TOPIC 2: COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Introduction
- The term system can be defined as a collection of independent entities that collectively work together
to achieve a desired goal.
- Computer system refers to a collection of entities that work together to process and manage
information using computers.
- A computer system consists of three main components namely the hardware, the software and the
computer user (liveware).

Main components/Elements of a computer system

1. Hardware: Refers to the physical parts of a computer that make up a computer system.
2. Software: Refers to a set of instructions (programs) that instructs a computer what to do. The two
main categories of software are system software and application software.
3. Liveware/wetware/orgware: Refers to the human being’s attachment to a computer system.

COMPUTER HARDWARE
- Hardware may be classified into four categories namely:
(i) Input devices
(ii) Central processing unit
(iii) Output devices
(iv) Storage devices

INPUT DEVICES
- Are hardware components that convert user input which is in human readable form to machine form
that a computer can process.
- Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data. This includes:

1. Keying devices such as the keyboard, keypad etc.

2. Pointing devices such as mouse, trackball etc.
3. Scanning and other data capture devices.
4. Speech recognition or voice input devices.
5. Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras.

Keying devices
- A keying device converts typed numbers, letters and special characters into machine readable form
before processing takes place.

Types of keying devices

1. Standard keyboard: It is the most commonly used type of keyboard.
2. Flexible keyboard: It is a flexible keyboard that can be folded and packed into a bag for portability
and ease of use when on the move.
3. Ergonomic keyboard: It is designed to alleviate wrist strain experienced when using ordinary
keyboard for long hours.
4. Touch screen keypad: It is a miniature (small sized) keypad that pops up on the screen of most
portable devices such as laptop, tablet, and smartphone. Touch screen keypad can be operated using
finger, stylus or any sharp pointed tool.
5. Braille keyboard: It is designed for use by people with visual impairment. It consists of a series of
raised dots that can be read by touch.
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Pointing devices
- Pointing devices are used for controlling an insertion pointer or cursor on the screen.

Types of pointing devices

1. Mouse: It is the most common type of pointing device. Technological advancement has led to the
replacement of mouse cable with wireless technology such as wireless fidelity (WiFi) and
bluetooth.
2. Touchpad: Majority of laptops come with a touchpad used the same way as the mouse. A touchpad
allows the user to scroll, select and click by tapping with fingers.

(diagram on page 35 at the top)

3. Joystick: A joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever which can be moved sideways,
upwards or downwards to control the position of the cursor. It is purposely used for playing video
games.

(diagram on page 35)

4. Stylus: It is a pen-like pointing device used to write on a touch sensitive screen of devices like
smartphones and tablets.

(diagram on page 36)

5. Trackball: A trackball works just like the mouse but instead of moving it on a flat surface, a ball
fixed on its top is rolled using the index finger. As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen;
one can then click its button to execute the selected command.

Scanners
- Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it into digital format.
- Scanners are devices that enter (capture) data into the computer directly.
- Scanners can be classified according to the technology they use to capture data. These are optical
scanners and magnetic scanners.

Optical scanners
- These types of scanners capture data using light.
- A special type of concentrated beam of light is passed over the object, image or text which needs to
be entered into the computer. The scanner converts the data into digital form and then passes it to the
computer for processing.
- There are three types of optical scanners:

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 1. Optical mark recognition (OMR)
- These types of scanners detect marks made on a piece of paper using a soft pen or pencil. The reader
scans the marks with a special type of light called infrared light. Where there are no marks, a strong
light is reflected than where one exists.
- OMRs are used in marking multiple choice questions, analyzing response from questionnaires and
selecting of number combinations in lottery tickets.

2. Optical bar recognition (OBR)

- OBR scanners are used to capture data encoded as lines of varying thickness known as barcodes or
Universal product Code (UPC).
- Barcodes hold item information such as, country of manufacture, name of the manufacturer, and item
code.

3. Optical character recognition (OCR

- Optical character recognition (OCR) scanners are used to read handwritten, printed characters and
images.
- The most common type of this scanner is the flatbed scanner.
- The text or a picture scanned is displayed on the screen or saved so that one can edit or print it.

Magnetic Scanners
- These types of scanners are used to capture data written using magnetic ink or coded onto a magnetic
strip.
- Common examples of magnetic scanners are Magnetic Ink Character recognition (MICR) and
card readers.

Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)

- MICR was developed to help banks process cheques. MICR scanners are used to read
characters written using magnetic ink.
- An example of an MICR device is a cheque reader sed in banks.

Magnetic stripe recognition

- A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often found at the back of a plastic card e.g. an automated
teller machine card (ATM) and a credit card.
- An ATM card is used to get banking services without necessarily going to the counter, while a credit
card allows the holder to get services in any centre where the card is acceptable.

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 Speech recognition or voice input
- Voice recognition is a type of input method where a microphone is used to enter data in form of
spoken words into the computer.
- This method is mostly suitable for the handicapped especially those with impaired hands.
- Although this is a fast and easier method, it has some disadvantages.

