COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Chapter Objectives
1. Describe a computer system
2. Explain the functional organization of the elements of a computer system
3. Describe the input devices of a computer system
4. Describe the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
5. Describe the output devices of a computer system
6. Describe the types of secondary storage devices and media
7. Distinguish between power and interface cables
8. Explain basic computer set up and cabling
9. Distinguish between system software and application software
10. Evaluate the criteria of selecting a computer system

Introduction
- A System can be defined as a collection of entities that collectively work
together to achieve a desired goal. Examples of systems include: digestive
system, the respiratory system, etc. systems are made up of smaller systems
known as subsystems. A computer is also a system.

Description of the computer system

 A computer system consists of a set of devices that are designed to receive
and process data. The result is information/output that is generated.
 Computer system is the complete set of devices that make a computer work
as one unit.
 A collection of entities that work together to process and manage
information using computers.

Functional Organization of the elements of a Computer System

 - A computer system is organized into: hardware, software and liveware.

1. Hardware – these are the physical and tangible parts of a computer system.
E.g. input devices, output devices and storage devices.
2. Software – refers to the intangible components that help operate the
hardware components. They are also called programs or applications.
3. Liveware/orgware/humanware – refers to the computer user. The user
commands the computer to execute instructions such as copy, print, send,
etc.

HARDWARE.

Hardware is a term used to describe all the physical & tangible devices that make
up a computer system, i.e. it consists of the parts that can be touched and felt.

Hardware include all mechanical & electronic elements found in the computer,
e.g., the System Unit, Transistors, Diodes, bus systems such as electronic paths
(channels), the Input devices (e.g., Keyboard, Mouse), Output devices (e.g.,
Monitor) & the Storage devices.

Hardware devices enable the user to enter information into a computer, view the
output on screen, print out our work, store and process the work.
The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped/ sub-divided into 4
major categories:-
i. Input devices ii. Central Processing Unit –
CPU/Processor iii. Output devices
iv. Storage devices

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS OF A MICROCOMPUTER SYSTEM.

A microcomputer consists of 4 electronic parts:

1). Input devices.

2). Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called the Processor.
3). Output devices.
4). Memory storage devices, which consist of Main memories & Secondary
memories.
 Control Unit (CU)
- Interprets stored instructions;

- Issues commands to all elements of the

Input device Output device
computer
Input data & Gives out information
instructions Bus Bus (result of data processing)
Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
Performs arithmetic & logic operations

Main memory (Primary storage)

- Holds data, instructions & results of
processing

Bus
Secondary (Backing) storage
To supplement Main storage
 Data & instructions to be processed are supplied to the computer memory by
the user with the help of Input devices.
 The CPU performs the desired operations on the data and the results of
calculations/ processing are communicated to the user through the Output
devices.
 The data and/or instructions not being used immediately by the computer are
held permanently in the Backing storage, for retrieval any time it is required by
the user.

Characteristics of Computer Hardware.

1. Hardware consists of parts that one can touch and feel.

2. Hardware determines what software will be used in the computer.
3. Computer hardware is expensive to acquire.
4. Hardware devices can only be made by specialist hardware engineers.
5. Not easy to change particular hardware components.

Input Devices

- Input devices are sued for entering data or instructions to the CPU. The data
obtained is converted into binary digits (bits or 0s and 1s). This process of
converting data into binary digits (machine sensible/readable) is called
digitizing. It is necessary so that the computer can understand the data.
- Examples of input devices include: keyboard, scanner, trackball, graphics
pads/tablets, speech recognition devices, microphones, mouse, light pen,
joystick, webcams, document readers such as Optical Mark Reader (OMR),
Point Of Sale terminals, such as, Bar code readers, Kimball Tag readers, Card
readers, & Badge readers.
- Input devices are categorized as: keying, pointing, scanning and
voice/speech recognition devices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES.

An input device performs the following functions/ tasks:

1. Accepts data & instructions from the user into the computer system.
2. Read data from the medium on which it is stored.
3. Converts the human-readable data into electronic/machine-readable form (i.e.
a form that can be understood by the computer)
4. Accepts commands for running, halting or aborting a program from the user.
5. Data input can either be Online or Off-line.

A. Keying Devices
These are devices that enter data into a computer using a set of keys. They include
the keyboard, key-to-storage and the keypad. Examples of keyboards include:
Traditional Keyboard, flexible keyboard and ergonomic keyboard.
Ergonomics is the science that deals with designing and arranging things so that
people can use them easily and safely.
i. Keyboard – a device that converts letters, numbers and other characters
into electrical signals that are machine-readable. It is the primary input
device for microcomputers.
ii. Key-to-Storage (offline) – input data directly in a storage device.
iii. Keypad – a small keyboard mostly used in portable computers such as
palmtops.

B. Pointing Devices
These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer
on the screen.

Examples of pointing devices are; Mouse, Trackball, Joystick, and Light pen.
i. Mouse - A mouse is a pointing device that rolls on a small ball and is used
to control the movement of the cursor (or, a pointer) on the computer
screen. The mouse is mostly used with Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs).
 It issues commands to the computer by activating certain simple graphic
images called Icons displayed on the screen. A mouse can also be used for
drawing graphics on the computer.
Advantages of using a Mouse.

1. The mouse is easy to learn & convenient to use. This is because; it is used to
select options (icons) displayed on the screen.
2. It is inexpensive.
3. Most modern software includes an option to use it.
4. It performs operations much easier & much more quickly than a keyboard. It is
very fast to work with as it lets the user provide simple “point” & “click”
instructions to the computer.

5. Can be used in art and design work because; it allows diagrams to be drawn &
modified easily.

Disadvantages of using a Mouse.

1. The mouse cannot be used to input text easily.

2. It is relatively slow for selecting menu options. A user who is familiar with the
keyboard commands can select the options more quickly.
3. It is not very accurate for drawing purposes.
4. The mouse requires a flat surface to operate.

ii. Joysticks - has a handle that looks like a gearshift lever mounted on a base. It can be
moved in several directions to control the movement of an image on a computer
monitor. Are mainly used for playing computer games.
iii. Trackball - A Trackball works just like the mouse, but instead of moving it on a flat
surface, it has a ball fixed on its top which is rolled using the index finger. As the ball
rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen. The user can then click its button to
execute the selected command. The advantage of a trackball over the mouse is that,
a Trackball doesn’t require a flat surface for movement.
iv. Touch Sensitive Screens – Are screens that have been sensitized to receive input
from the touch of a finger. The screen is covered with a plastic layer behind which
are invisible beams of infrared rays that make the screen touch sensitive.
 v. Light Pens – Is a hand-held device similar in shape to a ball-point pen, and has a light
sensitive point. A Light pen is used together with a graphic VDU that is able to sense
light shining on the screen using special hardware & software.

