Information Technology

Introduction to Information Technology and Computers, History of Computing, Computer HW and SW Details, Computer
System Components and Communication System, Input & Output devices and their types, Storage Media and their types,
Types of Computer Hardware, Software, and Programming languages, Information Representation & Number Systems,
User interfaces, Major Software Issues, Creation, formatting, and maintenance of Computer documents, Usage of Word
processors, Spread sheets, Power-Point, Email, Search Engines, Browsers, Messengers, and Internet , Computers &
Society, Information Security/Privacy, Computer Crimes and Ethical Challenges, Viruses, Plagiarism, Intellectual Property
Rights, Difference between computer science, software engineering, information technology, information systems, computer
engineering and bioinformatics; IEEE / ACM computing disciplines guidelines
Input and output devices
What does input and output mean?
Short for input/output (pronounced “eye-oh”). The term I/O is used to describe any program, operation or device that transfers data to or from a
computer and to or from a peripheral device. Every transfer is an output from one device and an input into another.
Is CPU an input device?
The CPU is the central processing unit of the computer. It is the mastermind or the brain of the device. It contains the RAM, ROM, hard drive and
a number of interlinked connections on the motherboard that processes all the information. Hence, the CPU acts as the input, output, and
storage of the computer.
What is output in computer?
Anything that comes out of a computer. Output can be meaningful information or gibberish, and it can appear in a variety of forms — as binary
numbers, as characters, as pictures, and as printed pages. Output devices include display screens, loudspeakers, and printers.
Is a computer screen an input or output device?
The computer sits between the input and output devices. A computer program processes and digitises the input information. The result is then
sent to an output device such as a screen.
Can a computer run without a CPU?
It’s not a good idea to boot without your CPU, but some motherboards will give you an error message saying “no cpu installed”. But, nothing
good can come from booting without your cpu. The CPU is needed to run the computer, but not needed for power to flow
Is CPU a storage device?
Computer data storage devices are also classified by their distance from the processor, or CPU. The closest storage is memory, or RAM. This is
the only kind of data storage that directly accesses the CPU.
Is CPU internal or external?
A motherboard provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate. The mother board includes many
components such as: central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), firmware, and internal and external buses.
Computing Sequence
In computing, data input comes before data output. When we play an audio clip stored in disk, all the processes we carry out, including double-
clicking the file, are inputs. We instruct the computer by using input devices to open a folder, locate the file, load the media player and play the
audio clip. The computer takes in these instructions, executes them and gives us an output in the form of sound from the speakers. The same
sequence is carried out in all computing processes, whether you edit a word document or browse the Internet.

Input devices
Input devices are peripherals used to provide data and control signals to a computer.
Input devices allow us to enter raw data for processing
Why is an input device necessary for a computer?
Input devices are important because they allow you to communicate with a computer and add new information.
For instance, if a computer does not have an input device, it will operate by itself, but its settings, bug fixes, or other user
experiences can’t be modified.

You wouldn’t be able to do so without an input device if you wanted to add new data to a computer (e.g command, document,
picture, etc.).

What does an input device send to a computer?

What an input device sends (inputs) to a computer depends on the device. Additionally, all input devices
send data from the device over a cable or wireless transmission to the computer. For example, as you move a
computer mouse, the data sent to the computer is the X-Y axis movements used to display the mouse cursor on the
screen. You can see a live example of this on our x-axis definition.

Why does a computer need an input device?

Today, input devices are important because they are what allows you to interact with and add new information to a
computer. For example, if a computer had no input devices, it could run by itself but there would be no way to
change its settings, fix errors, or other various user interactions. Also, if you wanted to add new information to the
computer (e.g., text, command, document, picture, etc.), you wouldn't be able to do so without an input device.

How does input make an output?

The computer sits between the input and output devices. A computer program processes and digitizes the input information. The
result is then sent to an output device such as a screen.
Think of a DVD player
When we click 'play' on our remote control, an input device. It digitizes the input and sends this digital information to the DVD player.The
computer inside the DVD player processes this input information and works out what to do. It will start to read the DVD. The video and audio
information from the DVD is then sent to the TV screen and the speakers, the output devices.
Think of a games console
When we are playing a game we are using a controller where we push a button or push the control stick to move a character.These inputs are
digitized and sent to the computer to be processed. The program processes the inputs and gives an output.In this case the character on screen
moves as it has been programmed to.

Types of input devices

 Joystick
A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free
movement of the stick. The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.The first joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated joysticks, hand operated,
isometric joystick, and more. In joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor
moves only when the mouse moves.

 Mouse
A mouse is an input device that allows you to control the coordinates and movement of the onscreen cursor/pointer by simply moving
the mouse across a flat surface with your hand.

Items can be selected or moved using the left mouse button, whilst(jb k) the right button usually displays additional menus. Most mice are now
optical which means they use a laser to detect and track movement across the surface.
Mice can be wired or wireless.
Types of the mouse
i) Trackball Mouse:
It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on the screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can
be easily rolled with finger, thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor to detect the rotation of ball. It remains
stationary; We don't need to move it on the operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if we have limited desk space as we don't need to move it
like a mouse.
ii) Mechanical Mouse:
It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high
performance.
Drawback
 The drawback is that they tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.
iii) Optical Mouse:
An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than a mechanical mouse and also requires less
maintenance. However, its performance is affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be used for best
results. The rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system, and the glossy surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus
may cause tracking issues.
iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:
As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to
control the movement of the cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply.

Typical applications for a mouse

 Used in everyday computing to control the pointer in GUIs.
Benefits of a mouse
 Simple and easy to use
 Efficient way to navigate
Drawbacks of a mouse
 Requires a flat surface
 Requires space to operate

 Trackball
A trackball is an input device used to control a pointer/cursor. Unlike a mouse, the device stays stationary whilst the user moves
the ball within its socket

Trackballs can be stand-alone devices or combined into a keyboard or control panel.

Some people prefer using a trackball over a mouse as they believe it gives them a finer degree of control over the pointer. They are also handy
for people with limited hand motor skills as they are less demanding then a mouse
Typical applications for trackballs
 Computer Aided Design (CAD) for fine control
 Situations when space is limited
 Disabled people with limited motor skills
Benefits of trackballs
 Needs little desk space
 Fine control over the pointer
 Can be integrated into a keyboard
Drawbacks of trackballs
 May take some getting used to
  Keyboard
Keyboards are input devices that allow the entry of data and commands by simply pressing down keys on the keyboard.

Keyboards are a common place input device, often used alongside a mouse. They can be wired or wireless. It has different sets of keys for
letters, numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless
communication.

What are the keyboard rows?

The horizontal rows of character keys have specific names. For example, when placing your hands on the keyboard, they should be positioned
over the home row keys. The keys below the home row are called the bottom row keys, and above the home row keys are the top row keys.
How are Apple keyboards different than Windows keyboards?
The keyboards used with Apple desktop computers have a nearly identical layout to those used with Windows computers. However, they have a
few different keys on both sides of the keyboard's characters section near the bottom: Command and Option.

Why is the keyboard an input device?

A computer keyboard is considered an input device because it only sends data to a computer and does not receive any information from it. As
we type on the keyboard, we are inputting information into the computer.
Does a computer need a keyboard?
Many users are surprised to learn that a keyboard is considered a peripheral and that a computer can function without one. In fact, if you have
a USB keyboard, you can disconnect it now, and you see that the computer continues to work without it. Many servers, like the Computer
Hope web server, run almost their entire life without a keyboard and are administered by a remotely-connected user.
What are multimedia keys?
Multimedia keys are those keys that allow the user to control music on their computer keyboard. These keys add functionality, such
as play, pause, stop, rewind, fast forward, skip track, eject, shuffle, and repeat for music.
What keys appear twice on a keyboard?
On a typical U.S. PC keyboard, three keys appear twice. They are the Alt keys, Ctrl keys, and Shift keys. Almost all the keys on the numeric
keypad are duplicated. These keys include the divide (/), times (*), subtract (-), plus (+), period (.), numbers 0 through 9, and the Enter key. The
only key on the numeric keypad that does not appear twice is the Num lock key.

Typical applications for keyboards

 Used in everyday computing to manually enter data and commands, e.g. writing a report in a word processor
Benefits of keyboards
 Simple and easy to use
 Potentially a fast way to enter data

Drawbacks of keyboards
 A slow way to enter lots of data if not a trained typist
 Mistakes can be made if not careful

Sections of keys on the keyboard

The keyboard keys have been divided into sections to make it more easier to use. The sections are listed below;

1. Alphanumeric keys; A-Z, 0-9

2. Numeric keys; 0-9(on the right hand side), Num Lock, +,-,*,Enter,/,Del
3. Function keys;F1-F12
4. Control keys; Page Up, Page Down, End, Insert, etc.
5. Cursor keys; They are the four keys with the left, up, down and right pointing arrows respectively.

Types of keyboards
The types of keyboards listed below are based on their functioning standards and looks.