Disadvantages of speech recognition devices

1. It is complex to develop and
2. It does not take care of speech related problems such as accents, inflections and tone.
3. It does not differentiate between synonyms (words that sounds similar).

Digitizers
- A digitizer also known as graphic tablet allows the user to directly draw an image using a stylus.
- The image drawn does not appear on the tablet but on the computer screen.
- Digitizers are mostly used for architectural and engineering designs.

Digital cameras
- A digital camera stores its images in digital form. These images can then be streamed (entered)
directly into a computer for editing or printing by connecting the camera to a computer using a
special cable.
- There are two types of digital cameras: One that can take still images i.e. photographs and another
that takes motion pictures (video).

Smartboard
- It is an interactive whiteboard that is connected to a computer.
- Smartboards are used in places such as classrooms, corporate boardrooms, seminars and
broadcasting studios.

{Diagram on page 40}

{Assessment exercise 2.1 on Pg 40}

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

- The central processing unit (CPU) also known as the Processor is the most important component of
the computer.
- It is regarded as the brain of the computer because all data processing and control operations are
coordinated here.
- In microcomputers, the CPU is mounted on a circuit board known as the motherboard inside the
system unit.

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 Functional elements of CPU
- The CPU has three different functional units called Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control
Unit (CU) and the main memory.

{Diagram on page 41}

Control unit
- The control unit coordinates all processing activities of the CPU.
- It also determines which operational or instruction is to be executed next.
- To coordinate these activities, the control unit uses a system clock that sends command signals
similar to the way traffic lights coordinates road users.
- The system clock determines the speed of a microprocessor. The faster the clock pulses, the
faster the CPU hence the faster the computer can process data.

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

- The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is a unit of central processing unit where arithmetic and
logical operations are carried out.

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 - The arithmetic operations performed by ALU includes addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
- Logic operations involve comparison of two or more values using operators like equals to (=),
greater than (>) and less than (<).
- In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage locations called
registers, which holds the data just before processing. It also holds the results after processing.

Main memory (primary storage or working storage)

- Main memory also known as primary storage provides storage location for data and instructions
accessed by the control unit.
- Computer main memory can be classified into read only memory (ROM) and random access memory
(RAM).

Read only memory (ROM)

- Read only memory is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi
permanently.
- Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to remain unchanged for long periods of time
e.g. booting instructions, special purpose computers and computerized fuel pumps instructions etc.

Types Of ROM
- Depending on permanence of the instructions or data written on it, there are four types of read only
memory namely:
1. Mask read only memory: Once the content is written on it by the manufacturer, it cannot be changed.
2. Programmable read only memory (PROM): This allows the user to alter it only once after the
content is written on it.
3. Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM): It has a transparent quartz window through
which its contents, can be erased by exposing it to ultra violet (UV) light, and then reprogrammed
for another use.
4. Electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM): This type of ROM can be erased
and reprogrammed using electricity. An example of EEPROM is the memory that stores the basic
input/output system (BIOS).

Characteristics of read only memory (ROM)

1. One can only read its content but you cannot write on it unless it is a special type of ROM.
2. It is non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off.
3. Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions from the manufacturer called firmware. It can store
semi- permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chips can be programmed according to the
user s specification.

Random access memory (RAM)

- This is the most common type of main memory. It is called random access memory (RAM) because;
its content can be read directly regardless of the sequence in which it was stored.
- As opposed to ROM, the content in RAM is held temporarily and its content is lost once the
computer is turned off Therefore, before switching off the computer, it is important that one stores
(saves) his/her work in a device that offers relatively permanent storage facility.

Characteristics of random-access memory (RAM)

1. Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.

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2. RAM is a temporary (volatile) storage because its content disappears when the computer is switched off.
3. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM.

Types of RAM
- There are two types of-RAM namely, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM).
- Static RAM is very fast compared to dynamic RAM and holds its content as long as there is power.
- Static RAM is more expensive. It is mostly used to make special types of memories.

- Dynamic RAM on the other hand can only hold its content for a short while even when power is on.
To maintain the content of dynamic RAM, the memory chip is designed in a way that its content is
refreshed (automatically rewritten) severally per second.
- Dynamic RAM is cheaper compared to Static RAM.

Special purpose memories

- Apart from ROM and RAM there are several types of special purpose memories found inside the
CPU or in the input and output devices.
- These memories are vital because they increase the overall performance of data and instructions
moving in and out of the CPU.
- These memories include buffers, registers and cache memory.

Buffers
- Buffers are special memories found in input or output devices.
- Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output devices, buffers provide temporary
storage so that the CPU is set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be
entered or information to be output.
- For example, since a printer cannot work at the speed of a CPU, the printer buffers temporarily hold
the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other functions.
- Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

Registers
- As opposed to buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU.
- Examples of registers are:
1. An accumulator: This temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU.
2. Instruction register: This temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a
form that CPU can understand it.
3. An address register: This temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be processed.
4. Storage register: This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU
and the main memory.