C. Scanning Devices
A scanning device captures an object or a document directly from the source. They include
scanners and document readers.

Scanners (Image Scanners)

Scanners are used to capture a source document and convert it into an electronic
form. There are 2 types of scanners (image scanners)

1. Page/flatbed scanner - This is a desktop machine that looks like a small

photocopier. It scans a whole page at a time.
2. Hand Scanner – is held in the hand and passed over a document

- Scanners are very useful when large amounts of existing documents need to be
converted into electronic form for feeding into a computer system.

Document Readers
A Document reader is an input device, which can read data directly from source
documents, such as bank cheques, & convey it to the computer in form of
electronic signals.

Types of codes on documents that can be recognized by a Document reader: -

(i). Marks – short lines made by hand, usually in pencil, on a document.

(ii). Characters – hand-written or printed in magnetic ink on cheques.
(iii). Printed
lines – are vertical lines of different widths that contain useful
information e.g. the bar codes.

Document readers can be classified into; Optical readers and Magnetic Readers.

Optical Readers
They use a beam of light to capture data. The reader shines a beam of light on the
object, image or text and converts the data into digital form which is then passed
to the computer for processing. Optical readers include: Optical Character Reader
(OCR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Bar Code Readers & Badge Readers
1. OPTICAL CHARACTER READER (OCR)

The OCR captures data that is printed or handwritten on documents directly. OCRs
distinguish one character from the other by its shape. As the OCR reads/ scans the
document, each character reflects different amounts of light, which is sensed by
the OCR using a photoelectric device & converts the shape sensed into electronic
signals. These signals represent a particular pattern.
Uses of OCR

OCRs are used in companies that do large amount of data processing.

1. Handling Sales order forms

2. Stock-taking sheets
3. Clearing cheques

Advantages of OCR

1. No transcription errors – these are errors committed when typing data

2. It is a fast input method because data is captured directly
3. The source document is human readable so it can be easily understood

Disadvantages of OCR
1. OCRs are expensive
2. The document should be handled carefully
3. Requires special types of paper and sizes
4. Requires special typing and character formation

2. OPTICAL MARK READER (OMR)

The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. These positions
can then be marked by, let say, a pencil. The OMR detects the presence or
absence of a mark on a form by sensing the reflected light of these positional
marks. The reader is then used to convert the marks into computer-readable
data & send the value of the sensed data into the computer in form of
electronic signals.
Uses of OMR

1. Marking Multiple-choice examination papers

2. Reading Insurance payments
3. Reading electricity meters
4. Reading order forms/stock recording
5. Reading marked research questionnaires

Advantages of OMR

1. There is no special equipment used for marking – a pencil will do

2. The marks may be made by a variety of methods
3. It is fairly straightforward
4. It is fairly cheap

Disadvantages of OMR

1. Will only work with marks made within given positions

2. The source document must be marked or shaded clearly
3. The program must be redesigned with every new document design
 3. BAR CODE READERS

A bar code consists of a group of vertical dark bars that vary in width and are
separated by blank spaces. The variation of the width of the bar and the spaces
are sued to encode different information. Barcodes are read using barcode
readers which are photoelectric scanners that translate the bar code symbols
into digital form.
Uses of Bar Codes

1. In supermarkets, libraries, etc to store information about items, books, etc 2.

Keeping sales records for accounting purposes

4. BADGE READERS

Are used to read data from rectangular plastic cards. The data is both machine
and human-readable. The badge is inserted into the reading unit where the
contents of the badge are read.

Uses

1. Recording employee’s check-in and check-out times in factories

2. Obtaining job details of employees when needed.
3. Authorized access to rooms.

Magnetic Readers
They use the principles of magnetism to sense the document characters that have
been written using magnetized ink. There are 2 types of magnetic readers, the
Magnetic Ink Character Reader/Recognition(MICR) and the Magnetic Stripe
Readers (MSR)

1. MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER READER

This is a machine that recognizes characters printed with magnetic ink (Iron (II)
Oxide).
 Uses

1. Cheque processing in banks

Advantages

1. An MICR can read data faster & accurate since the information on the
document is usually pre-printed.
2. Difficult to forge.
3. Document can still be read when folded, written on, etc. This means that,
MICR is more ‘robust’.
4. A wider range of fonts can be used, including hand printing & normal type.
However, there is no standard-type font.
5. High reading speed

Disadvantages

1. The system is expensive

2. MAGNETIC STRIPE READERS

A magnetic stripe is a layer of magnetic material on the surface of a plastic card.

The stipe is read using a magnetic stripe reader

Uses

1. Reading plastic cards such as ATM card s in banks

2. Reading telephone calling cards

D. Speech/Voice Recognition Devices

Voice recognition is a type of input method where a Microphone connected to a
computer system (through some extra circuitry) is used to enter data in form of
spoken words into the computer. The SRD accepts spoken commands & convert
them into electronic pulses/ signals, which can be processed by the computer.
The user must train the system to recognize his/her voice by repeating each word
in the vocabulary several times. Each word is analyzed & filed for identification.

Uses

1. Security and access control – each person has a unique voiceprint that can be
used for identification
2. Can be used by handicapped people instead of keying or pointing
3. Quality control and automation in factories (if the worker has his hands full)
4. Automated material handling e.g. in factories or depots

Advantages

1. Operators without keyboard knowledge can use them

2. Can be used on a computer system whose keyboard is committed
3. It is a fast data input method
4. Confirmation of data accuracy is automatic
5. It is a natural method

Disadvantages

1. Only users whose voices can be identified by the computer can use it
2. Differences in accent and pronunciation compromise accuracy
3. The system can only recognize a limited number of words
4. It takes time to train and program the system
5. Data entry can be affected by noise from the background

E. Other Digital Devices (digital camera and digitisers)

The Digitizers are input devices that convert graphical drawings or images on the
paper or other material into digital data and convey them to the computer
memory. Digitizers are slow, but easy to handle and errors are hardly present.
 1. GRAPHICS TABLETS
Graphic Tablets are used for entering drawings directly into the computer. A
Graphics tablet consists of a pad or tablet (that is sensitive to touch) & a
pointing device, which is similar to a ball-point pen called a stylus.

Uses

(a). InEngineering & Architectural design as it lets the user create his/her own
images. It is very easy for the user to ‘try out’ different designs.

(b). InComputer-Aided Design work as diagrams & maps can be traced or drawn
& transferred into the computer memory to be further worked on using
Graphics programs.

(c). By Banks & Insurance companies to verify signatures. A signature written on

a pad is compared against another formerly stored in the computer.

(d). Pads are also good at detecting forgeries.