1. Mechanical Keyboards
A mechanical keyboard is a keyboard built with spring activated key switches. These switches are made of several moving parts and are the
most common type of keyboard available today. To better understand the basics of a mechanical keyboard, check out this short video
from TechRadar:
Because of the high-quality construction of these switches, the best mechanical keyboards are what most users go for to get the best typing
experience. They tend to be more durable than regular keyboards, especially membrane keyboards which are made with relatively cheaper
materials.
2. Membrane Keyboards
A membrane keyboard is a computer keyboard without separate keys. These keyboards are the opposite of mechanical keyboards.
Most computer keyboards are easily recognizable because of the spaces between each individual key. The thicker body of the keyboard holding
the mechanical or silicone dome switches are also very distinct.
 Image originally uploaded to Wikipedia by Fourohfour.
Membrane keyboards, however, don’t have these spaces between the keys and are much thinner. The keys are part of a flat pressure-sensitive
membrane that senses touch and sends the appropriate data to the computer.
Membrane keyboards don’t get a lot of use in homes and offices. The primary use of these flat, thin keyboards is on control panels, medical
equipment, and some industrial equipment.
Advantages
Some of the advantages of membrane keyboards are:
 Cheap to produce
 Resistant to dirt and liquids
 Some membrane keyboard can be flexible
Disadvantages
On the downside, membrane keyboard detractors cite several reasons these keyboards don’t find more use on home and business computers.
 Non-existent tactile feedback to the user
 No keyboard reference for touch typists
Many low-end computer keyboards are essentially membrane keyboards with some dome mechanism overlaying the membrane. This
arrangement allows the user to have a more tactile feel and response from the keyboard. You might have a hard time to learn faster typing with
membrane keyboards.
3. Flexible Keyboards
Flexible keyboards are, well, flexible. These are keyboards made from soft materials like silicone that allow the keyboard to be folded or rolled
into a smaller size. Because of this, they are highly portable and is sought after by many small computer and tablets users who are constantly on
the move.
Advantages
Flexible keyboards offer many advantages including:
 Highly portable and convenient
 Water-resistant
 Almost silent operation
 Available in wireless or Bluetooth versions
Disadvantages
There are some disadvantages, however, to flexible keyboards:
 Fast typists may outrun the keyboard and get missed keystrokes
 Many users don’t like the feel of a membrane keyboard
 Flexible keyboards tend to have a shorter lifespan than other types of keyboards
If you are an on-the-go individual who wants a keyboard to use together with your portable device, this flexible keyboard can be a good option for
you.
4. Ergonomic Keyboards
Many professionals and computer workers suffer from wrist problems due to the constant pressure that using a keyboard inflicts on them.
Ergonomic keyboards are designed to deal with these problems by allowing the user's hands to stay relaxed.
Ergonomic keyboards come in two main designs:

 Contoured keyboard: this keyboard features a gently-raised shape that encourages a natural position of your hands and wrists as you
type. A good example of a contoured keyboard is the Jestik Kinesis KB600.
 Split keyboard: as its name suggests, this is a keyboard whose keys are separated into two or three groups. The purpose of splitting the
keys in this manner is to enable you to type at a more neutral posture, such as a “v” open shoulders position.
There exist both regular and mechanical keyboards that are ergonomic, for people who often feel strained or fatigued at the end of a long typing
session.
Advantages
The best ergonomic keyboards usually incorporate padded wrist support to reduce overexertion on the lower side of the hands. The advantages
of ergonomic keyboards include:
 More comfortable work environment improves productivity
 Reduced stress on wrists and hands
 Helps relieve further injury to wrists and hands already affected
Disadvantages
Ergonomic keyboard designs also have some possible problems to look out for.
 Users of ergonomic keyboards must learn the proper way to use the keyboard to gain the physical benefits
 Some individuals may suffer other kinds of physical stress and damage from using ergonomic keyboards such as elbow involved
problems
 Changing to an ergonomic keyboard may affect keyboard speed and accuracy
Changing to an ergonomic keyboard may prevent us from developing wrist problems caused by long stretches of work. Keep in mind, however,
that ergonomic keyboards come in different styles and not all may be right for our problem. A good orthopedist who specializes in the proper
hand positioning may be able to make a recommendation based on our needs.
5. Gaming Keyboards
A large number of users rely on their computers just to play games. Because of this, an entire segment of the computer industry is devoted to
this market, and it’s no wonder that there is a specialized set of keyboards dedicated to hardcore gaming.
Features
 Professional gamers look for several features in a gaming keyboard.
 Key rollover refers to the number of keystrokes a keyboard can “remember.” On standard keyboards, that is 1 or 2 keystrokes.
Professional game players look for much higher rollover numbers. Most gaming keyboards have a keyboard rollover in the range of 4 to 6
keyboard strokes.
 Programmable macro functions allow the game player to pre-program several different keyboard combinations into one
keypress. Pre-programming keystrokes allow faster operation of special keystroke sequences used during gameplay.
 Game players seem to prefer to play their games in a dark environment. Backlit keyboards are popular so that key orientation can be
seen in dark rooms while playing the computer game.
issues.
Gaming keyboards do have some issues.
 Gaming keyboards tend to be more expensive than their standard counterparts
 The macro programming on some gaming keyboards is difficult
You can, of course, use the standard QWERTY keyboard that came with your computer. But if you want to take your gaming experience to the
next level, you should be looking for the best gaming keyboard to add to your system.
6. Wireless Keyboards
Everything is wireless these days. Computer keyboards are no exception. Without realizing it, we are constantly exposed to wireless technology
every day. This includes wireless computer keyboards that use three modern technologies to connect: infrared, 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.

.
Almost every style of computer keyboards in our list is available with wireless technology. Obviously, one of the great features of wireless
computer keyboards is the ability to connect to other devices, not just a computer. Smart TVs, smartphones, and most tablets will readily connect
to a Bluetooth or WiFi keyboard for the added functionality of your device.
Wireless keyboards come in such a varied number of types and styles, therefore, it can be hard to choose the right one for your needs. These
are the things you need to look for in the best wireless keyboards.
 How do we want to connect your keyboard? Will you use Bluetooth, 2.4 GHz Radio Frequency, or WiFi? Your choice depends a lot on
what kind of device you want to connect to the wireless keyboard.
 What kind of key switches do we want? Key switches are the tiny devices under each key cap on the keyboard that signal when you press
a key. Mechanical switches are the choice of heavy users and touch typists, but they can be very noisy. Cheaper keyboards use silicone
dome switches, however, these cheaper switches don’t give as much tactile feedback as mechanical switches.
 What keyboard options do we want? Do you need a 10-key pad on the keyboard? What about a full set of function keys? Will you want to
program macro functions on your keyboard? There is a range of options found on keyboards, even those that are wireless.
Wireless keyboards are convenient but don’t forget to consider a few things.
Disadvantages
 All wireless keyboards need batteries that will need to be changed every once in a while.
 Some technologies have a limited range and can be sensitive to several kinds of interference.
If convenience and freedom from wires are attractive to you, then a wireless computer keyboard is the best option. Some models offer a mouse
as part of the package that uses the same receiver to connect to your computer.
7. Multimedia Keyboards
If you enjoy your home theater but would like more functionality while eliminating the hassles of having multiple controllers to run your system,
then you should consider a multimedia keyboard to enhance to overall experience of your home theater.
Incorporating all the functions of several controllers into one keyboard can be technically challenging, however, the convenience of only needing
to reach for one keyboard to control all your home theater devices is a great benefit to consider.
Features
Features on multimedia that stand out are:
 Special controls for audio options grouped conveniently
 Controls for video options that allow user programming
 Programmable to interface with several devices
 Ability to easily browse the internet through your home theater system
Issues
You should check user feedback to watch out for issues such as:
 Hard to program macro keys and special keys
 Software driver issue compatibility with some operating systems
 The durability of some cheaper keyboards is an issue
Don’t be hesitant to consider adding a multimedia keyboard to your home theater system. You will find it more convenient, and it will make your
home theater experience more enjoyable.
8. Handheld Keyboards
There are those in the world who want to be outside the box. Especially those who are heavily involved in computer gaming, as they are always
looking for an advantage. Handheld computer keyboards were quickly adopted by professional gamers looking to gain even the slightest edge
against their opponent.

Most handheld keyboards are radical by design and don’t resemble a computer keyboard at all. Some are used with one hand, while others look
more like a game box controller than a computer keyboard.
Some of the features found on handheld keyboards include:
Features
 Unconventional keyboard layout that is far different than the standard QWERTY keyboard
 Highly ergonomic designs that allow users more functionality for some specialized uses
 Once the user learns the keyboard, keystrokes can be faster than with a conventional keyboard
As with anything else that goes outside the box, there are potential problems to look out for:
Problems
 Hard to learn to use and, once learned, may make going back to a standard keyboard almost impossible
 Some handheld keyboards require extensive programming to set up the key functions for specific applications
 These specialized keyboards get expensive
If you are a dedicated gamer or restricted to only using one hand for keyboard work, a handheld keyboard may be the answer to your needs.
9. Vertical Keyboards
Another highly specialized type is the vertical keyboard. This model is another take on the ergonomic structure designed to relieve stress on the
user's hands.
Vertical keyboards feature a three-dimensional concept. The keyboard splits into two halves, and each set of keys rises vertically allowing the
hands to lay on edge to address the keys rather than lay flat.
Manufacturers claim that vertical keyboards are the only design that encourages users to sit in a neutral position with their whole body. The
neutral body position reduces strain on the back, neck, arms, wrists, and hands.
Advantages
Users of vertical keyboard point to several advantages.
 Less stress on the shoulders, arms, and wrists
 A more natural posture for the hands and arms
 More body-friendly than standard ergonomic keyboards
Disadvantages
Detractors of vertical keyboards make several arguments against their use.
 Increased reach distance to the mouse makes them less efficient
 Users of vertical keyboards must be excellent touch typists to make the conversion
 They are expensive
If someone already suffer from hand or wrist problems, the move to a vertical keyboard may help alleviate the pain. There are several styles to
choose from and finding a place to try them out is a good idea.
10. Virtual Keyboards
Virtual keyboards are nothing more than a software-driven keyboard provided on many electronic devices. The push of a button brings a graphic
image of a keyboard onto the screen of the device that allows the user to enter text, numbers, or symbols just like a standard computer
keyboard.
Because these keyboards are basically software, you can’t go out and purchase a virtual keyboard to connect to your computer or other devices.
11. Projection Keyboards
The latest trend in handy gadgets is the projection keyboard. In some ways, a projection keyboard is a form of a virtual keyboard usable almost
anywhere. The technology depends on lasers to display the image of a keyboard onto any flat hard surface.
Optical sensors in the projector that displays the keyboard detect finger movements and convert these movements across the projected image of
a keyboard into the same data signals that a standard keyboard produces with switches.
Projection keyboards are very popular among those who use smart devices as their primary connection to the internet and want a smaller and
less intrusive means of having a full-sized keyboard. Most virtual keyboard projectors are about the size of a smartphone.
Among users of projection keyboards, the most popular reasons are:
Features
 They are secure and reduce the chance of keyboard logging
 Projection keyboards are more portable than other styles of keyboard
 Fun to use
On the other hand, there are also problems with this technology.
Problems
 Bright light can make the displayed image hard to see
 The color of the surface affects the way the keyboard works
 There is not tactile feel which can make touch typing difficult

Key types
A computer keyboard consists of alphanumeric or character keys for typing, modifier keys for altering the functions of other keys, navigation keys for moving the text
cursor on the screen, function keys and system command keys – such as Esc and Break – for special actions, and often a numeric keypad to facilitate calculations.
There is some variation between different keyboard models in the physical layout – i.e., how many keys there are and how they are positioned on the keyboard.
However, differences between national layouts are mostly due to different selections and placements of symbols on the character keys.

