 and returned to the same node are easily detected and discarded. This algorithm is
sometimes used in Bellman–Ford routing algorithms to avoid "Count to Infinity" problems.
It is different from the distance vector routing and link state routing. Each entry in the
routing table contains the destination network, the next router and the path to reach the
destination.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an example of a path vector protocol. In BGP,
the autonomous system boundary routers (ASBR) send path-vector messages to advertise
the reachability of networks. Each router that receives a path vector message must verify
the advertised path according to its policy. If the message complies with its policy, the
router modifies its routing table and the message before sending the message to the next
neighbour. It modifies the routing table to maintain the autonomous systems that are
traversed in order to reach the destination system. It modifies the message to add its AS
number and to replace the next router entry with its identification.

4. Difference between IPv4 and IPv6.

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

It supports Auto and renumbering address

It Supports Manual and DHCP address configuration
configuration

In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity is

In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is Achievable
Unachievable

The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can produce

It can generate 4.29×109 address space
3.4×1038 address space

The Security feature is dependent on the application IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6 protocol

Address representation of IPv4 is in decimal Address Representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal

Fragmentation performed by Sender and forwarding

In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the sender
routers
 IPv4 IPv6

In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available and uses

In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not available
the flow label field in the header

In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available

In IPv6 multicast and anycast message transmission

It has a broadcast Message Transmission Scheme
scheme is available

5. Write brief notes on the Icmpv6 protocol.

Internet Control Message Protocol version 6 (ICMPv6) is the implementation of
the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) for Internet Protocol version
6 (IPv6).[1] ICMPv6 is an integral part of IPv6 and performs error reporting and diagnostic
functions.
ICMPv6 has a framework for extensions to implement new features. Several extensions
have been published, defining new ICMPv6 message types as well as new options for
existing ICMPv6 message types.
Secure Neighbour Discovery (SEND) is an extension of NDP with extra security. Multicast
Listener Discovery (MLD) is used by IPv6 routers for discovering multicast listeners on a
directly attached link, much like Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used
in IPv4. Multicast Router Discovery (MRD) allows the discovery of multicast routers.
ICMPv6 messages may be classified as error messages and information messages. ICMPv6
messages are transported by IPv6 packets in which the IPv6 Next Header value for ICMPv6 is
set to the value 58.
When an ICMPv6 node receives a packet, it must undertake actions that depend on the type
of message. The ICMPv6 protocol must limit the number of error messages sent to the same
destination to avoid network overloading.

6. Explain the functions of the transport layer.

The primary functions of the Transport Layer are:
• To enable efficient network transmission, the Transport Layer splits the total
amount of data it gets from the applications running at the top layers into smaller
units known as segments. The Transport Layer puts these bits back together into
the original data stream at the other end.
• In situations when organised data transfer is required, the Transport Layer creates
a connection between the source and the destination. In order to create the
 proper parameters and guarantee that both systems are prepared to communicate
data, a handshake protocol is established. When the data transfer is complete, the
Transport Layer closes the connection.
• The transport layer also assures dependable data transmission. Receiving
acknowledgments, or ACK bits, is how this is accomplished. While waiting for the
recipient to acknowledge the parts it sent, the sender keeps an eye on them. Any
damaged segments are retransmitted by the sender if they receive an
acknowledgment.
• Flow regulation is one of the Transport Layer’s most crucial roles. In order to
prevent data overload, it regulates the data transfer rate. This is done by utilising
protocols like the sliding window protocol, which is carried out by the receiver
telling the sender of the maximum amount of data it may receive by sending back a
window.
• Both error detection and repair are handled by the transport layer. Checksums are
one of these techniques for error detection. By computing and validating
checksums, it can ascertain whether data was tampered with during transmission.
The Transport Layer may request retransmission if it finds anything.

7. Explain UDP (user datagram protocol ) in detail.

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the
Internet Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite.
• Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no need to
establish a connection before data transfer.
• The UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections over the
network. The UDP enables process-to-process communication.
• Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant transport layer protocol
used with most of the Internet services; provides assured delivery, reliability, and
much more but all these services cost us additional overhead and latency.
• Here, UDP comes into the picture. For real-time services like computer gaming, voice
or video communication, and live conferences; we need UDP. Since high
performance is needed, UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of processing
delayed packets.