Advantages
1. Are easy to handle
2. Errors are not common
Disadvantages
1. They are slow

2. DIGITAL CAMERAS
A Digital camera stores its images in digital form. These images can then be
entered directly into a computer for editing or printing by connecting the
camera to a computer using a special cable. There are 2 types of digital
cameras; one that can take still (motionless) images, i.e., photographs, and
another that takes motion pictures (video).

Uses
 1. Used in photojournalism
2. Used in web designing
3. Used in domestic photography M

Review Questions.

1. (a). What are document readers?

(b). Describe various kinds of document readers.
2. (a). What is the difference between OCR and OMR?
(b). State two advantages & two disadvantages of each.
3. The diagram below shows coded data that could be input into a computer.

(i). What is the name given to the above method of input?

(ii). State TWO applications that would use this method.
(iii). For one of the applications you have given, state TWO items of information
that might be represented by the coded data.
(iv). State what hardware is needed to enter the coded information into a
computer and briefly describe how this hardware works.
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the following:
(i). OCR.
(ii). OMR.
(iii). MICR.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is described as the computer’s ‘brain’ that monitors all the computer
operations. It is the unit inside the computer where all software instructions,
math and logic operations are carried out.
In Microcomputers, the CPU is implemented in a single silicon device called a
Microprocessor (Computer chip), which is made by combining a very large no. of
transistors together using a technology referred to as Very/Ultra Large Scale
Integration (VLSI).
The CPU is composed of the Main Memory, the ALU & the Control unit.

The CPU performs the necessary operations on the data held within the memory.
It interprets & processes all the instructions from the Input devices.

The CPU is housed in the computer casing (System Unit), which contains all the
major components of a computer system.

Notes.

 The CPU is one of the most expensive components of the Motherboard & also a
very delicate piece of equipment.
 The CPU has a label, such as “AMD” or “INTEL” to show its type, and the chip
manufacturer’s logo on it.
 It has a large fan (known as the Heat sink) screwed on top of it, that keeps the
CPU cool while the system is on. This is because the CPU gets very hot when it
is in operation.
 The elements making up the Computer system communicate through
electronic paths called Buses. The buses carry data, instructions, information,
control commands and power between the communicating elements

2. RISC vs CISC
 RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer Processor is a simple,
cheaper and fast CPU architecture mainly used in portable devices
 The CISC Stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer is a complex
expensive and slower CPU architecture used in desktops and large machines.

Functions of the CPU.
1. To control the use of the Main memory in storing of data & instructions.
2. To control the sequence of operations within the computer.
3. To give commands to all parts of the system.
4. To carry out data processing.

A. CONTROL UNIT (CU)

The CU acts as the manager of the computer. Its main work is to control, supervise
& co-ordinate all the activities of the various units of the computer, enabling the
machine to perform useful tasks.

The CU is usually described as the Nerve Center of a computer system. It

coordinates & controls the activities of the different components of the computer
system in the same way that the brain directs the actions of the body.

The CU carries out the fetching, decoding & execution of the instructions. It
fetches/ selects the required instruction from Main storage, stores it in a no. of
special Registers, interprets the instructions, and causes the instruction to be
executed by sending appropriate signals to the appropriate hardware devices.

In order to execute an instruction, the CU must do the following:

• Fetch (get) the instruction from the Memory.

• Decode the instruction, i.e., determine what the instruction is saying. For
example, whether to ADD or COMPARE two numbers.
• Get the data required by the instruction. E.g., the two numbers.
• Activate the right circuits for the instruction to be obeyed, e.g. call into
action the circuits which perform addition.

Functions of the Control unit

1. It co-ordinates & controls various parts of the computer system, namely;

Main memory, ALU & the Peripheral devices.
2. It maintains order & controls all the operations or activities inside the
Processor.
The CU controls the activities of all the other units of the computer by using
the appropriate control signals. For example, it instructs the ALU on which
arithmetic or logical operations are to be performed.
3. It connects the required circuits to enable the ALU to process the data in
storage, as specified by the program.
4. It directs sequence of operations, i.e., it generates synchronization signals &
manages commands exchanged between the ALU, I/O units & the Memory.
5. It retrieves and interprets instructions from the Main storage & makes the
computer to execute these instructions by giving commands to the rest of
the computer elements.
6. It controls the transfer of unprocessed data to the Main storage & results
from the Main storage.
7. It stores the results in the memory.
8. It determines the location of the memory that contains the next instruction
to be retrieved.
9. It monitors the CPU operations & identifies problems, such as equipment
malfunction, illogical instructions or erroneous data finding its way into the
system, and flashes them on the computer screen.

B. ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

This is the unit of the computer that carries out/performs all arithmetic and logical
operations. Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Logical decisions are used to solve problems (decision making) such as
sorting and comparison. The ALU temporarily places results in the accumulator
before they are transferred to the main memory.

Functions of the ALU

1. It carries out the Arithmetic operations.

2. It performs logical operations and comparison on data.

The ALU performs these operations under the control and direction of the Control
Unit which indicates:
 1. Where to get data to be manipulated
2. Where to place the result
3. How to interrelate the data to be worked on
4. Instructions on how to work on the data from the memory

The ALU is connected to registers which are its special work areas.

REGISTERS

These are fast memories within the processor. They are used as temporary holding
areas that enable the ALU to manipulate data and instruction at high speed. The
following types of registers are found in processors:

1. Address Registers – is used to hold the address of the next piece of

instruction.
2. Instruction Register – used to hold the instructions that are just about to be
processed.
3. Accumulator – used to hold the results of an operation that has just been
processed by the ALU.
4. Data/Storage Register – holds the processed data that is awaiting output.
COMPUTER BUSES

A bus is a communication pathway through which data is transmitted between

different components of a computer. There are 3 major types of computer buses:
1. Data Bus – a bi-directional (2-way) bus that carries information & data to and
from the Processor,
2. Address Bus – a unidirectional (1-way) bus that carries the address of the
next piece of instruction to be acted upon
3. Control Bus – a unidirectional (1-way) bus that carries command signals from
the Processor. These signals are necessary to coordinate the activities of the
entire system. For example, the command for the Printer to prepare to
receive data is a control signal from the processor.
Note. Buses are implemented as actual communication lines. They may be
Internal buses, which are usually laid down as a circuit on the chip itself, or they
may be External buses, implemented as cables.

C. MEMORY
This is the part of the computer used to hold data, programs & instructions
required immediately (or currently being used) by the Processor.

General features/ characteristics of the Main memory.