Character keys[edit]
The core section of a keyboard consists of character keys, which can be used to type letters and other characters. Typically, there are three rows of keys for typing
letters and punctuation, an upper row for typing digits and special symbols, and the Space bar on the bottom row. The positioning of the character keys is similar to the
keyboard of a typewriter.

Modifier keys[edit]
Main article: Modifier key

MIT "space-cadet keyboard", an early keyboard with a large number of modifier keys. It was equipped with four keys for bucky bits ( Control , Meta , Hyper , and Super ); and three shift
keys, called "shift", "top", and "front".

Besides the character keys, a keyboard incorporates special keys that do nothing by themselves but modify the functions of other keys. For example, the ⇧ Shift key
can be used to alter the output of character keys, whereas the Ctrl (control), Alt (alternate) and AltGr (alternative graphic) keys trigger special operations when used
in concert with other keys. (Apple keyboards have differently labelled but equivalent keys, see below).
Typically, a modifier key is held down while another key is struck. To facilitate this, modifier keys usually come in pairs, one functionally identical key for each hand,
so holding a modifier key with one hand leaves the other hand free to strike another key.
An alphanumeric key labelled with only a single letter (usually the capital form) can generally be struck to type either a lower case or capital letter, the latter requiring
the simultaneous holding of the ⇧ Shift key. The ⇧ Shift key is also used to type the upper of two symbols engraved on a given key, the lower being typed without
using the modifier key.
The Latin alphabet keyboard has a dedicated key for each of the letters A–Z, keys for punctuation and other symbols, usually a row of function keys, often a numeric
keypad and some system control keys. In most languages except English, additional letters (some with diacritics) are required and some are present as standard on
each national keyboard, as appropriate for its national language. These keyboards have another modified key, labelled AltGr (alternative graphic), to the right of the
space-bar. (US keyboards just have a second Alt key in this position). It can be used to type an extra symbol in addition to the two otherwise available with an
alphanumeric key, and using it simultaneously with the ⇧ Shift key usually gives access to a fourth symbol. These third-level and fourth-level symbols may be
engraved on the right half of the key top, or they may be unmarked. Cyrillic alphabet and Greek alphabet keyboards have similar arrangements.
Instead of the Ctrl , Alt and AltGr keys seen on commodity keyboards, Apple Keyboards have ⌘ Cmd (command) and ⌥ Option keys. The ⌥ Option key is used much
like the AltGr , and the ⌘ Cmd key like the Ctrl and Alt , to access menu options and shortcuts. Macs have a Ctrl key for compatibility with programs that expect a
more traditional keyboard layout. It is especially useful when using a terminal, X11 (a Unix environment included with OS X as an install option) or MS Windows. The
key can generally be used to produce a secondary mouse click as well. There is also a Fn key on modern Mac keyboards, which is used for switching between use of
the F1 , F2 , etc. keys either as function keys or for other functions like media control, accessing dashboard widgets, controlling the volume, or handling
exposé. Fn key can be also found on smaller Windows and Linux laptops and tablets, where it serves a similar purpose.
Many Unix workstations (and also home computers like the Amiga) keyboards placed the Ctrl key to the left of the letter A , and the ⇪ Caps Lock key in the bottom left.
This position of the Ctrl key is also used on the XO laptop, which does not have a ⇪ Caps Lock . The UNIX keyboard layout also differs in the placement of the ESC key,
which is to the left of 1 .
Some early keyboards experimented with using large numbers of modifier keys. The most extreme example of such a keyboard, the so-called "Space-cadet
keyboard" found on MIT LISP machines, had no fewer than seven modifier keys: four control keys, Ctrl , Meta , Hyper , and Super , along with three shift keys, ⇧
Shift , Top , and Front . This allowed the user to type over 8000 possible characters by playing suitable "chords" with many modifier keys pressed simultaneously.

Dead keys[edit]
Main article: Dead key

A dead key is a special kind of a modifier key that, instead of being held while another key is struck, is pressed and released before the other key. The dead key does
not generate a character by itself, but it modifies the character generated by the key struck immediately after, typically making it possible to type a letter with a
specific diacritic. For example, on some keyboard layouts, the grave accent key ` is a dead key: in this case, striking ` and then A results in à (a with grave
accent); ` followed by ⇧ Shift + E results in È (E with grave accent). A grave accent in isolated form can be typed by striking ` and then Space bar .
A key may function as a dead key by default, or sometimes a normal key can temporarily be altered to function as a dead key by simultaneously holding down the
secondary-shift key – AltGr or ⌥ Option : a typical example might be AltGr + 6 a will produce â (assuming the "6" key is also the "^" key). In some systems, there is no
indication to the user that a dead key has been struck, so the key appears dead, but in some text-entry systems the diacritical mark is displayed along with an
indication that the system is waiting for another keystroke: either the base character to be marked, an additional diacritical mark, or Space bar to produce the diacritical
mark in isolation.
Compared with the secondary-shift modifier key, the dead-key approach may be a little more complicated, but it allows more additional letters. Using AltGr, only one
or (if used simultaneously with the normal shift key) two additional letters with each key, whereas using a dead key, a specific diacritic can be attached to a range of
different base letters.
Compose key[edit]
Main article: Compose key

A Compose key can be characterized as a generic dead key that may in some systems be available instead of or in addition to the more specific dead keys. It allows
access to a wide range of predefined extra characters by interpreting a whole sequence of keystrokes following it. For example, striking Compose followed
by ' (apostrophe) and then A results in á (a with acute accent), Compose followed by A and then E results in æ (ae ligature), and Compose followed by O and
then C results in © (circled c, copyright symbol).
The Compose key is supported by the X Window System (used by most Unix-like operating systems, including most Linux distributions). Some keyboards have a key
labeled "Compose", but any key can be configured to serve this function. For example, the otherwise redundant right-hand ⊞ Win key may, when available, be used
for this purpose. This can be emulated in Windows with third party programs, for example Wincompose.

System command keys[edit]

SysRq and PrtSc[
4800-52 mainframe / dumb terminal keyboard, circa mid 1980s. Note the obscure configuration of modifier and arrow keys, line feed key, break key, blank keys, and repeat key.

The SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes (and it is still
used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic SysRq key). The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer,
but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard.
Break key[edit]
The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the
communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or
to interrupt a modem connection. In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution.
In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually
labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.
Escape key[edit]
Main article: Esc key

The escape key (often abbreviated Esc) "nearly all of the time"[1] signals Stop -[2] QUIT -[3] let me "get out of a dialog"[1] (or pop-up window):[4] LET ME ESCAPE.
Another common application today of the Esc key is to trigger the Stop button in many web browsers. [5]
ESC was part of the standard keyboard of the Teletype Model 33 (introduced in 1964 and used with many early minicomputers).[6] The DEC VT50, introduced July
1974, also had an Esc key. The TECO text editor (ca 1963) and its descendant Emacs (ca 1985) use the Esc key extensively.
Historically it also served as a type of shift key, such that one or more following characters were interpreted differently, hence the term escape sequence, which refers
to a series of characters, usually preceded by the escape character.[7][8]
On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold
down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10. [9]
Enter key[edit]
There are two Enter keys: one in the alphanumeric keys and the other one in the numeric keys. When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do
something with their work, pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered. [clarification needed] Another function is to create a space for next paragraph. When one
typed and finished typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph, they could press enter and it would do spacing.
Shift key[edit]
Shift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available,
for instance the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top. If one wants to type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone, the symbol that
would appear would be the apostrophe. The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the Shift key are pressed.
Menu key, Command key, Windows key[edit]
The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards: on Apple keyboard the same function is provided by the Command
key (labelled ⌘). It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon
depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the
same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a
Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the
Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).
The Windows key opens the 'Start' (applications) menu.

Layouts of keyboards
Examples of keyboard according to layout(Arrangement of keys)
The examples of keyboards listed below are based on the arrangement of the keys on the keyboard. Amongst the keyboard examples is the
QWERTY keyboard which is the most popular and widely used.

 QWERTY
 Dvorak
 AZERTY
 ColemaK
 QWERTZ
 JCUKEN
 Maltron

i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named after the first six letters of the top row of buttons
and is even popular in countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people think that it is the only type of
keyboard to use with computers as an input device.
The earlier typewriters had keys in the range QWERTY due to the arrangement of strings. Early computer keyboards were also built in the
same manner for the ease of use for typewriter users. This keyboard is the most common one used by all of us and hence needs no
introduction.
The QWERTY layout is, by far, the most widespread layout in use, and the only one that is not confined to a particular geographical area. In some territories,
keys like ↵ Enter and ⇪ Caps Lock are not translated to the language of the territory in question. In other varieties such keys have been translated, like ↵
Intro and ⇪ Bloq mayús , on Spanish computer keyboards respectively for the example above. On Macintosh computers these keys are usually just
represented by symbols without the word "Enter", "Shift", "Command", "Option/Alt" or "Control", with the exception of keyboards distributed in the US and East
Asia.

QZERTY[edit]

Italian typewriter Olivetti Lettera 22

The QZERTY layout was used mostly in Italy, where it was the traditional typewriter layout. In recent years, however, a modified QWERTY layout with stressed keys
such as à, è, ò, has gained widespread usage throughout Italy.[23][24] Computer keyboards usually have QWERTY, although non-alphanumeric characters vary.