Cache Memory
- Most modern processors incorporate small high-speed type of SRAM called cache memory.
- The purpose of cache memory is to allow the processor to access data and instructions even faster
than it would have taken to fetch it from the relatively slow DRAM.

Types of cache memory

1. Level 1 cache – L1 cache is also known as primary cache because it is incorporated inside the
microprocessor.

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 2. Level 2 cache – L2 cache is also known as external cache. It may be installed inside the processor or
between the processor and DRAM.
3. Level 3 cache – L3 cache is installed on the motherboard to support L2 cache in enhancing system
performance in terms of processing speed.

Memory capacities
- Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes.
- A byte is equivalent to a single character. Characters can be a number from 0 to 9, letters A to Z or a
special symbol. For example, a number like 2545 has four bytes while the words, My Home has
seven bytes since, the space between them is considered as a character of one byte.

Memory quantities can be expressed in;

1. Kilobytes (kB): Approximately one thousand bytes, but the actual size is 1024. This is because
digital computer uses only two digits i.e. 0 and 1.
2. Megabytes (MB): Approximately one million bytes, but the actual size is 1048576.
3. Gigabytes (GB): Approximately one billion bytes, but the actual size is 1073741824.
4. Terabytes: Approximately one trillion bytes, but the actual size is 1099511627776.

Overall functional organization of the CPU

- The arithmetic and logic unit, the control unit and the main memory communicate through
electrical pathways referred to as electronic buses.
- There are three types of buses namely”
1. Control bus: This is the pathway for all timing and controlling functions sent by the
control unit to other parts of the system.
2. Address bus: This is the pathway used to locate the storage location in memory where the
next instruction or data to be processed is held.
3. Data bus: This is the pathway through which the actual data transfer takes place.

The figure below shows a summary of the overall organization of the CPU and how it controls other computer
components:

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Types of processors and their clock speeds
- Processors may be classified into two broad categories depending on instruction set, and the
processing speed.

Classification According To Instruction Sets

- Processors consists of a built-in set of instructions known as instruction set. The two common types
are Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) and Reduced Instruction Set Computers
(RISC)

Instruction Set Computers (CISC)

- A CISC processor is made up of a large number of complex instruction sets.
- This design was popularized by intel corporation and is widely used on Pentium processors.
- Some examples of CISC processors are Intel Pentium and PDP-II processor.

Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)

- RISC processors use fewer instruction sets compared to CISC.
- Motorola and Sun Microsystems companies were the main manufacturers of RISC processors.

Classification According To Speed

- Until 1989, Intel corporation enjoyed monopoly in the field of microprocessor technology with her
famous Intel processors.
- Since then, other players joined in and started manufacturing cheaper alternatives. These include:
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Cyrix and Motorola companies

Processor clock speed

- The speed at which a processor executes instructions is determined by its clock speed.
- System clock speed is measured in hertz. A hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number
of cycles per second in a signal.

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 - Quantities of the clock speed can be expressed in:

1. Kilohertz (KHz): Approximately one thousand hertz.

2. Megahertz (MHz): Approximately one million hertz.
3. Gigahertz (GHz): Approximately one billion hertz.
- There has been a tremendous growth in the processing capability and clock speed of microprocessors.
From a speed lower than 4MHz, modern microcomputers can run at speeds higher than 2GHz.
- The table below shows a summary of how microprocessors have evolved:

Processor Type and Clock speed Year

Intel 4004: 740KHz 1971

Intel 8080: 2MHz; 1974
Motorola 6800: 1-2MHz
Intel 8086: 4.77-10MHz 1978
Motorola 6809: 1-2 MHz
Intel 8088: 5-10 MHz 1979
Intel 80286: 8-12 MHz 1982
Intel 80386: 16-40 MHz 1985
Intel 486: 16-100MHz 1989
Intel Pentium: 60-200MHz 1993
Pentium II: 233-500MHz; AMD 1997
K6: 166-300MHz
Pentium III: 500MHz-1GHz; AMD 1999
Athlon: 900MHz-1.3GHz
Intel Celeron: 533MHz; 2000
AMD Duron: 600MHz-1.8GHz
Intel Pentium IV: 1.3-3.8GHz 2001
AMD Athlon 64 X2 duo-core: 1.9GHz-3.2GHz 2005
Intel Core 2 Duo: 1.2-3.0GHz; 2006
dual-core (2 cores)
Intel Core 2 Quad: 2.67GHz; AMD 2007
Phenom X2: 1.8-2.6GHz
Intel Core i7: 2.67-3.3GHz 2008
Intel Core i5 (4 cores): 2.40-3.60 GHz Athlon II 2009
X3: 2.2-3.4GHz
Intel Core i3 (2 cores): 2.13-2.27GHz; 2010
Phenom II X6: 2.6-3.7GHz
Intel Core i9 X-series: 2.2-4.5GHz 2017

{Assessment exercise 2.2 on Pg 48}

OUTPUT DEVICES
- Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced
after the processing operations.
- There are two types of output devices namely the softcopy and the hardcopy output devices.
- Softcopy refers to the intangible output mainly displayed on the screen or through other
output devices such as speakers.