•
Applications of UDP
• Used for simple request-response communication when the size of data is less and
hence there is lesser concern about flow and error control.
• It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.
• UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP(Routing Information
Protocol).
• Normally used for real-time applications which can not tolerate uneven delays
between sections of a received message.
Advantages of UDP
• Speed and Efficiency
• Simplicity
• Broadcast support
• Smaller packet size
Disadvantages of UDP
• No reliability
• No flow control
• Vulnerable to attacks
• Limited use cases

8. Explain (TCP) Transmission control protocol.

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the Internet
protocol suite.
• It lies between the Application and Network Layers which are used in providing
reliable delivery services.
• Transmission Control Protocol is a connection-oriented protocol for communications
that helps in the exchange of messages between different devices over a network.
• The Internet Protocol (IP), which establishes the technique for sending data
packets between computers, works with TCP.
• The position of TCP is at the transport layer of the OSI model. TCP also helps in
ensuring that information is transmitted accurately by establishing a virtual
connection between the sender and receiver.

•
Features of TCP/IP
• Segment Numbering System: TCP keeps track of the segments being
transmitted or received by assigning numbers to each and every single one of
them.
• Connection Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected to each
other till the completion of the process.
• Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice
– versa at the same time.
• Flow Control: Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data.
• Error Control: TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data
transfer.
• Congestion Control: TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the
network.
Advantages of TCP
• It is a reliable protocol.
• It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as one for recovery.
• It gives flow control.
• It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the exact order
that it was sent.
• Open Protocol, not owned by any organization or individual.
Disadvantages of TCP
• TCP is made for Wide Area Networks, thus its size can become an issue for
small networks with low resources.
• TCP runs several layers so it can slow down the speed of the network.
• It is not generic in nature. Meaning, it cannot represent any protocol stack
other than the TCP/IP suite.
• No modifications since their development around 30 years ago.

9. Write a short note on SCTP.

• SCTP stands for Stream Control Transmission Protocol.

• It is a connection- oriented protocol in computer networks which provides a full-
duplex association i.e., transmitting multiple streams of data between two end
points at the same time that have established a connection in network.
• SCTP makes it easier to support telephonic conversation on Internet.
• A telephonic conversation requires transmitting of voice along with other data at
the same time on both ends, SCTP protocol makes it easier to establish reliable
connection.
• SCTP is also intended to make it easier to establish connection over wireless
network and managing transmission of multimedia data.
Characteristics of SCTP :
1. Unicast with Multiple properties – It is a point-to-point protocol which can use
different paths to reach end host.
2. Reliable Transmission – It uses SACK and checksums to detect damaged,
corrupted, discarded, duplicate and reordered data.
3. Message oriented – Each message can be framed and we can keep order of
data stream and tabs on structure.
4. Multi-homing – It can establish multiple connection paths between two end
points and does not need to rely on IP layer for resilience.
5. Security – Resource allocation for association establishment only takes place
following cookie exchange identification verification for the client (INIT ACK).
Advantages of SCTP :
1. It is a full- duplex connection i.e. users can send and receive data
simultaneously.
2. It allows half- closed connections.
3. The message’s boundaries are maintained and application doesn’t have to split
messages.
4. It has properties of both TCP and UDP protocol.
5. It doesn’t rely on IP layer for resilience of paths.
Disadvantages of SCTP :
1. One of key challenges is that it requires changes in transport stack on node.
2. Applications need to be modified to use SCTP instead of TCP/UDP.
3. Applications need to be modified to handle multiple simultaneous streams.

10. Explain the World Wide Web (WWW) in detail.

• WWW stands for World Wide Web and is commonly known as the Web. The WWW
was started by CERN in 1989.
• WWW is defined as the collection of different websites around the world,
containing different information shared via local servers(or computers).
• Web pages are linked together using hyperlinks which are HTML-formatted and, also
referred to as hypertext, these are the fundamental units of the Internet and are
accessed through Hyper Text Transfer Protocol(HTTP).
• Such digital connections, or links, allow users to easily access desired information by
connecting relevant pieces of information.
• The benefit of hypertext is it allows you to pick a word or phrase from the text and
click on other sites that have more information about it.
Features of WWW
• WWW is open source.
• It is a distributed system spread across various websites.
• It is a Hypertext Information System.
• It is Cross-Platform.
• Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services.
• Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
Components of the Web:
• Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a system for resources on the web.
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and
server.
• Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines the structure, organisation and
content of a web page.

11. Explain HTTP and FTP client-server protocol in detail.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) :
It stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is an internet standard that allows the process of file
downloading and uploading on different computers from the internet. FTP site consists of
different types of files(text, graphics, videos, images, etc). It was developed when security
was not a big issue. It is older and is being replaced with new protocols. FTP supports two
separate Transmission Control Protocols the first one is a control connection or command
port (port 21 ) to authenticate the user and the second one is a data connection or data
port(port 20) to transfer the files. It requires a specific username and password for access.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) :
It stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the backbone of WWW. It is an internet
standard that allows the process of transfer of web pages over the internet. It also defines
how the web browser will respond to any web request. The web address of all the web
pages contains a protocol, domain name, and path to the web page. Most of the web
address contains http:// in their URL to show the HTTP protocol. HTTP works similar to the
combined functions of FTP and SMTP. It also uses Transmission Control Protocol.