 Z and W are swapped

 M is moved from the right of N to the right of L , as in AZERTY
 Number keys are shifted
Apple supported QZERTY layout in its early Italian keyboards, and currently iPod Touch also has it available.[25]

1. AZERTY
There are some quirky QWERTY layouts that use largely the same base as Sholes’ original keyboard adapted by
Remington, but switch a few keys. AZERTY, used in French-speaking countries across Europe and Africa, is
one such version.

As its name suggests, it switches Q for A and W for Z in the top line. On the right hand side of the second line of
letters, the semi colon key is swapped for the M key. In English-speaking western countries using the QWERTY
layout, the numbers row on the top of the keyboard are used predominately as numbers (with symbols made by
holding down the shift key), but in France the idea is reversed: That’s primarily your accent row, while holding
down shift and hitting a key will give you a number.
AZERTY[edit]
Main article: AZERTY

The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium, and some African countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout thus:

 A and Q are swapped,

 Z and W are swapped,
 M is moved to the right of L , (taking place of the : / ; or colon/semicolon key on a US keyboard),
 The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters,
 Caps lock is replaced by Shift lock, thus affecting non-letter keys as well. However, there is an ongoing evolution towards a Caps lock key instead of a Shift lock.

2. QWERTZ

QWERTZ is another slight tweak on the tried-and-tested QWERTY layout. Used predominately in central
Europe (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, and other nearby nations), QWERTZ is not necessarily one
single layout: country-by-country variations exist that are tailored to better match the needs of that area’s
particular linguistic nuances.
QWERTZ[edit]
Main article: QWERTZ

Albanian QWERTZ keyboard

The QWERTZ layout is the normal keyboard layout in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. It is also fairly widely used in Czechia, Slovakia and other parts of Central
Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and some special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical
characters like Ä, Ö, Ü, ß. In Czechia and Slovakia diacritical characters like Ě, Š, Č, Ř, Ž, Ý, Á, Í also replace numbers. Caps lock is usually a shift lock as in
AZERTY
3. Dvorak

Though Dvorak may sound like another string of letters, it’s in fact the surname of this keyboard layout’s
inventor, August Dvorak. The inventor felt, when he patented his design in 1936, that QWERTY was
uneconomical and uncomfortable—and therefore wasn’t the perfect layout. Dvorak believed that his layout was
more efficient, and studies seem to agree.

People using QWERTY keyboards only make 32 percent of strokes on the “home row” (where your fingers
naturally rest on a keyboard). For Dvorak, that rises to 70 percent. And likewise, most people are right handed:
Dvorak accounts for that, making more than half the strokes right handed. QWERTY calls on people to use their
left hands more. But save for a few eager practitioners, Dvorak is the lesser-known layout.
Dvorak[edit]
Main article: Dvorak keyboard layout

The Dvorak keyboard layout

The Dvorak layout was named after its inventor, August Dvorak. There are also numerous adaptations for languages other than English, and single-handed variants.
Dvorak's original layout had the numerals rearranged, but the present-day layout has them in numerical order. Dvorak has numerous properties designed to increase
typing speed, decrease errors, and increase comfort. Research has found a 4% average advantage to the end user in typing speed. [26] The layout concentrates the
most used English letters in the home row where the fingers rest, thus having 70% of typing done in the home row (compared to 32% in QWERTY).
The Dvorak layout is available out-of-the-box on most operating systems, making switching through software very easy. "Hardwired" Dvorak keyboards are also
available, though only from specialized hardware companies.

4. Colemak
The Colemak keyboard layout is meant to appease those who are uncomfortable with QWERTY but don’t feel
like adopting a whole new layout. Instead, it makes 17 changes to key layout, and also does away with the Caps
Lock key. It's replaced with a second backspace key, for those of you who make double the amount of mistakes.
Colemak[edit]
Main article: Colemak

Colemak keyboard layout (US)

The Colemak layout is another popular alternative to the standard QWERTY layout, offering a more familiar change for users already accustomed to the standard
layout.[27]
It builds upon the QWERTY layout as a base, changing the positions of 17 keys while retaining the QWERTY positions of most non-alphabetic characters and many
popular keyboard shortcuts, supposedly making it easier to learn than Dvorak for people who already type in QWERTY without sacrificing efficiency. It shares several
design goals with the Dvorak layout, such as minimizing finger path distance and making heavy use of the home row. [28] An additional defining (albeit optional) feature
of the Colemak layout is the lack of a caps lock key; an additional backspace key occupies the position typically occupied by Caps Lock on modern keyboards.[27]
Operating systems such macOS, Linux, Android, Chrome OS, and BSD allow a user to switch to the Colemak layout. A program to install the layout is available
for Microsoft Windows, as well as a portable AutoHotKey implementation.[29]
Colemak variants exist, including Colemak Mod-DH, which seeks to rectify concerns that the layout places too much emphasis on the middle-row centre-column keys
(D and H), leading to awkward lateral hand movements for certain common English bigrams such as HE. [30] Others seek to have more compatibility with other
keyboard layouts.[31]

5. Maltron

The Maltron keyboard may, at first, seem utterly daunting. Rather than a single rectangular grouping of letter-
based keys, Maltron produces two square sets of letters, both of which flank a number pad in the middle. The left
hand square of letters has the unusual combination of ANISF as its home row, while the right hand square’s
home row is set out in the DTHOR combination.

6. JCUKEN
For some countries—and some languages—QWERTY just won’t cut it. Russian, for example, uses the Cyrillic
alphabet, which is wholly different from the Latin-based English alphabet. Since 1917 (when Russia reformed its
alphabet to remove some letters), JCUKEN has been the default layout for Russian keyboards. It’s wholly
memorable, for those of you keen to try it out: its home row reads FYWAPROLDV.
JCUKEN (Latin)[edit]

JCUKEN keyboard of the UKNC computer.

The JCUKEN layout was used in the USSR for all computers (both domestically produced and imported such as Japan-made MSX-compatible systems) except IBM-
compatible ES PEVM due to its phonetic compatibility with Russian ЙЦУКЕН layout (see right). The layout has the advantage of having punctuation marks on Latin
and Cyrillic layouts mapped on the same keys.[42] This Russian Typewriter layout can be found on many Russian typewriters produced before the 1990s, and it is the
default Russian keyboard layout in the OpenSolaris operating system.[43]

Hexagon[edit]
Main article: Typewise

hexagon keyboard layout

The honeycomb layout has hexagon keys and was invented by Typewise in cooperation with the ETH Zurich[58] in 2015 for smartphones.[59][60] It exists for 40+
languages including English, German, Spanish, French and Afrikaans. The keys are arranged like those of the respective traditional keyboard with a few changes.
Instead of the Space bar there are two smaller space bars in the middle of the keyboard. The ⇧ Shift is replaced by swiping up on keys and ← Backspace by swiping to
the left on the keyboard. Diacritic characters can be accessed by holding on a key.[61][62]

Layout changing software[edit]

The character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an
alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard
layouts. Many programs are available, some of which are language specific.
The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of
software.
For example, Ukelele [sic] for Mac,[100] The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator[101] and open-source Avro Keyboard provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout
as desired.

 Concept Keyboard
A concept keyboard is an input device similar to a traditional keyboard but each key/button is identified by an image

The images are chosen to symbolise the command/option each key represents. E.g. In a fast food restaurant, the concept keyboard
belonging to the cashier’s till may use images to represent each type of meal available to purchase, or each size of drink that can be
chosen

Traditional ‘overlay’ concept keyboards are now being replaced with virtual concept keyboards using touchscreens

Typical applications for concept keyboards

 Cashier tills, e.g. fast food restaurant

Benefits of concept keyboards

 Reduces the training required as they are easy to use

 Ideal when options/choices are few
 May speed up data entry
Drawbacks of concept keyboards

 Not suitable for large amount of options/choices

 Not suitable for all tasks

 Microphone
Microphones are input devices that take analogue sound waves and converts them into electrical signals, suitable for a computer to
understand

Microphones play an important role in speech recognition, a technology that is gaining in popularity and usage

Typical applications for microphones

 Mobile phones, e.g. for traditional phone calls or VoIP

 Tablets and laptops, e.g. for video conferencing or VoIP
 Voice recognition systems, e.g. to input data and commands using spoken words

Benefits of microphones

 Allows disabled users to give instructions to a computer

 Enables the use speech recognition software
 Allows voice calls and the audio in video calls (VoIP)

Drawbacks of microphones

 Speech recognition accuracy can sometimes be hit and miss

Types of microphone
A microphone can capture audio waves in different ways; accordingly the three most common types are described below:
 i) Dynamic:


 It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet which is wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the
front end of the magnet. The sheet transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric wires which transmit the
sound like an electrical signal.
 ii) Condenser:


 It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency response. It has a front plate called diaphragm and a back
plate parallel to the front plate. When sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the distance between the two plates.
The changes in distance are transmitted as electric signals.
 iii) Ribbon:
  It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum, or nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound
waves cause vibrations in the ribbon, which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The voltage is transmitted as
an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a transformer to increase the output voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come with
advanced magnets to produce a strong signal.