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 - A hardcopy is a tangible output produced mostly on papers by devices such as printers.

Softcopy output devices

- Some of the softcopy output devices are monitors, speakers, projectors and Light emitting Diode (LED)
indicators:

Monitors
- A monitor or a video display unit (VDU) is the most common output device.
- It displays information on its screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out by the computer.

Types of monitors
1. Cathode Ray Tube monitors
- For a long time, monitors have been designed using a long tube called the cathode ray tube (CRT
that emits light.
- The screen of a cathode ray tube is curved slightly outward forming a convex shape.
- However, new flat displays have come which do not use CRT technology. These include liquid Crystal
Display (LCD), Light Emitting Diode (LED), and Gas Plasma Display (GPD) monitors.
- Flat displays are more comfortable to use, portable and do not consume a lot of power compared to CRT.

LCD and LED monitors

- LCD is a flat panel monitor that uses liquid crystals for backlighting the screen.
- Unlike LCD monitors, LED monitors run at a lower temperature and consumes less power
compared to CRT monitors.

LCD technologies
- There are two technologies used to make LCDs, Passive matrix and Active matrix.
- In Passive matrix, LCDs create images by scanning the entire screen. This type of LCDs requires
little power but have poor clarity.
- Active-matrix displays are made using Thin Film Transistor (TFT) hence consumes more power
than passive matrix but offer better clarity.

Gas Plasma display monitors

- They resemble LCDs only that they make use of gas for backlighting the screen.
- The screen contains millions of pixels that are illuminated by charged neon gas.

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 - Unlike LCDs, images displayed by GPDs do not suffer from angle distortion.
- The technology is currently being used to produce High-Definition TVs (HDTV).

Display terminologies
1. Pixel: Stands for picture elements. Are tiny dots which are used to form the images displayed on the
screen. In color monitors, a pixel has three primary colors namely red, green and blue.
2. Color depth: Refers to number of colors that by be displayed by a pixel. It is measured in binary digits
(bits).
3. Resolution: This is the number of pixels per inch. It is usually given in dots per inch (dpi) or bits.
The higher the resolution, the more the number of pixels per square inch, hence the clearer the
images on the screen.
4. Refresh rate: Since CRT monitors do not hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM
is used to constantly refresh the one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low refresh rate,
images tend to flicker hence causing eyestrain.
5. Display size: The size of the display is measured in inches across the diagonal. Common display
sizes are 10 inch, 12 inch, 15 inch, 19 inch and 21 inch.

Video graphic adapters

- For a monitor to display images, it must be connected through a video port to a video adapter or
controller mounted on the motherboard.
- It is the video adapter that determines the resolution and clarity of the monitor.

Examples of graphic adapters

1. Color Graphics Adapter (CGA): This is the earliest type of adapter introduced by international business
machines (IBM) in 1981 to display graphics using 16 colors.
2. Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA): It was an improvement to CGA but also display in 16 colors and
maximum resolution of 640 X 350 pixels.
3. Video graphics array (VGA): VGA was introduced by IBM in 1987 to display text, graphics
and video using 256 colors at a resolution of 60 X 480 pixels.
4. Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA): Was an enhancement of VGA that displays text and
graphics using more than 16 million colors. It has a resolution of 1024 X 768.
5. Extended Graphics Array (XGA): XGA has a resolution of up to 1024 X 768 pixels. It is popular
with 17- and 19-inch monitors.
6. Super Extended Graphics Array (SXGA): SXGA has a resolution of 1280 X 1024 pixels and is popular
with 19- and 21-inch display monitors.
7. Ultra Extended Graphics array (UXGA): this display adapter offers very high-resolution of 1600 X 1200
pixels.

Sound output
- Speakers are used to output sound from a computer. Sound may be in form of music, warning, video,
interactive communication with a computer etc.

Projectors
- Are used for displaying soft copy output from a computer onto a plain screen or wall.
- It is a creative way of presenting computer output to an audience in class, theater and conference halls.

Light Emitting Diode indicators

- These are used to display light when an electric current is passed through them. In monitors and systems

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 units, LED indicators indicate when the device is on using red or green color.
- Red indicators on the system unit may imply that the system is faulty.

Hardcopy output devices

- The most common hard copy output devices are printers and plotters.

Printers
- Printers produce a hard copy of information on papers.
- The quality of the hardcopy depends on the printer’s printing mechanism.
- There are two types of printers namely impact and non-impact printers.