(i). It is very fast, accurate and reliable – this is because it is electronic and in close
proximity to the processor
(ii). Data must be transferred to the Main storage before it can be acted on by the
Processor.
(iii). It provides direct data access, i.e., data is instantly accessible from the Main
memory & the Processor can act directly on the data.
(iv). It is of low/ limited storage capacity.
(v). It is volatile – it loses its contents when the power is switched off and is thus
used to store temporary programs and data.
(vi). It is expensive, due to the technology involved & the elements used in making
them.

Functions of the Main memory.

1. It stores data awaiting processing.

2. It stores instructions waiting to be obeyed.
3. It holds the program instructions & the data currently being processed.
4. It stores intermediate results of processing awaiting transfer to the output
devices, i.e. it stores data awaiting output.
5. The size of the Main memory affects the speed, power & capability of the
computer.
6. All inputs & outputs are transmitted through the Main memory.

Ideally, the Main memory is used to store all data requiring processing in order to
achieve maximum processing speed.

Classification of Main/Primary Memory.

The Main memory can be classified into 3 different sections:

(i). The fast Internal Registers.

(ii). Read-only memory (ROM).
(iii). Random Access memory (RAM).

READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM).

This is a memory that can only be read, but cannot be written to, i.e., the user can
only read the information in it.

ROM provides permanent storage of data, i.e., the contents in ROM cannot be
changed at will.

ROM is a Non-volatile memory - its contents are retained (remain intact) when
power is switched off. Therefore, it cannot be affected by switching the computer
on & off.

ROM forms a small proportion of main storage – it contributes to about 30% of

Internal memory.

ROMs are used in situations where the data or instructions must be stored/ held
permanently.

Common uses of ROMs.

(i). It stores Firmware (bootstrap programs) –i.e., the essential files the computer
uses while booting (starting) up.
(ii). It stores the system data & instructions that are necessary for the normal
functioning of the computer system hardware. .
(iii). It stores Control programs, used for the operation of the computer &
peripheral devices.
For example, the BIOS is stored on ROM because the user cannot disrupt the
information.

(iv). It stores Translation programs (Code converters), used for converting a user’s
program into Machine language.
(v). It stores Special functions (facilities) peculiar to a given machine.
(vi). It stores Character generators for Printers and Video displays.
(vii). It stores ROM Lookup tables.

Types of ROM memories.

1. Programmable ROM (PROM).

This is a ROM that can only be programmed once by the manufacturer or user. No
changes can be added afterwards.

2. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM).

This is a ROM that can be reprogrammed a Number of times. The erasure is done
using UV light.

3. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).

This is EPROM that is wholly electrically erasable. An example is FlashBIOS which
allows the users to upgrade their BIOS.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM).

It is a type of main memory, which is used by the computer to store data &
programs temporarily during the times when they are needed in the Main
memory.

The term “Random Access” means that, data in any area of the RAM can be
reached or accessed in the same amount of time.

RAM provides “Read and write” facilities, i.e., it allow instructions to be written &
read out, and also to be changed at will. Therefore, the computer user/
programmer can control or manipulate the data stored in RAM. Read refers to the
retrieving (recovering) of information from memory, while Write refers to the
storing of information in memory.

RAM is a Volatile memory, i.e. the contents of RAM are usually lost/erased when
the power supply or the computer is switched off.

RAM forms the major proportion of Main storage – it contributes about 70% of the
Internal memory. It is the memory used in large quantities in Main memory, and
every computer must specify its size. Some programs will used as little as a few
Kilobytes of RAM while large complex programs such as graphics programs and
electronic games use Gigabytes of RAM.

Uses of RAM.

The functions of the RAM are:

(i). It stores data & instructions waiting processing.

(ii). It also stores the instructions which are being obeyed or whose parts have been
obeyed by the computer.
(iii). Stores the intermediate results of processing, before they are communicated
to the users through the Output units.

Types of RAM.
(a). Static RAM (SRAM).

A Static RAM is able to maintain its data as long as power is provided to the
memory chips.

It does not need to be re-written periodically. In fact, the only time the data on
the memory is refreshed or charged is when an actual “Write” command is
executed.

SRAM is very fast & is currently being used in the Main Processor as a small
amount of high-speed memory called the Cache memory.

(b). Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

A Dynamic RAM uses capacitors to store information. The information is stored in

the Capacitors as a charge. Like any charge, the electrical charges in individual
memory capacitors of a DRAM will drive away (leak) causing the data to either be
lost or changed within a few milliseconds.
This means that, unlike SRAM, a DRAM must undergo the Refreshing process, i.e.,
it must be re-written continually in order for it to maintain its data. This is done by
placing the memory on a Refresh circuit that re-writes the data several hundred
times per second.

Refreshing involves reading the information out of, and then writing it back into
the memory, thus restoring a full charge.

DRAM is used widely for most computer memories because:

(i). DRAM has a much higher packing density than SRAM, i.e., a DRAM chip is able
to store more information than a SRAM chip of the same size.
(ii). DRAM chips are small in size compared to SRAM.
(iii). A DRAM can store a lot of information in a very small space, and therefore
cheaper (less expensive) that SRAM. This is the main reason why DRAM is the
 memory used mostly (or in large quantities) as the Main memory in
Microcomputers.

SPECIAL MEMORIES IN A COMPUTER

1. Registers – high speed memories located within the processor. It is the
fasted and smallest memory in the computer. All data and instructions must
pass through the register.
2. Cache memory – a fast memory used for high-speed retrieval of frequently
used data and instructions by the CPU. It is used to bridge the speed gap
between the RAM and the CPU. The data held within the cache is a copy of
what is in the main memory
3. Buffers – it is a temporary storage area for data waiting is being sent to or
received from an input or output device.
4. Virtual Memory – this is a space within the hard disk that is used just like the
primary memory. It is created when a computer is running many processes at
once and RAM is running low.
Exercise (a).

1. Outline THREE characteristics of Main storage.

2. (a). What are the functions of the Main memory of the computer?
(b). Why do we say that the Main memory slows down the computer’s processing
speed?
3. Distinguish between the two types of Primary memory, stating clearly where
each one is used.
4. (a). What is a RAM? What is it used for? (b). State 3 important facts about
RAM.
(c). What is meant by “Random access?”
(d). Briefly describe the two types of RAM, and state where each one is used.
5. (a). What does ROM mean? What is it used for? (b). Give 3 important
facts/characteristics of ROM.
(c). What programs are stored in ROM?
6. Define the term “Volatile” in the context of computer memory.
7. Identify THREE reasons why Dynamic RAMs are the most widely used memories
in microcomputer systems compared to Static RAMs.
8. Define and explain the following terms:
(i). RAM.
(ii). ROM.
(iii). PROM.