 Digital Camera
Digital cameras are input devices that capture images (and sometimes video) digitally

Digital cameras use an image sensor chip to capture the image, rather than the film used by a traditional camera.
The images recorded on a digital camera are stored on memory cards, although some may have a limited amount of external memory of its own.
Digital cameras feature an LCD screen which allow you to preview and review your images, plus change menu settings
Typical applications for digital cameras

 Professional photography, using DSLRs

 Amateur photography
 Speed cameras, e.g. using OCR software to read registration plates

Benefits of digital cameras

 Images can be reviewed immediately via the screen

 Images can be copied or edited easily on a computer
 Images can be automatically added to sharing sites

Drawbacks of digital cameras

 A good camera is needed to match the quality of traditional film

 Large capacity memory cards are needed if shooting lots of photos

 Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a document. The scanned picture or document then converted
into a digital format or file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition techniques to convert images into
digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:
Types of Scanner:
i) Flatbed Scanner:
It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The
light moves across the glass pane and scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency adapter while
scanning transparent slides.
ii) Handheld Scanner:
It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this
device is that the hand should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly used handheld scanners is
the barcode scanner which you would have seen in shopping stores.
iii) Sheetfed Scanner:
In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The main components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder,
scanning module, and calibration sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves through the scanner. It is suitable
for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like books, magazines, etc.
iv) Drum Scanner:
Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The
photomultiplier tube is extremely sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the image, which produces a
reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and processed. These scanners have high resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.
v) Photo Scanner:
It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners
come with in-built software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

 2D Scanners
2D scanners perform the task of turning a 2D document or image into a digital file
They come in two varieties, flatbed or handheld. Some printers have inbuilt flatbed scanners.
The functionality of 2D scanners is enhanced when combined with OMR and OCR software. For example, OCR
software can convert scanned in text into a computer
Typical applications for 2D scanners

 Converting a hard copy of a document into an electronic / digital form for storage, sending or editing
 Reading passports

Benefits of 2D scanners

 Can produce high quality digital copies of a document

 Digital copies of documents can be sent electronically, stored securely, or edited on the computer

Drawbacks of 2D scanners

 Scanned documents use a lot of computer storage space

 3D Scanners
A 3D scanner is an input device that creates a 3D model of the object scanned.

Scanning can be achieved either by using lasers, light, radio waves or x-rays.

Typical applications for 3D scanners

 Security screenings to check for weapons or restricted objects

 Creating a computer model ready for 3D printing
 Biometric devices
 Turning real people into gaming characters

Benefits of 3D scanners

 The technology can scan through clothing and other materials

 3D scanning provides accurate 3D computer models

Drawbacks of 3D scanners

 Repeated exposure to x-rays can be harmful

 Interactive Whiteboard
Developed long before touchscreens became affordable, interactive whiteboards combine a large touch sensitive board with
a projection screen.

Interactive whiteboards are versatile input devices, allowing navigation and drawing/writing via your finger or special dummy pens.

Typical applications for interactive whiteboards

 Classrooms
 Business board rooms and training centres

Benefits of interactive whiteboards

 Large display allowing multiple people to view at once

 Interactivity helps learning and presentations
 Very versatile
 Text and drawings made using the special pen can be captured and stored for later use

Drawbacks of interactive whiteboards

 Requires the interactive board, a projector and a computer

 Difficult to complete tasks that require precision accuracy
 Can be difficult to view in bright light

 Touchscreens
 A touchscreen is an electronic visual display that also incorporates an input device that responds to touch. This allows
users to select options from a screen by simply touching them.

Typical applications for touchscreens

 Smartphones and tablet computers, e.g. easy input of data and selection of apps/icons
 Ticket / Information kiosks, e.g. allows limited options that can be selected easily

Benefits of touchscreens

 Save space as both input and output are combined

 Simple and easy to use
 Works well with icons, allowing options to be selected easily

Drawbacks of touchscreens

 Difficult to complete tasks that require precision accuracy

 Difficult to use if damaged

There are three main types of touchscreen technology, all of which are outlined below.

1. Capacitive touchscreens
Electrical current is sent from the four corners of the screen.When your finger (or stylus) touches the screen,

the current changes.This allows the location of the touch to be calculated

Benefits

 Good visibility in sunlight

 Very durable surface

 Allows multi-touch

Drawbacks

 Glass screen can shatter/break on impact

 Cannot use wearing standard gloves

2. Resistive touchscreens
Resistive touchscreens use multiple layers of material that transmit electrical currents.

When the top layer of the screen is pushed/touched into the bottom layer the electrical current changes.

This allows the location of the touch to be found.

Benefits

 Inexpensive to manufacture

 Can use stylus, finger, gloved finger or pen to operate

Drawbacks

 Poor visibility in sunlight

 Vulnerable to scratching

 Wears through time

 Does not allow multi-touch

3. Infra-red touchscreens
Infra-red touchscreens use a pattern of LED infra-red beams to form an ‘invisible’ grid on the screen.
Sensors detect where the screen has been touched by detecting a break in the infra-red beams.

The position of touch is then calculated.

Benefits

 Good durability

 Allows multi-touch

 Can use stylus, finger, gloved finger or pen to operate

Drawbacks

 Expensive to manufacture

 Glass screen can shatter/break on impact

 Sensitive to dust and dirt

 Barcode Reader

A barcode is a machine readable code represented by an image consisting of black and white lines. The lines in a
barcode relate to numbers 0 to 9.

Black and white surfaces reflect light differently, with black bars reflecting less light than white bars.

Sensors are used to capture the amount of light reflected and the different reflections are converted to binary values

This is how the scanner is able to identify the corresponding digits from the lines.

Scanning a barcode is easier and faster than typing in the series of numbers by hand.

A barcode identifies an item, it does not store any further information relating to it, this is achieved by looking up the value in a database.

When used in retail, you no longer need to trust sales staff to remember or key in the prices of products.

Accurate receipts can be given to customers whilst the business benefits from reliable sales and stock reports.

Prices can be changed immediately without changing any barcodes.

Typical applications for barcodes

 Tracking/identifying items in warehouses and factories

 Retail checkouts, e.g. to find product prices and descriptions; automatic stock control management from a database
 Airports, e.g. tracking luggage
 Library systems, e.g. tracking books and borrowers

Benefits of barcodes

 Quick and easy to identify products

 Additional information can be easily retrieved from a database
 Allows the use of automated stock control and sales reports
 Related information (e.g. product price) is changed in the database, meaning the barcode always remains the same

Drawbacks of barcodes

 Difficult to use if damaged

 Requires expertise to setup a database

 QR Code Reader
A QR code is a computer generated pattern capable of holding a modest amount of data.

This data is accessed when the QR code is read by a QR scanner.

We often see a smartphone used as the scanning device although this doesn’t have to be the case.
QR codes often store simple data such as a URL address, contact information, calendar entries and product details (in factories and warehouses
etc).

Typical applications for QR codes

 Packaging
 Promotional materials
 Warehouses

Benefits of QR codes

 Data is stored within the pattern, so no need for a connected database

 Simple and quick way to store and retrieve information
 Can store a variety of information

Drawbacks of QR codes

 Changing the data alters the pattern, so not suitable for information that changes regularly, e.g. prices.
 People need a device (and software) that can read the QR code

 Graphics Tablet
A graphics tablet is an input device that uses a special pen like stylus to allow the user to “hand draw” images into a computer
system

This allows artists to draw in a similar way to how they naturally would using pen and paper; something difficult to achieve with a mouse.

Graphics tablets can also be used for day to day data input and are especially useful for capturing handwritten signatures.

Some graphic tablets also incorporate an LCD screen for a more realistic experience.

Typical applications for graphics tablets

 Graphic design and drawing

 Digital signatures

Benefits of graphics tablets

 Allows artists to draw in a fashion close to how they naturally would, giving them finer control
 Some models are pressure sensitive (which mice are not)
 Can be used for signatures and other general computing tasks
 Come in a range of sizes and suitable for many budgets

Drawbacks of graphics tablets

 High end versions can be expensive

 Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to
point to or select objects on the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU.
It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if needed. The first light pen was invented
around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

 Digitizer
Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using
the stylus as we draw on paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the computer monitor or display screen.
The software converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers. Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the
form of drawings and send output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to convert hand-
drawn images into a format suitable for computer processing.
  . Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of
special magnetized ink which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and other organizations where
security is a major concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the
cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine
which magnetizes the ink, and the magnetic information is then translated into characters.

 Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in
offices and libraries to convert documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After copying the documents, the OCR software converts the
documents into a two-color (black and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark areas are
selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely used to convert hard copy legal or historic documents into
PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if required like we edit documents created in ms word.

 Biometric Devices:
Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her biological features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face
structure, etc. It is done by using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on their scanning features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:

It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face measurements of a person. For example, the distance between
eyes, nose, and mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart enough to differentiate between a person's
picture and the real person.
ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person has a unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints.
This device takes advantage of this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns
and blood flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device is developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons
in the world can have the same fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system to mark the attendance of
employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of valleys and ridges found on a finger and store it in the memory or database. When you
press your finger on the given space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more secure than others as it is next to impossible to copy the
retina or iris. It works by mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina absorb light more easily as well as can
be identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the scanner's eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of
blood vessels in the retina and uses it to verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:

It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are
used to verify the voice of a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to speak in the normal or same voice that was used to
create a voice template. It is not much reliable as it can be misused using a tape recording.
  VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated by computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of
this artificial environment using some input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he or she can find himself or
herself walking on a beach, watching a football match, walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing all this.

VR
Updated: 04/30/2020 by Computer Hope

Short for virtual reality, VR is a computer-generated artificial environment that allows a user to view, explore, and
manipulate the environment and a term popularized by Jaron Lanier. Virtual reality is a computer generated reality
manipulated and explored using input devices, such as headsets, headphones, gloves, or a computer. Using these devices, a
user can browse throughout a virtual world or pickup and manipulate virtual objects. The picture shows a NASA employee
using a VR system.

Yoke
Updated: 10/02/2017 by Computer Hope

A yoke is a hardware input device used with computer games, such as flight simulation games. It allows a player to fly up or
down, or back and forth, by pulling or pushing the device.

The picture shows a flight yoke by Saitek and is an example of a typical yoke that connects to a computer.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a
series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is
used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications

 Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera provided on a computer can also be considered a
webcam. It is an input device as it can take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and videos are stored in
the computer memory and can be displayed on the screen if required. Although it works almost the same as the digital camera, it is different from
a digital camera, as it is designed to take compact digital photos that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with others through
the internet.

 Remote:

It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV remote that can be used to change channels, increase or
decrease the volume, from a distance without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956.
The remote sends the electromagnetic waves to communicate with the device. These waves can be infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

 Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and shoot the targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade,
etc. The light gun was used for the first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at the target on the screen and the trigger
is pulled, the screen goes blank for a fraction of a second. During this moment, the photodiode, which is present in the barrel, determines where
the gun is pointed. For example, shooting ducks in a duck hunt game.

Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that respond to gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that
observes the movement of a player's body and interprets these movements as inputs to video games. This feature is also available in certain
tablets and smartphones where you can perform certain tasks such as taking pictures using finger gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.

 Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in driving programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It
works like the real steering wheel by allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided with acceleration and brake pedal
devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it makes racing games more adventurous and entertaining.

 Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by hand and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to
increase or decrease the volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a back-and-forth motion. It is widely used
as an alternative to the joystick. Besides this, the term paddle also refers to many handheld devices designed to control a function in an
electronic device, computer, etc.

Output devices
Output devices are pieces of computer hardware used to communicate the results of data processing
performed by a computer

Or

An output device is a piece of computer hardware that receives data from a computer and then translates that data into another form.
That form may be audio, visual, textual, or hard copy such as a printed document.

Output devices provide data in myriad (hazarha) different forms, some of which include audio, visual, and hard copy media. The devices are
usually used for display, projection, or for physical reproduction. Monitors and printers are two of the most commonly-known output devices used
with a computer.

Computer output devices are all peripheral hardware, and are connected to a computer by cables, or by wireless networking.
Objective
The objective of output devices is to turn computer information into a human friendly/readable form.

There are four different categories of output device: visual, data, print, and sound.

Reasons for Having an Output Device

A computer can still function without an output device. However, without an output device, there’s no way to determine what the computer is
doing. There is no indicator of errors, nor of the need for additional input. For example, if you detach your monitor from your computer, the
computer will still function, but it’s not going to be very helpful.

Why do computers need output devices?

A computer can still work without an output device. However, we would have no way of determining what the computer is doing. Using an output
device, we can view and get the results of input from a computer.

How does an output device work?

An output device works by receiving a signal from the computer and using that signal to perform a task to display the output. For example, below
is a basic list of the steps of how an output device works.
1. On a computer keyboard (input device), if we type "H", it sends (inputs) a signal to the computer.
2. The computer processes the input and once completed, sends a signal to a monitor (output device).
3. The monitor receives the signal and displays (outputs) the "H" to the screen.
4. If supported, that "H" could also be printed (outputed) to a printer, which is another example of an output device.
If no output device was connected to the computer and it was functional, you could still type "H" on the keyboard, and it would still be processed.
However, you'd be unable to see what happened or confirm the input with no output device.

 Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device that displays the processed data or information
as text, images, audio or video.

Mode: Visual
Typical applications for display screens
 Phone and tablets
 Laptops and computer screens
 Televisions
 Gaming devices
 Cameras
 Household appliances
Benefits of display screens
 Low power consumption means that displays can be placed on battery powered devices
 Screens are now lighter and thinner – meaning they can be used in a variety of places
 Sharp high resolution images
 Vivid colours with good contrasts
 Reach maximum brightness quickly
 Reliable and long lasting
Drawbacks of display screens
 Keeping up with the absolute latest screen technology can be expensive

Types of monitors
The types of monitors are given below.

 CRT Monitor
CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays
tube produces a beam of electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images on the
screen. The monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color. These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams
and this phenomenon is called cathodoluminescence.

Main components of a CRT: The main components of a CRT monitor include the
electron gun assembly,
deflection plate assembly,
fluorescent screen,
glass envelope, and
base.

The front (outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is called the face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the colors which we see on the screen are the blends of
red, blue and green lights.The magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT monitors
are still used by graphics professionals because of their color quality.

Disadvantages

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

 Flat Panel Screen Monitors

These monitors use a thin panel design instead of CRT technology. These screens are much lighter and thinner, which can be carried from one
place to another.
This technology uses liquid crystals or plasma to produce output. Light is passed through liquid crystals to form pixels.
The three types of Flat Panel screen monitors are as follows:-
 Liquid Crystal Devices (LCD) monitors or Non-emissive displays
 Light Emitting Diode (LED) monitors or Emissive displays
 Plasma monitors

1. LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to CRT monitors.

Technology used It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD
screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an
electric current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass through the second layer to create
images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen. Old LCDs had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are
controlled by sending a charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each second that made screens appear blurry when the images moved
quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs) with capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their
charge. So, they do not make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as are more efficient than passive-matrix displays.
 2. LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the
LCD monitors. The difference between them lies in is the source of light to backlight the display. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and
each panel has several LEDs to backlight the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display.
Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more
brilliance and greater light intensity but also consumes less power.

3. Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels.
These cells contain mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and
emits ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are
brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus,
they offer a unique viewing experience while watching action movies, sports games, and more.

Comparision between LED and Plasma

LED Plasma
Thickness LED edge backlit LCD TVs are thinner than Minimum 1.2 inches
CCFL LCD TVs. Often less than 1 inch.
Power consumption LED-lit LCD TVs consume less power around Consumes slightly more power than an LCD
70% compared to plasma TVs. TV. Modern plasma displays receive high
Energy Star (US) ratings.
Screen size Up to 90 inches 42 inches and above
Burn-in Burn-in is very rare Burn-in is rare on newer plasma TVs with anti-
burn-in features, but was somewhat common
on old plasma TVs.
Life span Around 100,000 hours Around 20, 000 – 60,000 hours
Cost $100 (small size and very low end) - $25,000 Cheaper than LED-lit TVs

Viewing angle The brightness and color on LCD TVs shift Plasma TVs look the same from almost any
noticeably over the screen and depending on angle
viewing angle
Contrast Ratio (difference between the Worse than plasma TVs. All LCDs produce Better than LCD TVs. Plasma TVs produce
deepest black compared to the brightest brighter whites, but brighter blacks as well. darker blacks and somewhat dimmer whites,
white) Locally-dimmable LED backlit LCD TVs can but most TVs are not set bright enough to hurt
mitigate this to improve contrast ratios. contrast ratios.
Weight Lighter compared to plasma TV Heavier compared to LED-lit LCD TV
Brightness and colour Brighter than plasma or OLED Not as bright as LED-lit LCD.

Screen Thickness Thinner than LCD, plasma Thicker

Energy Use Less for dynamically backlit LCD TVs, about Generally more.
as much for statically backlit ones.
Screen Refresh Rate 60-240 Hz, but LCD response times create Up to 600 hz. Plasma TVs handle rapid
 blur and ghosting which limits true refresh movements in video about as well as old CRT
rates to 20-100 Hz. TVs.
Manufacturers All TV manufacturing companies Panasonic, LG, Samsung
Performance in extreme conditions Low temperatures (below 50°f) can cause High altitudes (above 6500 ft) can affect the
contrast to decrease performance of plasma TV displays because
the gas held inside each pixel is stressed, and
has to work harder to perform.
Running Temperature Dynamically lit LCD TVs dissipate less heat Plasma TVs generally dissipate more heat
compared to plasma TVs, LED-lit LCD TVs than LCD TVs
dissipate less heat than even other LCD TVs.
Screen glare Antireflectively coated (matte finished) LCD Plasma TVs have more glare than LCD TVs in
TVs have less glare than glossy LCD TVs brightly lit environments due to their thick front
glass's internal reflections
Backlight Yes No

Technology used LED HDTVs (properly known as LED- Plasma HDTVs create images using
backlit LCD TVs) use light emitting diodes phosphors, tiny plasma containers placed
(LEDs) as a backlight for the LCD. Some of between two sheets of glass. These emit
this light is blocked by vertical or horizontal ultraviolet light at colored spots of phosphor on
liquid crystals, creating an image. These the screen, which then glow to create the
should not be confused with actual LED or picture.
OLED TVs.
Brightness According to CNET, LED-lit LCD TVs are the Plasmas are less bright, so they might be
brightest available. They are capable of 100 more difficult to see in a bright room, and will
foot lamberts, although this is bright enough to dim over time.
cause eye fatigue in a dark room.
Energy Efficiency Plasma TVs are less energy efficient than while an average 42 inch Plasma TV uses 195
LED-lit LCD TVs. According to Which watts.
magazine, a 42 inch screen LED-lit LCD TV
will use an average of 64 watts,
Advantages Available in a range of sizes Generally have a wider viewing angle than an
Thin and light, easy to move around or mount LCD
on a wall Can produce rich black colours and give a
Can have a viewing angle of up to 170 strong contrast in dark scenes
degrees Non-reflective glass screens are available
Good in light environments Cost less than LCD and LED TVs for larger
Full array gives excellent contrast sizes
Substantially lower power consumption than Good quality in larger sizes
others

Disadvantages Generally cost much more than equivalent Thicker width, heavier
LCD and plasma TVs May consume a lot of electricity
Picture quality on edge-lit LED TVs no better Susceptible to surrounding lighting conditions
than standard LCDs Glass screens can sometimes reflect
Confusing differences - edge lit, full array and Only suitable for larger sizes
rgb dynamic