Impact printers
- They print using striking mechanism. The printing head strike the paper in order to form an imprint on it.
- The two widely used impact printers are dot matrix and daisy-wheel printers.

Dot matrix printers

- They produce a hardcopy by arranging patterns of dots on the paper using pins held in the printing head.

Daisy-wheel printer
- It has a wheel with petals on which characters are mounted.
- It is so called because it resembles a daisy flower.
- When printing, the wheel rotates allowing the petals to hit a ribbon with different characters as they
are received from the computer.

Non-impact printers
- These printers do not use the striking mechanism to produce characters on a piece of paper.
- They do not hammer the ribbon hence they are much quieter.
- The major non-impact printers are inkjet, thermal, laser and photo printers.

Inkjet printers
- Inkjet printers form characters by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that
arranges the charged ink particles into characters.
- Inkjets are cheap to buy but expensive to run because of the high cost of ink cartridges.

Thermal printers
Thermal printers use heat to transfer characters onto a piece of paper i.e. they bond characters onto a piece
of paper by using hot pins which presses against a special ribbon. They are inexpensive alternative to
inkjets.

Laser printers

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 - Laser printers print by passing a laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum.

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 - The laser beam draws the image on the drum by static electricity.
- The charged areas pick up the ink toner from a cartridge, and press it onto the paper.
- Although these printers are more expensive to buy, they are faster, and cheaper to run than the inkjets.
Photo printers
- They are used to high quality image printouts from sources such as memory cards, optical disks
and digital cameras.

Plotters
- A plotter is a special type of printer used for printing large format hardcopy outputs like
geographical maps, architectural drawings, and billboards.

Factors to consider when purchasing a printer

1. Print quality: Dot matrix printers are good for bulk printing of draft documents, laser is good
for printing official documents while thermal printers are good for point-of-sale counter receipts.
2. Initial cost: The cost of maintaining an inkjet printer may be higher than that of maintaining laser
printers.
3. Speed: The speed of a printer is measures in pages per minute. The higher the number of pages
per minute, the more expensive the printer.
4. Color printing: Most printers support black and color printing. However, color printers, especially
lasers are relatively more expensive.

{Assessment exercise 2.3 on Pg 57}

SECONDARY (AUXILIARY) STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA

- Secondary storage, also referred to as auxiliary storage, are devices that provide alternative long-term
storage location for data, programs and information, other than the main memory.
- They are regarded as secondary because unlike primary storage, they are not directly accessible
by the CPU.
- Depending on portability, secondary storage devices and media may be classified into two broad
categories namely removable and fixed storage.

Removable storage devices and media

- The term removable storage means that the media can be carried away and used on different machines.
- Examples of removable media include floppy disk, CDs , DVDs, flash disks and memory cards.

Magnetic tapes
- A magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar (plastic-like) material coated with a thin layer of iron oxide.
- The tape resembles the music cassette used in home tape recorders.
- In order to read/write data records on the tape, the tape must be inserted in a tape drive that rotates the
tape allowing a read/write head to perform the operation.

Disadvantages of using magnetic tapes

1. Magnetic tapes are slow because of the linear storage of data records on the tape. This means that you have
to access the proceeding records before you get the required.
2. There is a space between successive data records called inter-record gap (IRG), which results in wastage
of storage space.

Magnetic disks
- They have a magnetic disk platter that stores data.
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 - A floppy disk or simply a diskette is one of the earliest magnetic disks.
- A floppy disk is made up of a flexible disk covered in a plastic package.
- Floppy disks were popular in 1980s and 90s.
- A standard 3.5-inch floppy disk stored up to 1.44 MB.
- Other higher capacity magnetic disks included zip disks, jaz disks, and high-capacity floppy disk
(HiFD)

NB: Most of these magnetic disks have become obsolete due to increasing demand for higher storage
capacity for programs and digital data like movies.

Care of magnetic storage media

To care for magnetic media the following rules are to be observed.
1. Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields. This would erase the magnetically recorded data on the
disk. Hence do not carry magnets to the computer room.
2. Keep magnetic media away from excessive heat because heat energy weakens magnetic media’s ability
to store data.

3. Do not drop the disk on the ground.

Optical disks
- An optical disk is a storage medium onto which data is written and read using low-powered laser beam.
- The three common types of optical disks are Compact Disk (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), and
Blu-ray disks.

The advantages of optical storage media are:

1. They store very large volumes of data.
2. Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than
the magnetic media.

Compact disks (CD)

- Compact disks hold large quantities of data and information.
- One disk can hold as much as 700MB.
- They are mostly used to store data and information that requires a lot of space such as video
clips, software, sounds etc.

Currently compact disks are available in three forms namely:

1. Compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM): These are the type of compact disks which, when data is
recorded on Them, one can neither change them, nor add anything on them. They are mostly used to
store music recordings.
2. Compact disk-recordable (CD-R): These compact disks are initially blank but with a drive called
CD- Writer, the user can record data, programs or information on it. However, once data has been written
on it, one can only read but not change it.
3. Compact disk-rewritable (CD-RW): Unlike the CD-Rs, these types of compact disks allow the user to
record, erase and rewrite new information just as one would with floppy disks.