D. PROCESSORS
The CPU is also called the Processor. Processors can be categorized using these
considerations/factors.
1. Speed (Clock Speed)
2. Bandwidth (Width of the data bus)

Speed
- The speed/clock speed of the microprocessor gives it its power. The higher
the speed of a microprocessor the more powerful it is – because it can
perform operations much faster. For instance, a 2.4GHz processor is more
powerful than a 1GHz processor. Every microprocessor has a clock that
drives its operation. The speed of a processor is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Microprocessor Bandwidth
- The size of the Data Bus determines the Bus Width of a microprocessor. It
indicates the moving capability of information of the chip. Higher Bus widths
provide higher computer performance. For example, fetching a 16-bit
instruction from memory using a Data bus width of 16 bits would require a
single fetch operation, whereas an 8-bit Data bus would require 2 cycles to
fetch the same instruction; hence slowing the execution of the instruction.

i. Types of processors – microprocessor, microcontroller, Embedded

Processor, DSP and Media Processor ii.
Microprocessor Trends
 1. Power Efficiency – Processors are consuming lower amount of
power but providing more performance (speed)
2. Clock Speed – Performance is steady increasing due to more
transistors per chip.
3. Small Size – Microprocessors are reducing in physical size while
their speed is increasing.
4. Multicore processors – Multi-core processors are referred as a
single computing component with two or more independent
central processing unit called "cores"

Output Devices
The term Output is used to describe all that comes out, from the computer
memory, or from the processing stage of a data processing system to the external
environment.
Output devices are used to extract/ disseminate processed data from the
computer. They display the results of all the information that has been processed.

They also convert machine-coded output results from the Processor into a form
that can be understood by people.

Examples.

* Screen (Monitor/ Visual Display unit – VDU). * Printers

* Audio Response units. * Graph Plotters.

* Sound output devices, e.g. Speakers. * Microforms.

FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT UNITS.

1. Transmit the intermediate results & final results to the users.
2. Convey messages, e.g. error or success messages, to the users.
3. Provide immediate response to questions.
4. They are used when writing onto the secondary storage media.
5. Accept the results produced by the computer (which are in coded form & hence
cannot be easily understood) & convert these coded results to human readable
form.

The output produced by computers can be put into 2 broad categories: -

(a). Human-readable output – This is a form of output that is readily

understandable by human beings, e.g., printed or drawn output.
(b). Machine-readable output – Is required/used for subsequent input to the
computer. In this case, the output may be temporarily stored on machine
readable media e. g Tape

.The quality, validity and usefulness of the output is influenced by the output
facility used. The following factors/ considerations determine the choice of output
equipment and media.

(i). Suitability of the application.

(ii). The speed at which the output is required.
(iii). Whether a printed version is required.
(iv). The volume of the data.
(v). Cost of the method chosen as compared with the benefits to be derived.
DIVISIONS OF OUTPUT.

Output is classified as: -

1. Hardcopy output.
2. Softcopy output.

SOFTCOPY OUTPUT.
This is where the end results are displayed on a screen. The user can see the
results, but cannot touch them (is intangible).
Examples of Softcopy Output devices.

 Visual Display Units (VDU) / Monitor.

 Sound Output/Speakers.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED).

HARDCOPY OUTPUT.

Here, the output can be seen & touched by the user (is tangible).

Hardcopy is desirable if the information or the results of the computer working is

to be maintained for future reference/ use.

Examples of Hardcopy Output devices.

 Printers.
 Graph Plotters.
 Microforms.

SOFTCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES

1. MONITORS/VDU

Visual display unit (or a Monitor) is a television-like screen, which displays the data
that is being typed at a Keyboard. It also displays the information that has been
processed by the computer in a human-sensible form. In many cases, an ordinary
television set can serve as the display unit. The display is meant to provide a
means of visually checking whether the information that has been entered is
correct.

The size of a monitor is given in inches (“).

Monitors can either be monochromatic (provide output in black and white) or
polychromatic (provide output in multi colours)

Factors to consider when choosing/purchasing a monitor

1. Type of screen – whether it is mono or polychromatic

2. Size of the screen – the size depends on the application (use)

3. Resolution – resolution is the measure of clarity of the output on the screen. It
is determined by the number of pixels (abbreviation of Picture element). This are
individual points of color or tiny dot of light) contained on a display monitor
(number of pixels on the horizontal and vertical axis). The pixel is the basic unit
from which an image on screen is made. Screens have a refresh rate, expressed
in Hertz, which is the number times the image is replaced every second. The
higher the refresh rate the clearer the image e.g. 120Hz.
4. Monitor Controls – A good monitor should allow the user to adjust some
aspects of the monitor such as brightness, contrast, et c which allows the user
to customize the monitor depending on his needs
5. Compatibility with the adapter card: The monitor must be capable of
displaying the pictures that the display adapter card can generate.
Graphics/Display Adapters used with Monitors

1. Video Graphics Array (VGA)

2. Super Video Graphics Array (VGA)
3. Extended Graphics Array (XGA)
4. Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)

Classes of Monitors (technologies)

 A. CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT)
CRT is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns, the beams of which
are manipulated to display images on a phosphorescent screen. The images may
represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television set, computer
monitor), radar targets, or other phenomena.

B. FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS

These are made up of 2 plates of glass with some type of material in between. This
material is activated in different ways. Depending on the material used, we can
have:

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

2. Electroluminescent Display
3. Gas Plasma Display
 Electroluminescent Display
Gas Plasma Display

LCD DISPLAY

C. Other Forms of Displays

1. Thin Film Transistors (TFT) – each pixel is controlled by its own
transistor thus providing higher resolution and contrast
2. Field Emission Displays (FEDs)

Advantages of using a screen as an output device

(i). The speed of output is fast – a Monitor displays the output almost instantly/
immediately.

(ii). Itdisplays the information enabling the operator to visually verify/confirm if the
data is correct before producing a hardcopy or disseminating it.
(iii). Usedwhen saving the information to a secondary storage media to initiate and
monitor the operation.

(iv). Minimizes paper work, hence reducing the cost incurred on stationery.

(v). Hardware costs are minimal since no extra equipment are needed as long as
the VDU is available. The screen is cheap, if bought as individual device.
Disadvantages of using a screen as an output device

(i). Produces softcopy output, i.e., the output is temporary & can get lost when
the power is switched off.

(ii). It is impossible to produce multiple copies.

(iii). Itcauses fatigue to the user’s eyes, especially when stared at for a long
duration.

(iv). Can lure computer operators into not keeping hardcopy records.

Screen might not allow the viewing of the full area of data

2. SOUND OUTPUT/SPEAKERS

Speakers convert data/information from the computer memory (which is in

electronic form) into waveforms/sound that the user can hear. The sound can be
spoken language, musical notes or beeps. This output is obviously Softcopy.