Comparison between LCD and Plasma

LCD Plasma
Thickness Minimum 1 inch Minimum 1.2 inches

Power consumption Requires less power to operate Consumes slightly more power than an LCD
when compared to plasma, but more than TV. Modern plasma displays receive high
OLED TVs Energy Star (US) ratings.
Screen size 13 - 57 inches 42 inches and above
Burn-in LCD TVs do not suffer from burn-in. However, Burn-in is rare on newer plasma TVs with anti-
it is possible for individual pixels on an LCD burn-in features, but was somewhat common
screen to burn out. This causes small, visible, on old plasma TVs.
black or white dots to appear on the screen.
Not an issue
Cost Much cheaper Cheaper than LED-lit TVs
Life span LCD TVs life span is typically 50,000-60,000 The life span for Plasma TVs is 25,000 to
hours, which equates to about 6 years of 24/7 30,000 hours, which equates to about 3 years
use. However, LCD TVs will actually last as of 24/7 usage before the TV fades to half the
long as its backlight does, and those bulbs can original brightness.
be replaced - so in essence there's nothing Around 20, 000 – 60,000 hours
which can wear out.
50,000 - 100, 000 hours
Viewing angle Up to 165°, Picture suffers from the side Plasma TVs look the same from almost any
angle
Backlight Yes
No
 Contrast Ratio LCD TVs have a contrast ratio of up to 1000:1; Plasma TVs score well on this parameter with
(Contrast ratio is a measure to compare the however, this metric is calculated differently for a contrast ratio of up to 3000:1. Plasma TVs,
darkest black with the whitest white. ) LCDs so it's not an apples-to-apples in general, offer a better contrast than LCDs.
comparison.
Color LCD TV displays reproduce colours by In plasma TVs, each pixel contains red, green,
manipulating light waves and subtracting and blue elements, which work in conjunction
colours from white light. This makes it more to create 16.77 million colours. Colour
difficult for maintaining colour accuracy and information is more accurately reproduced with
vibrancy. But, LCD TVs have colour plasma TV technology than it is with any other
information benefits from the higher-than- display technology, including LCD TVs.
average number of pixels per square inch
found in their displays.
Screen Refresh Rates LCD TVs were originally designed for Plasma TV displays refresh and handle rapid
computer data displays, and not movements in video about as well as normal
video. Refresh rates are therefore not as good, CRT TVs.
but LCD TVs are fast catching up.
Advantages  Available in a range of sizes Generally have a wider viewing angle than an
 Thin and light, easy to move around or LCD
mount on a wall Can produce rich black colours and give a
 Can have a viewing angle of up to 170 strong contrast in dark scenes
degrees Non-reflective glass screens are available
 Good in light environments Cost less than LCD and LED TVs for larger
 Better efficiency than plasma sizes
Good quality in larger sizes

Disadvantages Picture quality isn't as good as plasma in Thicker width, heavier

larger sizes May consume a lot of electricity
Some LCDs still have issues with narrower Susceptible to surrounding lighting conditions
viewing angles Glass screens can sometimes reflect
Less contrast than plasma Only suitable for larger sizes
Blacks and darker colours appear light or grey
LEDs higher market cost

Comparison between LCD and LED

LCD LED
Thickness Minimum 1 inch LED edge backlit LCD TVs are thinner than
CCFL LCD TVs. Often less than 1 inch.
Power consumption Requires less power to operate LED-lit LCD TVs consume less power around
when compared to plasma, but more than 70% compared to plasma TVs.
OLED TVs
Screen size 13 - 57 inches Up to 90 inches
Burn-in Not an issue Burn-in is very rare

Cost Much cheaper $100 (small size and very low end) - $25,000

Life span 50,000 - 100, 000 hours Around 100,000 hours

Viewing angle Up to 165°, Picture suffers from the side The brightness and color on LCD TVs shift
noticeably over the screen and depending on
viewing angle
Mechanism Backlight covered by a layer of liquid crystals Light emitting diodes
Backlight Yes Yes

Picture Quality a higher-end LCD TV can have a better quality the picture quality of an LED TV is better,
than a low-end LED TV, but if you look at high- there is no straight answer for which has better
end models of either TV, the picture quality will picture quality since both TVs use the same
be comparable. kind of screen.
Color An LED TV offers more colors, especially ones
that use RGB-LED backlighting.
Types There are 3 kinds of LCD TVs: There are 3 types of LED TVs based on
 Flat Screen LCDs, about an inch or two their backlighting methods:
thick are more expensive, but also more  Edge-LEDs (the most common) are
popular because of their sleek look and positioned around the rim of the screen
the flexible options of standing on a and use a special diffusion panel to
surface or mounting on a wall. spread the light evenly behind the screen.
 Front projection LCDs or projectors,  Dynamic RGB LEDs: This backlighting
which project an image onto the front of technique allows specific areas on the
the screen. The TV itself is just a box screen to be dimmed.
installed anywhere in a room, which  Full-array LEDs where LEDs are
projects the image onto a flat screen hung arranged behind the screen as a set, but
on the wall as large as 300 inches. are incapable of dimming or brightening
 Rear projection LCDs, where the image individually.
is sent from the rear of the TV to the
screen in front. Rear projection LCDs are
wide, heavy and only available in large
sizes (60" and up).
  Projector
Mode: Visual

Function: As its name suggests, this output device "projects" computer images or video onto a wall or screen.

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected
to a computer and similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to produce magnified texts, images, and videos.
So, it is an ideal output device to give presentations or to teach a large number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older
devices. Some projectors are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and more
and are frequently used for classroom teaching, giving presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

 LCD and DLP projectors

Data projectors are output devices used to project the digital output from a computer device on to a large screen or wall.

The user can usually choose whether the projector mirrors their computer screen, extends it, or replaces it.

Projectors are ideal when training or presenting information to a large audience.

Prices are very reasonable for basic projectors, however, a data projector capable of showing cinema films or sports footage in a bar are far
more expensive.

Data projectors come in two mains types, 3LCD and DLP. The differences between these are detailed below.

Typical applications for projectors

 Presenting to a large audience

 Education and training environments
 Boardrooms
 Cinemas and bars

Benefits of projectors

 Projected content can be seen easily be a large audience

 Allow a wide range of media and ideas to be shared with others
 Entry level projectors are affordable

Drawbacks of projectors

 Top quality projectors are very expensive

 Some projectors do not work very well in natural light

1. LCD Projectors
The lamp light is split from white into red, green and blue using dichroic mirrors.

The RGB light channels are passed through separate monochrome LCD screens, one for each of the three colours.
The RGB light is then reassembled into a single light beam and magnified out of the projector using lenses.

It is the three LCD screens that therefore control how much red, green and blue is present in the final image.

2. DLP Projectors
DLP projectors work in a different way to LCD projectors.

Most affordable DLP projectors use a fast spinning colour wheel filter to sequentially split the lamp light into red, green and blue light.

The projected image is created by a bank (chip) of thousands of microscopic mirrors. Each mirror represents one pixel.

These tiny mirrors are carefully in sync with the colour wheel, turning towards or away from the RGB light as and when it is needed, thousands of
times per second. So, if part of the projected image requires no red light, they face away from the light when the colour wheel filter is allowing red
light through. The reflected image from the mirrors is then magnified out of the projector using lenses.

Printer
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text or any other information onto the paper.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and Non-impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers

i. Dot Matrix printers

ii. Daisy Wheel printers

B. Line printers

i. Drum printers

ii. Chain printers

o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

A. Laser printers

B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses
an ink ribbon against the paper to print characters and images.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers

B. Line printers
A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot
Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to their low speed and because only
the text can be printed. The character printers are of two types, which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the patterns of dots. These patterns are produced by striking
the ink soaked ribbon against the paper with a print head. The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the
individual characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains more pins than a 9 pin dot matrix printer, so it produces more dots which
results in better printing of characters. To produce color output, the black ribbon can be changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix
printers is around 200-500 characters per second.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems.It consists of a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks
like a daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted. To print a character the printer
rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on the print location the hammer hits disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon against the
paper to create the impression. It cannot be used to print graphics and is often noisy and slow, i.e., the speed is very low around 25-50
characters per second. Due to these drawbacks,these printers have become obsolete.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per
minute. Drum printer and chain printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:
Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The drum has circular bands of characters on its surface. It has
a separate hammer for each band of characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character comes under the hammer,
the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print characters. The drum rotates at a very high speed and characters are printed by
activating the appropriate hammers. Although all the characters are not printed at a time, they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it
can print only a predefined style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are known to be very noisy due to the use of hammering
techniques.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The characters are embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain
rotates horizontally around a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to the
total number of print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the print location, the corresponding hammer strikes the page
against the ribbon and character on the chain.They can type 500 to 3000 lines per minute. They are also noisy due to the hammering action.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages

 Noisy
Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print
characters and images without direct physical contact between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers can print a complete page
at a time, so they are also known as page printers.

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

The common types of non-impact printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters. The laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor
and draws the image on the drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the charged image on the drum
picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper using heat and pressure. Once the document is printed, the drum loses the electric
charge,and the remaining toner is collected. The laser printers use powdered toner for printing instead of liquid ink and produce quality print
objects with a resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or more.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles
to spray the ink. The printer head moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed through the printer. These
drops pass through an electric field that guides the ink onto the paper to print correct images and characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color printers that have four cartridges containing different colors:
Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black. It is capable of printing high-quality images with different colors. It can produce print objects with a
resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages
  Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

 Inkjet printer
Inkjet printers are output devices usually used in a home or small office for low volume printing.

A moving print head sprays ink droplets on to the paper from a cartridge filled with liquid ink. Thermal bubble technology is used to fire these
microscopic ink droplets from the cartridge.

Because the bulk of the action happens in the high-tech ink cartridges, they are priced quite highly in relation to the price of the actual printers
(which are often very affordable).

Inkjet printers are now commonly combined with a flatbed scanner to create an all in one solution.

Typical applications for inkjet printers

 Low volume printing where speed isn’t critical

 High quality photographic documents
 Home and small office
 Printing on heat sensitive stationary, such as labels

Benefits of inkjet printers

 Entry model printers are very affordable

 Excellent photographic quality
 Can print on a variety of stationary as no heat is applied

Drawbacks of inkjet printers

 Generally slower at printing than compared to laser printers

 Ink cartridges can be expensive
 Printed text is nice and clear but laser printed text is still superior

 Laser Printer
Laser printers are output devices usually found in businesses and organisations.

Using static electricity, the way they work is completely different to inkjet printers.

Laser printers are ideal for high volume printing because they produce very high quality documents at fast speeds.

Laser printers use a powdered ink/toner cartridge, not liquid ink.

1. The rotating printing drum is given a negative charge.

2. A laser removes the negative charge from certain areas of the drum as it scans across it, creating a neutrally charged copy of the
text/image to be printed.
3. From an ink roller, negatively charged toner is attracted to the neutral spaces on the printing drum.
4. The toner image/text then transfers from the printing drum to some positively charged paper.
5. A fuser is used to heat the document and permanently melt the toner on to the page.