NB: Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many) because they allow the
user to record data on them once but read the data as often as necessary.

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 Digital versatile disks (DVD's)
- Digital versatile disks also known as digital video disks resemble compact disks in every aspect
but the only difference is that they have higher storage capacity of up to 17GB which is equivalent
to approximately twenty-six 640MB CDs.
- They are suitable for recording motion pictures such as video because they offer better sound and
picture quality than the CDs.

Blu-ray disk
- It is a high-capacity optical storage used for storage and playing back high-definition audio and video
content.
- Blu-ray disk gets its name from the blue-violet laser beam used to read the storage media.
- Compared to a DVD, a Blu-ray disk supports higher resolution and higher storage of up to 50 GB.

Emerging trends in optical technology

- The advances in optical storage, digital video clips, voice and sound synthesis have formed the basis
for modern multimedia technology exploited to develop multimedia computers.
- A multimedia computer does not only display text but can also allow the user to have sound
playback and watch videos and pictures.
- A typical multimedia computer must have the following minimum requirements:

1. A video graphic array or higher super video graphic array (SVGA) graphics card and monitor.
2. A sound card.
3. Compact disk or digital video disk drives.
4. 32 MB RAM or higher.

Solid state storage media

- A solid-state storage is a non-volatile storage that uses integrated circuits rather than
mechanical, magnetic or optical technology to record and read data.
- They are referred to as solid state because they do not have movable parts.
- Examples of solid-state storage are memory sticks (flash disks) and memory cards.

Handling removable storage media

To avoid loss of data or information held on removable storage media, observe the following rules:
1. Do not expose the storage media to excessive heat to avoid damaging the disk shape, data surface
or electronic components.
2. Do not drop a removable media to avoid breakage or damage on its electronic components in case of solid-state
devices.
3. Do not bend, fold, or scratch the surface of optical disks to avoid loss of data due to damaged data surface.
4. Do not forcefully eject a storage media from drive or USB port because this may result to data loss.

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 Fixed Storage Media
- These are the storage devices that are housed inside the personal computer’s system unit. An example
is the hard disk. However, it is important to note that some hard disks especially those used in small
computers such as laptops are removable.

The hard disk

- The hard disk, also known as the Winchester disk is a sealed unit in which is shiny, rigid
magnetic disks or platters that are arranged vertically on a common axis as shown in the figure
below.

How the hard disk stores data

- Each disk has two read/write heads that read/record data on both sides.
- The surfaces of each disk are divided into tracks and sectors like those of a floppy disk.
- Tracks along the common axis forms an imaginary cylinder. Therefore, the term cylinder is
sometimes used to indicate the number of tracks on one surface of a platter. For example, if you say
that a hard disk has ten cylinders then each disk has ten tracks on one surface. If the disk has ten
platters, then one cylinder will have twenty tracks:

- As the disk rotates, the read/write head moves in and out over the surface to record or read data.

Hard disks have gained widespread popularity because:

1. They provide permanent, cheap and large storage capacity that is rewritable. For example, a computer can have
one hard disk of up to 1 TB (1000 GB) storage space.
2. They are very fast compared to other secondary storage devices in terms of data transfer.

Care of the hard disk

- Because of the high rotational speed of the disks, it is important to observe the following precautions to
avoid permanent destruction to the hard disk also called disk crash:
1. Keep the disk away from smoke and dust. Dust and smoke particles can cause damage to the surface of the
disk by scratching it as the head attempts to read data.

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 2. Switch off the computer using the correct procedure. This allows the read/write head to move off the disk
surface before power is switched off. Improper procedure would risk heads crashing on rotating disks hence
scratching
them.

{Assessment exercise 2.4 on Pg 61}

Power and interface connectors Power

Supply Unit
- Inside the system unit is a special power supply unit that supplies power to the motherboard and
other internal devices.
- In order to connect the computer to the mains power outlet, you need power cables that link the
power supply unit to the outlet.

Connecting peripheral devices Interface

cables
- All peripheral devices are connected to the motherboard hence to the CPU by special cables called
interface cables.
- An interface cable is connected to the device on one end, and to the motherboard via ports on the
other end.
- The difference between the power cables and the interface cables is that the power cable supplies
power to a component while interface cables transmit data signals.

There are different types of cables and ports namely:

1. Parallel cables and ports
- Parallel cables transmit information simultaneously using a set of many conductors (wires). For
example, if a cable uses 8 conductors to transmit data at the same time, it is said to be an 8-bit
parallel cable.
- The advantage of using such cables is that they transmit data faster over a short distance.
- A few years ago, parallel cables were used to connect printers and removable storage drives like zip
drive.