12. Explain Electronic mail and Telnet client-server protocol in detail.

Email:
• Email stands for Electronic Mail. It is a method to send messages from one
computer to another computer through the Internet.
• It is mostly used in business, education, technical communication, and document
interactions.
• It allows communicating with people all over the world without bothering them.
• It is the information sent electronically between two or more people over a
network. It involves a sender and receiver/s.
• An email is a communication that happens in real time and can get important data
across to people in various geographies.
 • An email is a record of the communications that have happened and is stored on
the server of the organization. One has to be very cautious while typing out a mail.
Types of Email
• Newsletters - It is a type of email sent by an individual or company to the
subscriber.
• Onboarding emails – It is an email a user receives right after the subscription.
• Transactional - These types of emails might contain invoices for recent transactions
and details about transactions.
• Plain-Text Emails - These types of emails contain just simple text similar to other
text message services.

TELNET:
• TELNET stands for Teletype Network. It is a type of protocol that enables one
computer to connect to the local computer.
• The computer which starts the connection is known as the local computer.
• The computer which is being connected to i.e. which accepts the connection known
as the remote computer.
• During telnet operation, whatever is being performed on the remote computer will
be displayed by the local computer.
• Telnet operates on a client/server principle. The local computer uses a telnet client
program and the remote computers use a telnet server program.
Modes of Operation:
1. Default Mode: If no other modes are invoked then this mode is used. Echoing is
performed in this mode by the client.
2. Character Mode: Each character typed in this mode is sent by the client to the server.
3. Line Mode: Line editing like echoing, character erasing, etc. is done from the client side.

13. Explain IPV6 Addressing with an example.

• IPv6 was developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the
problem of IPv4 exhaustion.
• IPv6 is a 128-bits address having an address space of 2, which is way bigger than
IPv4.
• IPv6 use Hexa-Decimal format separated by colon (:) .
Addressing methods
1. Unicast Address
Unicast Address identifies a single network interface. A packet sent to a unicast address is
delivered to the interface identified by that address.
2. Multicast Address
Multicast Address is used by multiple hosts, called as groups, acquires a multicast
destination address. These hosts need not be geographically together.
3. Anycast Address
Anycast Address is assigned to a group of interfaces. Any packet sent to an anycast
address will be delivered to only one member interface (mostly nearest host possible).
EXAMPLE:
2345:0425:2CA1:0000:0000:0567:5673:23b5
As you can see above, our IPv6 address has 8 groups and each group is seperated by colons.
In each group, there are 4 digits. Each of these digits can be created with 4 bits. Total there
are 128 bits address.
IPv6 addresses are very login addresses, so sometimes we need to shorten these addresses.
To do this we use specific abbreviations in IPv6 World. In other words, there are
some abbreviations that are used with IPv6 address. These abbreviations are mentioned
below with related IPv6 examples

14. Explain DNS in detail.

• DNS (Domain Name System) allows you to interact with devices on the Internet
without having to remember long strings of numbers.
• Each computer on the Internet has its own unique address, known as an IP address,
just like every home has a unique address for sending direct mail.
• 104.26.10.228 is an IP address consisting of four sets of numbers extending from 0
to 255 separated by a period.
• It’s not easy having to remember this complicated collection of numbers every time
you want to access a website, which is where DNS comes in
handy. geeksforgeeks.org can be remembered instead of 104.26.10.228.
 • When you request a domain name, your computer first checks its local cache to
see if you have recently visited the address. If you haven’t, your computer will
send a request to your recursive DNS server.
• Your ISP will typically provide you with a recursive DNS server, but you can also
use your own.
• A local cache of recently discovered domain names is also kept on this server. If
a local result is discovered, it is returned to your computer, and your request is
completed.
• If the request cannot be met locally, a journey begins with the Internet’s root
DNS server to locate the appropriate response.

15. Explain Data flow characteristics in detail.

The flow of data of a system or a process is represented by DFD. It also gives insight into
the inputs and outputs of each entity and the process itself. DFD does not have control
flow and no loops or decision rules are present.
Characteristics of DFD
• DFDs are commonly used during problem analysis.
• DFDs are quite general and are not limited to problem analysis for software
requirements specification.
• DFDs are very useful in understanding a system and can be effectively used
during analysis.
• It views a system as a function that transforms the inputs into desired outputs.
• The DFD aims to capture the transformations that take place within a system to
the input data so that eventually the output data is produced.
• The processes are shown by named circles and data flows are represented by
named arrows entering or leaving the bubbles.
• A rectangle represents a source or sink and it is a net originator or consumer of
data. A source sink is typically outside the main system of study.