Typical applications for laser printers

 High volume printing where speed is critical

 Shared printer for several users
 Predominantly text based documents
 Found in businesses and offices

Benefits of laser printers

 Very good at producing sharp text

 Fast high volume printing
  Large input trays to hold more paper
 Cost per page is generally lower than inkjet

Drawbacks of laser printers

 Good quality images, but inkjet images are superior

 Initial cost for printer can be expensive
 Heavy and bulky
 Toner is expensive but is replaced infrequently

 3D Printer
3D printers are output devices used to create three dimensional objects from a 3D computer model.

The computer model can be created by using a 3D scanner, or by hand using CAD modeling software

Using a method called additive manufacturing, 3D objects are created by a layering material, layer by layer, from the ground up until the
object is completed

Typical applications for 3D printers

 Home and commercial use

 Prototyping parts and solutions

 Human prosthetics
 Medical aids

Benefits of 3D printers

 Prototype objects can be created at a fraction of the cost of a factory

 A variety of intricate and “impossible” objects can be printed in a variety of materials
 Computer designs can be shared and printed by others

Drawbacks of 3D printers

 Expensive to buy although entry models are becoming more affordable

 Wide-Format Printer
A wide-format printer is an output device capable of large scale printing.

Most wide-format printers work in a similar way to inkjet printers, allowing for some flexibility with the materials that can be used.

Wide-format printing is economical when printing a larger item in small volumes as setting up a traditional print run can be expensive.

Typical applications for wide-format printers

 Banners, posters, murals

 Vehicle image wraps
 Architectural drawings and construction plans
 Theatre and TV studio backdrops
 Signage

Benefits of wide-format printers

 Economical for small volume printing

 Can print in a variety of larger sizes, using continuous rolls of paper

Drawbacks of wide-format printers

 Initial cost is expensive

 2D Cutter
A 2D cutter is an output device capable of cutting holes or shapes into a flat 2D surface.

Examples range from inexpensive paper/card cutting machines used by craft enthusiasts, to industrial models used in manufacturing to cut
through metal.
Typical applications for 2D cutters

 Manufacturing (laser cutters)

 Craft projects (paper and card blade cutters)

Benefits of 2D cutters

 Fast and consistently accurate cuts can be made all day long

Drawbacks of 2D cutters

 Some industrial models can be expensive to setup and maintain

 Output is only as good as a the computer 2D model

 3D Cutter
A 3D cutter is similar to a 2D cutter except it is capable of rotating and cutting at many angles. This means that 3D objects can have cuts made
to all of its surfaces, unlike 2D cutters that can only cut into a flat 2D surface.

3D cutters come in many varieties, some of which do not use lasers.

Typical applications for 3D cutters

 Manufacturing

Benefits of 3D cutters

 Fast and consistently accurate cuts can be made all day long
 All sides of an object can be cut into

Drawbacks of 3D cutters

 Can be expensive to setup and maintain

 Output is only as good as a the computer 3D model

 Speakers and Headphones

Speakers and headphone are the output devices responsible for producing sounds.

Speakers and headphones convert digital signals into analogue sound waves that are audible to our human ear drums.

Speakers come as standard is most portable computing devices. Desktop computers usually require the purchase of separate speakers.

Speakers and headphones aren’t just for music, they also allow us to hear computer warning signals and other people when communicating via
voice or video calls.

Headphones
Mode: Sound

Function: Headphones output audio from a computer through two individual headphones for a single listener. Also known as earphones,
headphones allow you to listen to audio without disrupting other people in the vicinity.

 Speakers
Mode: Sound

Computer speakers are hardware devices that transform the signal from the computer's sound card into audio. Speakers create sound using
internal amplifiers that vibrate at different frequencies according to data from the computer. This produces sound. Speakers come as standard is
most portable computing devices. Desktop computers usually require the purchase of separate speakers.

Speakers and headphones aren’t just for music, they also allow us to hear computer warning signals and other people when communicating via
voice or video calls.

Typical applications for speakers and headphones

 Headphones keep sound personal so as not to disturb others
 Speakers allow for sound that can fill the room
 Music
 Communications (phones, tablets, laptops)

 Actuators
Actuators are the output devices responsible for creating real world movement.

This could range from physically opening automatic shop doors to lowering the landing gears on a plane.
They are often used in a computerised control system, acting upon a signal sent by the microprocessor. Actuators include electric motors,
pistons and pumps.
Typical applications for actuators
 Robotics
 Control Systems

 Plotter


J plotter or simply A plotter is an output device used to produce image-quality graphics in a variety of colors. Plotter generates a digitally
represented hardcopy of the design. Plotters are used to print large maps, architectural drawings, graphs and charts. Plotters are used to draw
different designs of buildings or internal structure of machines. Plotters offer the fastest way to efficiently produce very large drawings or color
high-resolution graphics. Engineers and Architects use plotters. A graphics card sends the design to the plotter, and a pen is used to form the
design. It is usually used in engineering and basically draws a certain image on a number of straight lines.

 GPS (Global Positioning System)

Mode: Data

Global Positioning System or GPS is a network of satellites to know the exact location of an object on earth. The GPS is composed of a sender
and a receiver computer.
GPS is a radio-based navigation system that’s composed of a sender computer and a receiver. The sender broadcasts signals to 24 satellites
that ping to the sender the exact location of the sender computer in the form of latitude and longitude coordinates. The satellites use microwave
signals to “talk” to the GPS, giving information on location, vehicle speed, and a number of other pieces of data. . GPS is nowadays used in
smartphones, vehicles, and many other tracking devices. The GPS comprises 24 satellites, expanded in space about 12000 miles above the
earth’s surface.
  Sound Card
Mode: Sound

The sound card controls the output of sound signals, enabling devices like speakers and headphones to work. The sound card is known as an
expansion card, which means it can be added to the motherboard. Although a sound card is not essential to a computer's basic functionality, we
need one if we wish to play games, watch movies, listen to music, and use audio and video conferencing. The sound cards operate with the help
of a software application and a device driver.
The sound card has a dual purpose of converting the input audio data into analog audio that can be played by the speakers, can convert the
analog audio from microphones into digital data

 Video Card
Mode: Visual

As with the sound card, the video card is an expansion card that slots into the motherboard. The video card processes images and video,
enabling visuals to be seen on a display and enhances their display quality.

. Most computers have basic video and graphics capabilities built into the computer's motherboard, but for faster, more detailed graphics, a video
card is required.

 Braille Reader
Mode: Print

A braille reader is a peripheral device that enables a blind person to read text displayed on a computer monitor. The text is sent by the computer
to the device, where it is translated into a braille format and made readable by pushing rounded pins up through a flat surface. Braille readers are
also called braille displays and come in various sizes. Braille readers come in the form of separate devices from a keyboard or as part of a
keyboard. Most use piezoelectric technology, or electricity generated by mechanical stress, to create a single line of text at a time in the form of
raised bumps.

 Speech-Generating Device (SGD)

Mode: Sound
 The speech-generating device, also known as voice output communication aids, converts the text to speech.

The SGD speaks out loud the command entered in the form of text by the user. This device is useful for individuals suffering from speech
impairments.

Devices That Both Output and Input Data

 Modem: A modem sends and receives information over a telephone line or cables.
 Touch Screen: Touch screens accept input in the form of touch and display the output from the computer.
 Network Card (NIC): A network card is an expansion card for a computer that allows the device to connect to the network or internet .

Difference between input and output devices

Input device Output device
It accepts data from user. It reflects processed data to user.
It is directly commanded by user. It is commanded by processor.
It converts user friendly instruction into It converts machine’s instructions to user
machine friendly. intelligible.
It takes the data from the user and sends it to It takes the processed data from the
the processor for execution. processor and sends it back to the user.
It helps the computer in accepting the data It helps the computer in displaying the data.
Ex: Keyboard, Image Scanner, Microphone, Ex: Monitor, Printers, Plotters, Projector,
Pointing device, Graphics tablet, Joystick Speakers.
Description An input device is any hardware device which An output device is any hardware component
enables the user to enter data and instructions that use received data from a computer to
into a computer. perform a task.
Functionality An input device can send data to another An output device can receive data from
device but it cannot receive data from another another device and generate output with that
device. data, but it cannot send data to another
device.
Necessity Input devices are necessary for a computer to Output devices are necessary for a computer
receive commands from its users and data to to share its results and prompt users for more
process. information and commands.
Control An input device is used to take instructions Output devices, on the other hand, do not rely
from a user and give it to the computer and on any form of physical contact with the
therefore has to be easily accessible to the computer user and may be present as an
user. If the mouse, instead of being on top of internal component. Examples are the
the table, was inside the computer's tower expansion cards (sound and video) that are
casing, it would be cumbersome (and fitted into slots in the motherboard.
dangerous) to operate the device.
Nature Input devices are relatively complicated as Output devices are simpler for the user since
they have complex coding that ensures that they only see the results and do not have to
the user can interact with the computer learn the processes.
correctly.
Example keyboard and mouse, microphone, webcam, Printer, monitor, speakers, projector LCD
image scanner, Microphone, pointing device, projection panels, computer output microfilm,
touch screens, graphics table, Optical plotters etc.
character reader (OCR), joystick etc.
Cost Most input devices, being smaller and easier Output devices are more expensive than
to manufacture, cost less than output devices input devices
—keyboards and mice are more affordable
than printers and LCD monitors.
Scanners, on the other hand, input text and Printers—an output device—produce images
image photos into the computer. A digital or text from the computer
representation can then be modified and sent
electronically if desired.
Input devices are usually smaller in size than Output devices are larger, and emphasize on
output devices and have physical attributes quality and size of output.
that emphasize on comfort and ease-of-use.
Physical Attributes Input devices typically handle data input
through buttons, lens or microphone

Conclusion
Output and input devices are two types of hardware devices. The main difference between them is that input devices are used to send data into
the computer while output devices are used to take data out of the computer.
Most devices are either input devices or output devices, as they can only accept data input from a user or output data generated by a computer.
However, some devices can accept input and display output and are referred to as I/O devices (Input /Output devices). For example a touch
screen displays visual output and takes input from a user. Other devices like printers also function as document scanners.