2. Serial cables and ports

- Unlike the parallel cables, serial cables transmit one bit at a time.
- Although they are slow, they are much more reliable than the parallel ports.
- their connector cables can be as long as 15m.
- Serial cables were generally used to connect devices such as the mouse and some serial printers.

3. Universal serial bus (USB) cable and port

- Universal serial bus is a new standard serial interface that has replaced the conventional parallel and
serial cables and ports.
- Modern peripheral devices are coming with universal serial bus ports and interface cable.
- Although it transmits only I-bit at a time, it provides very high-speed and quality data transmission
over distances of approximately 5 meters.

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 - USB supports a wide range of peripheral devices ranging from external storage drives to digital
cameras.

4. Video Graphics array (VGA):

- The VGA interface is used to connect display devices such as TVs, monitor or LCD
projectors to the computer.

5. High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)

- HDMI is the latest interface used for transmitting digital audio and video data from
computer to a projector, TV or audio device.
- HDMI is intended to eventually replace the VGA interface.
6. Firewire Interface
- Firewire also referred to as IEEE 1394 is almost similar to USB but has higher
transmission rate hence suitable for streaming video from digital cameras to a computer.
- It is mostly used for streaming videos from digital video cameras.

{see diagrams on page 66} Audio

Interface
- Audio interface is used to connect speakers, microphone (mic), and other audio output devices.

Bluetooth wireless interface

- Bluetooth is a wireless interface that uses short range radio broadcast to connect to any
Bluetooth device.
- Most portable devices like laptops, tablets and mobile phones have Bluetooth connectivity
that allows them to share files, connect to printer and access internet.

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{Assessment exercise 2.5 on Pg 67}

Basic computer setup and cabling

- Having learnt about various devices and how they function, it is important to familiarize ourselves on
how to setup a computer.

- Before attempting to carry out any setup activity, observe the following precautions should be
observed.

1. Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work on them.
2. Do not work on any peripheral device without the guidance of the teacher.
3. Never work alone because you may need help in case of an emergency.
4. Discharge any static electricity that might have built up on the hands by touching an earthed metallic
object and then wearing an anti-static wrist member. This is because your body can hold as much as 200
volts of static charge that can damage sensitive components on the motherboard.

Tools and other requirements

The tools and requirements include;
1. Different sizes and shapes of screwdrivers.
2. Anti-static wrist member.
3. Pliers with narrow nose.
4. Manufacturer s manuals for motherboard and other components.
5. Necessary software.
6. A dismantled system unit.
7. Peripheral devices.
8. Interface and power cables.
9. Any other as needed.

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 Connecting peripheral devices
- To connect a device to the system unit, you need to identify its port and interface cable.

1. Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct port and to the device if it
is not already fixed permanently.
2. Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.
3. Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether power on-self test (POST) displays any
error message.
4. A successful boot means that the computer was properly setup.
NB: If the computer is completely new, programs have to be copied (installed) on the hard disk.

{Assessment exercise 2.6 on Pg 70}

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
- As mentioned earlier, the term software refers to a set of computer programs.
- Its function is to guide the computer in its operations.
- Software can be classified according to purpose or acquisition.

Classification according to purpose

- Computer software may primarily be designed to manage the hardware resources or to help the
user accomplish specific tasks. Therefore, software may be classified as either system or
application software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
- System software performs a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer resources to
the user. These functions include:

1. Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly.
2. Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing application programs.
3. Storing and retrieving files.
4. Performing a variety of system utility functions.

System software is further divided into:

1. Operating system. 2. Firmware.
3. Utility software. 4. Networking software.

The operating system

- Operating system is a type of system software that manages the computer hardware and control
execution of programs installed on a computer.
- It manages input/output and storage operations in a computer.
- Examples of common operating systems are Microsoft Windows 95/98/2000/XP, UNIX, Linux,
Macintosh (Mac OS) and OS/2.
- Therefore the operating system is the main program on the computer system.

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 Firmware
- Firmware, also referred to as stored logic is a combination of both the software and hardware
recorded permanently on electronic chips.
- Usually, a firmware is a read-only memory chip that is mounted or plugged into the motherboard.
- Firmware may hold an operating system, utility programs, language processors etc.

Utility software
- Utility software is a special program that performs commonly used services that make certain aspects
of computing to go on more smoothly.
- Such services include sorting, copying, file handling, disk management etc.
- The two basic types of utility software are:

1. System-level utility software: These help the user to work with the operating system and its functions. For
example, a utility software tells the user when he/she enters a wrong command and gives suggestions how
the error can be corrected.
2. Application-level utility software: These make the use of an application program smoother and efficient.
These utility programs are commonly purchased separately or may be part of an operating system.