Voice output is useful where reading is not necessary or is impossible and where
fast output is required.

For example, Voice output is used in:

1. Teleconferencing – people from different geographical locations participate
in a meeting through online software and a monitor. E.g. Google Meet,
Microsoft Teams.
2. Presentations – such as lectures, talks and seminars to a large audience since
the owners voice is not loud enough.
3. Voice mail – a system that stores message recordings from a telephone caller
when the recipient is not in a position to pick the phone. The recipient can
play back the message later.
 4. Specialized watches – watches that produce sound output to tell time e.g. to
people with visual impairment.
5. Speech synthesis – involves using a speech synthesizer to convert
input/output into sound.

Advantages of Voice Output

(i). It is very fast, making it useful in emergency situations to relay messages.

(ii). Can be used for distant communication, especially if done over Telephone lines.
(iii). Useful where reading is impossible - can be used by visually disabled people.
(iv). Errors are easily corrected. For example, when used in a washing machine, it
can tell you if and when to add more detergent, or the fabric conditioner.

Disadvantages/ Limitations of Voice Output

(i). The output is not permanent.

(ii). It may be boring, especially for prolonged output.
(iii). Cannot be used by people with hearing problems.
(iv). If the message is conveyed through beeps, it may be hard to understand.

3: LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

LEDs are low power devices that are programmed to emit light when a current
flows through it. Are used e.g. in indicator lights e.g to signal power on. They can
also be used in traffic lights.
B. HARDCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES

A hardcopy output device produces output on a paper. They include printers (most
common) and plotters.
The importance of producing a hardcopy output:

1. If one needs to sign a document e.g. letter

2. To read the work away from the computer
3. In anticipation of a blackout
4. For physical record keeping/filing
5. To scan, photocopy or fax a document
6. If one strains when reading on a monitor
7. As a back-up method incase the softcopy gets corrupted or the computer
crashes

A: PRINTERS
Printers can either be impact printers or non-impact printers. This refers to the
method used to produce the character on paper. Printers can also be classified
based on print speed or according to the amount of text it can print per given
period of time (Character Printers, Line Printers or Page Printers).
Impact printers work like a typewriter. They have metallic hammers or pins which
are used to strike an inked ribbon. Examples include:

1. Dot-matrix printer
2. Ball printer
3. Daisy wheel printer
4. Golf ball printer
5. Drum printer
6. Chain printer

In a non-impact printer, the print head element does not come into contact with
the paper. They produce higher quality output at a very fast speed. They include;

1. Laser printer
2. Thermal printer
3. Inkjet printer

Factors to consider when choosing a printer

1. Cost – the price of a printer depends on its capability, speed and the print
quality. One should consider both the initial and maintenance cost.
2. Speed and the Workload available – consider printing speed and amount of
work to be done.
3. Technology used - whether it is impact or non-impact
4. Range of capabilities - includes range of line widths, character sets and paper
handling facilities.
5. Compatibility with other computers – whether the printer will work
together with the computer system.
6. Documentation – whether the printer has a user manual/instructions for
use.
7. Stationery – type of paper used by the printer. 8. Nature of work to be
printed
 9. Reliability of the printer.

B: PLOTTERS
Plotters are special output devices that produce high quality graphics in a variety
of colors on paper. Such graphics include: maps, images, statistical charts and
architectural drawings.
They can work either online (fetch data directly from the computer) offline (fetch
data from a storage device e.g. magnetic disk). Types of plotters:
1. Drum plotters – use a roll of paper wrapped on a drum which moves the
paper front or back.
2. Flat Bed plotters – a piece of paper of fixed size is laid on a flat bed and a
movable pen plots the output.

3. Digital plotters – use electrostatic principles rather than a pen and ink.

Secondary/Auxiliary Storage Devices and Media

These are devices used to store data files, programs and to backup information/data in
computers. This information is normally not needed immediately (not currently in use) by the
Processor. They include; Hard disks, Floppy disks, Magnetic tape drives, Cassette Tapes,
Optical disks (CD-ROMs), Zip Disks, Jaz Disks

Note. All these storage devices differ in the way (technology) they store data & the capacities
of data they can hold.
Storage Capacities are measure in bytes, e.g. 1byte, 16KB (kilobyte), 24MB (megabyte), 64GB
(gigabyte).

Methods of Data Access

1. Direct/Random Access (DAS) – here, a file or data in the media is retrieved randomly
without having to view the preceding files. It is a fast method. It is used in magnetic
drives, solid state drive and flash drives.
 2. Sequential/Serial Access (SAS) - computer system reads or writes information to the file
sequentially, starting from the beginning of the file and proceeding step by step. It is
slower than random access. It is used in magnetic tapes.

Factors to consider before choosing a storage device

1. Cost of the storage media. 2.
Availability in the market.
3. Reliability and security – choose a device that does not easily crash.
4. Durability – the device should be long lasting.
5. Storage capacity – storage devices come in different capacities, choose the one that
most suits your need.
6. Physical size and portability – some storage devices can easily fit in a pocket and hence
easily carried while some cannot.
7. Compatibility with existing computer system hardware – ensure your computer system
can read the data stored on the storage media. E.g. by ensuring the appropriate port is
available.

Characteristics of Secondary storage devices

(i). They provide slow access of information – they process data very slowly compared to
primary memory.
(ii). They have high data storage capacity compared to main memory.
(iii). The devices are cheap.
(iv). They are non-volatile. Secondary storage units store data permanently.
(v). Used for mass storage of data & program files not currently being operated on, but which
will be transferred to the main storage when required.

Types of Storage Devices and Media

1. Fixed Storage devices and media e.g. a hard drive/disk
2. Removable storage devices and media e.g. floppy disks, magnetic tapes, zip & jaz disks,
flash disks and optical disks.

FIXED STORAGE MEDIA

Are devices that are inbuilt within the system unit. E.g. the hard disk/drive.
Hard Disk/ Drive
Is a magnetic storage medium for a computer. Hard disks are flat circular plates made of
aluminum or glass and coated with a magnetic material. Data is stored on tracks. Data is
read/written by a magnetic head in binary by magnetizing or demagnetizing tiny spots on the
spinning disk.

Advantages of using a hard disk

1. Offers fast accessibility of information since it uses random/direct access. The file is
instantly access from the location.
2. It has a vast storage capacity – hard drives are available in gigabytes and terabytes of
storage.
3. It is durable – it does not wear-off over time
4. It is safe since it is protected by an external cover – dust, water or static electricity
cannot enter and damage the data.

Disadvantages

1. It is relatively expensive compared to other storage media e.g. optical disks and flash
disks.
2. It can be damaged if it comes into contact with a magnetic field or static electricity.
3. It is prone to crashing due to dust, computer viruses or power failure.
4. Cannot withstand rough handling since the moving parts could get dislodged.
REMOVABLE STORAGE MEDIA
These devices are not fixed on the computer system unit.

1. Floppy Disks/diskettes
Were invented along with microcomputers. Were used to distribute software, to transfer files
and for back-up. They are now outdated. They use magnetism to store data.

Advantages

2. Are cheap to acquire

3. Are small in size hence portable.
4. Are easy to use – has an arrow showing how to insert it in the drive.
5. It is possible to protect data on the device using the write protect tab.
 6. Are easy to store in disk bank or a disk box

Disadvantages

1. Has a low storage capacity – about 1.44MB

2. Are less durable and reliable – they are easily spoilt.
3. Information stored in it gets corrupted when the diskette comes into contact with a
magnetic field.

8-inch, 5¼-inch, and 3½-inch floppy disks

2. Magnetic Tapes
A magnetic tape has a magnetic surface on which data can be stored. The reels (rolls) of the
tape are stored in a protective case to protect the recording surface from destruction e.g.
from dust, touch and sunlight. They were used mainly for backup but also in minicomputers
and mainframes for storage. The method of data access is sequential/serial.

Advantages

3. Have a high storage capacity

4. Are relatively cheap
5. Are reusable - When information on a tape is no longer required, it can simply be
‘written over’ with new information.
Disadvantages
2. Sequential access of data makes them slow
3. They have a short life span of around 2 years
4. They are prone to damage by dust and magnetic fields

3. Zip and jaz Disks

They are similar to floppy disks but with higher storage capacities. They are also removable
and highly portable. They use magnetism to store data.

Advantages

1. Are highly portable due to their small sizes

2. Are good for storing archives since they are durable
3. Have fast access to data/information since they use random/direct access method.

Disadvantages

1. They have slower data access speeds compared to other devices such as hard drives or
flash disks
2. The can get damaged when they come into contact with magnetic fields.

4. Optical Disks
These are storage devices where data is read and written by a laser beam reflecting on the
disk surface. The storage is permanent. Optical devices can be Compact Disks (CDs) or Digital
Versatile Disks (DVDs).
1. COMPACT DISKS

The compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was developed in 1982
to store and play digital audio recordings. It has a capacity of 700MB. It can also be used to
store and distribute software. Data is burned onto the surface of the disk using a laser beam in
the CD drive. A laser beam is also used to read the data stored on the disk. Compact Disks
come in two main forms:

CD-ROM - CD Read Only Memory. Data can only be written once.

CD-RW - CD ReWriteable. This means that you can save data to your disk over and over again,
but they are more expensive
Advantages of CDs Disadvantages of CDs
1 Small and portable Fairly fragile, easy to snap or
scratch
2 Very affordable/inexpensive Smaller storage capacity than a
hard drive or DVD
3 Most computers can read CDs. If there is no CD drive, a Slower to access than the hard
DVD drive can usually read them disk or flash disk.
4 Fairly fast to access the data - quicker than magnetic A computer requires a CD/DVD
tape. drive to read a CD
5 Are virus free since most are read only
6 Cannot be damaged by magnetic fields unlike magnetic
storage media.
7 Provides direct data access and therefore much faster
than magnetic tapes.

2. Digital Versatile Disk

DVD is a digital optical disc data storage format invented and developed in 1995 with a storage
capacity of 4.7GB. It can be used to store a wide range of data (with better quality than CD)
including software, music, video, movies and video games.
Advantages of DVDs Disadvantages of DVDs
1 Very large storage capacity 4.7-9 Gb DVDs do not work in CD drives
2 Sound and picture quality is excellent, making them There is no single standard of
ideal for storing films with video and sound. DVD
3 DVDs are now mass produced so they are relatively They can be easily damaged by
cheap breaking or scratching
4 DVD drives can read CDs Modern computers lack DVD
drives
5. Flash Disks/Drives

A flash drive is a data storage device that includes flash memory with an integrated USB
interface. It is removable, rewritable and much smaller than an optical disc. They use flash
memory to store data and are therefore much faster than hard drives.

Advantages of using Flash Drives

1. They are small in size hence portable
2. They have a wide variety of capacities e.g. 2GB, 4GB, 8GB and so forth.
3. They offer fast read and write speeds since it has direct data access.
4. They are durable/reliable and can handle rough handling.
5. They are inexpensive and thus affordable.
6. They offer large storage capacities on a small physical media.

Disadvantages

1. They are more expensive that optical disks

2. Can easily get misplaced since they are small in size
3. They are prone to computer viruses if used across many computers. This can lead to
data loss.
4. A computer must have a USB port to read a flash drive.

Power and Interface Cables

There are 2 main cables use in computer systems:
1. Power cables – they carry power to different components. A computer is an electronic
device and therefore it’s parts need power to function.
2. Data interface cables – they carry data from one component to another. They use serial
or parallel transfers. Data interface cable can either be serial or parallel cables.

1. Parallel Cables
A parallel cable has a series of wires that enable multiple bits of data to be transferred
simultaneously. Data transfer is therefore fast. It is mainly used in printers, optical drives and
scanners.

2. Serial Cables
Serial cable use only one wire and bits follow one another (like in a queue) one at a time. Data
transfer is thus slow. It is used in security cameras, flat-panel displays, etc.
Parallel Cables Serial cables
1 Transmit data fast Transmit data slowly
2 Are less reliable than serial cables Are more reliable
3 Are used over short distances Are used over long distances
4 Transmit multiple bits of data Transmit bits of data one bit at a time.
simultaneously

Universal Serial Bus (USB) port

This is a port (connection point) that allows devices to be connected to the computer. Such
devices include flash disks, mice, keyboards, mobile phones, game pads, etc. This technology is
replacing serial and parallel ports since they are much faster and more versatile.

Other types of ports

1. Centronics port
2. Video ports
3. Audio ports
4. Keyboard/mouse ports (PS/2) Ports and their symbols
Ports Symbol
PS/2 for mouse

PS2 for keyboard

Monitor

LAN/Ethernet
USB

Parallel

Serial

Sound in

Basic Computer Set-up and Cabling

1. Place the monitor and the system unit in their respective places e.g. on a desk or work area.
Be sure to place the system unit in a well-ventilated place to prevent overheating.
2. Connect the monitor to the system unit using the appropriate cable, e.g. VGA or HDMI
3. Next connect the keyboard and mouse to the system unit through the USB ports.
4. If there are any other peripherals such as external speakers, headphones, etc, connect them
to the system unit using the appropriate port, e.g. audio port.
5. Then connect the monitor and system unit to the power outlet/socket (and if available, to a
UPS or Surge protector)
6. Finally, plug the UPS or Surge protector to the wall socket and switch it on. The basic
computer hardware is now set up.
SOFTWARE
 These are the programs used in a computer system that enable it perform a no. of specific
functions.

 Software is a set of computer programs that guide the computer in each and every activity
that happens inside the computer during data processing operations.

 Hardware works hand in hand with software to achieve the computer system’s goals.

Characteristics of Computer Software

1. They are the programs & data used in a computer system.

2. A Computer Program is usually a set of computer instructions written in any of the
computer programming languages, e.g. Java, Python, C++, etc.
3. Software is intangible
4. Software enables computer hardware to operate effectively. In other words, software is
meant to put ‘life’ into the hardware.
5. Software is flexible, i.e., the software used in a particular computer is relatively easy to
change.
6. Software is cheaper compared to hardware devices.
7. Computer software can be written by the user, a Programmer or a Software house.

Software can be classified according to either purpose or acquisition.

Classification of Software
A. PURPOSE
In this category, software is classified according to how it is used. According to purpose,
software can be either System Software of Application Software.

A. System Software
These are programs whose task is to manage computer resources. Resources include: I/O,
Storage, Memory, Power, Network, etc. system software includes: Firmware, Networking
software, Operating System and Utility programs.
 i. Firmware
Is a computer program embedded in the hardware. It is permanently stored in the ROM.
Boot routines and low-level input/output instructions are stored in firmware.

ii. Networking software

Are programs that enable computers to communicate through a network.

iii. Operating System

This is a large program which provides an interface through which the computer user
can interact with the computer. It controls the allocation and usage of hardware
resources such as memory, central processing unit (CPU) time, disk space, and
peripheral devices. It is the foundation on which applications are built. Popular
operating systems include Windows 10/8/7, Windows NT, Mac OS, Linux, and UNIX.

iv. Utilities Programs

These are programs that are involved with routine/maintenance/housekeeping tasks
such as file searching, copying files, sorting, protecting files, repairing computer
problems, renaming files, diagnosing computer problems, File Compression, etc.

B. Application Software
These are programs that help/assist the user to do a specific task. Such tasks include:
Wordprocessing, accounting, database management, desktop publishing,
communication/chatting, browsing, etc. Application software are divided into 2 categories.

i. General-Purpose Application Software

Are bought off-the-shelf by users since they are readily available in the market. They are
used by non-experts, domestic and business users. Examples: Word processors,
Spreadsheet programs, DBMS, accounting software, Graphic/Photo editors, Music
Software, etc.
Advantages

1. Are cheap and readily available.

2. Can be used to accomplish a variety of tasks e.g. word processing, accounting, etc.
3. Are easy to learn and use hence good for non-experts.
4. They have user manuals that direct the user on how to operate.
Disadvantages

1. May not solve the users problems to his satisfaction.

2. They cannot be easily modified to serve a custom problem.

i. Special-Purpose Application Software

These are custom-made programs written by programmers or a software house under
contract to perform a specific job. They are not available off-the-shelf but are created
on demand based on a problem that has been identified by a client. They are mostly
used by banks, libraries, supermarkets, pharmacies, hospitals, etc. Advantages

1. They help solve specific problems to the user’s satisfaction since they are
custommade/tailored.

2. They have a comprehensive documentation (user manual).

3. Can be easy modified to solve new problems.

Disadvantages

1. They are expensive to acquire – requires one to hire programmers.

2. Their market is limited – only a few people/companies need them.
3. They require a lot of time to make – since one starts from scratch.
4. They are designed to solve a specific problem – are not suitable for the general
user.
 5. Some may require special training in order to be properly utilized.

NOTE:

1. Freeware – this is software that is free to use but one cannot modify it since the source
code is unavailable.

2. Shareware – this is software that is free to share and use but only for a short time
period. They are called trial.

3. Open-source programs – these are programs that are free and one can access their
source code (programming). They can thus be modified.

4. Proprietary software/closed source software – is software that legally remains the

property of the organisation, group, or individual who created it.

B. ACQUISITION
Here, software is classified according to how it is obtained/gotten/acquired.
a. Standard Software
This is general purpose software purchased from the company developing it or the
vendor/seller of the software.
b. User Developed (in-house/custom)
These are special-purpose software developed in-house by the programmer or
company.

Criteria for selecting a computer system (Specifications)

These are considerations/factors to be checked before acquiring a computer system.

A. Hardware Considerations
a. Processor speed – determines the number of operations the computer can do in
one second. The higher the processor speed the faster the computer.
b. Memory capacity – determines the number of instruction the computer can hold.
 The higher the capacity the operations it can do at a time. Memory and CPU together
determine the overall speed of the computer.
c. Warranty – a written guarantee, given by its manufacturer, promising to repair or
replace it if necessary within a specified period of time. Consider hardware with a
warranty of at least 1 year.
d. Upgradability – upgrading a computer involves making improvements to it or
adding its capabilities. Involves increasing RAM, Storage, adding peripherals, etc.
consider a computer that can permit upgrades.
e. User needs – The computer hardware selected should be able to accommodate
the user programs as well as any other device which might be added; both hardware
and software.
f. Cost – the cost of the computer hardware depends on various factors such as
speed, size, whether the computer is branded or clones, storage capacity, RAM, etc.
the cost should be within the budget.
g. Portability – The size of the computer should be small so as to enhance portability.
h. Compatibility – the devices should fit and work in harmony with the rest of the
system.
i. Durability – the devices should be able to bare wear and tear for a long time.
j. Documentation – devices should have manuals to guide the user on how to
use/operate them.

B. Software Considerations
a. Authenticity – refers to the genuineness or originality of software. Make sure that
the software you get is an original copy accompanied by the license.
b. User needs – refers to the kind of operations the software is expected to do. The
software should accommodate all user needs.
c. User friendliness – User-friendliness is a measure of how easily the user can be
able to operate the computer. Software should be user-friendly.
d. Systems requirements – these are the hardware requirements needed to
properly run the software. E.g. storage, speed and memory.
e. Cost – the cost of the software should be within the budget.
f. Compatibility – the software should work in harmony with the existing hardware
and software.
 g. Portability – ability of programs to work on different hardware.
h. Documentation – software should have a user manual to guide the user on how to
use it.

LIVEWARE

Liveware is a term used to refer to the computer end-user. They are the people who
coordinate the various activities, which are necessary to get a computer system to perform
useful tasks.

They include; Data entry operators, Computer Operators, Programmers, System Analysts, Data
Processing Managers, Database Administrators, Computer
Librarians, and the other staff directly or indirectly involved in the
running of the system operations.

The user is an integral part of the computer system as shown

below;