Networking software
- This type of software is mostly used to establish communication between two or more computers by
linking them using a communication channel like cables to create a computer network.
- Networking software enables the exchange of data in a network as well as providing data security.
- Network software may come as independent software or integrated in an operating system.
- An example of networking software is novel Netware.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
- Application software, also called application packages are programs that are designed to help the
user accomplish specific tasks.
Application packages
- The table below gives examples and uses of common application packages
Software Uses Examples
Word processors Typing documents like Microsoft Word, Lotus
letters. WordPro, WordStar.
Spreadsheets Manipulation of numeric data
Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1 2
e.g. calculating 3
budgets.
Desktop Designing publications Adobe PageMaker,
Publisher like newspapers, books. Microsoft publisher,
Adobe InDesign
Computer aided Technical drawing. AutoCAD, ArchiCAD
Design
Databases Keeping records and Microsoft Access,
MySQL, Oracle,
Foxbase, Paradox.
files.
Graphics software Creating and Corel Draw, Adobe
manipulating pictures. Photoshop.

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SOFTWARE ACQUISITION METHODS
- Generally, computer programs can be classified according to how they are obtained as open
source software and

Open Source Software

Open source software refers to software whose source code is freely available to the public. Here are some
characteristics of open source software:

 Source code availability: Open source software provides access to its source code, allowing users to view,
modify, and distribute it.

 Community-driven development: Open source software is often developed and maintained by a community of
volunteers who collaborate to improve the software.

 Flexibility and customization: Users can modify open source software to suit their specific needs and
preferences.

 Transparency and security: The availability of source code allows for transparency, enabling users to identify
and fix security vulnerabilities.

 Cost: Open source software is typically free to use, although some projects may offer paid support or additional
features.

Off-the-Shelf Software

Off-the-shelf software, also known as proprietary software, refers to software that is commercially developed
and sold as a packaged product. Here are some characteristics of off-the-shelf software:

 Closed source: The source code of off-the-shelf software is not accessible to users, limiting their ability to
modify or customize it.

 Commercial development: Off-the-shelf software is developed by professional software companies and is

subject to copyright and licensing restrictions.

 Ease of use: Off-the-shelf software is designed to be user-friendly and ready to use without requiring extensive
customization or development.

 Vendor support: Users of off-the-shelf software can typically rely on vendor support for bug fixes, updates, and
technical assistance.

 Cost: Off-the-shelf software is usually sold at a price, and users may need to purchase licenses for each user or
device.
Advantages of Off-the-shelf software
1. They can easily be installed and run.
2. They are cheaper than the cost of developing in-house software.
3. They are readily available for almost any task.
4. Minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested.
5. They can easily be modified (customized) to meet user’s needs.

Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software

1. They may have some features not needed by the user which may take extra storage.
2. They may require to change processes and hardware for compatibility which may in turn be expensive.
3. They may lack some features required by the user.
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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USER-LICENSE AGREEMENT
- To acquire, install and use software that is protected by copyright, you may have to download
it for free or pay for license fee.
- Depending on the terms and conditions of End-User-License Agreement (EULA), software
may be classified into proprietary, open source, freeware and shareware software.
1. Proprietary software: Refers to commercial software whose source code is hidden from users.
Modification to the software is only done by the software manufacturer.
- Examples of proprietary software include Microsoft windows, Microsoft Office, Adobe Acrobat
Professional, Adobe Master Collection, and CorelDraw suites.
2. Open-source software: Refers to software whose source code (set of instructions) is made available
to users. The end users are encouraged to acquire the source code, modify and distribute modified
versions of the original software.

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 - Examples of open-source software include Linux operating system, OpenOffice, Mozilla Firefox
browser, Thunderbird e-mail software Apache web server, and MySQL database management
system.
3. Freeware: This software category allows for free of charge acquisition, use, making copies and
distribution of copyrighted software for unlimited time.
- Examples of Freeware software include Adobe Reader, and Google Talk.
4. Shareware: consists of licensed software that allow users to freely make and distribute copies of the
software.
- Examples of shareware include Winzip, Adobe Acrobat Professional Edition, Internet Download
Manager (IDM), and CloneDVD

{Assessment exercise 2.7 on Pg 75}

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A COMPUTER SYSTEM

- The task of determining a suitable computer system for an individual or organization is not easy.
- A good computer system must meet all the requirements of the user.
- Requirements analysis for selecting a computer system should cover the following:

HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS
- Some factors considered when selecting computer hardware are:
1. Processor speed
- The processing power and speed of a computer mainly depends on the processor speed. A good
computer must have high processor speed.
- For example, a few years ago, processors used to have speeds of less than 100MHz. However, today
s Pentium processors are operating at very high clock speeds of over 4 GHz.
2. Memory capacity
- As earlier mentioned, primary memory, mainly random-access memory (RAM) is measured in
megabytes (MB).
- For example, a computer may have 32MB of RAM. Although, a computer may have a very fast
processor, it may not perform as expected if it has low memory capacity.

- Therefore, before one buys a memory module for the computer the following factors have to be
considered:
1. The type of module supported by the computer s motherboard.
2. Does the motherboard have an empty memory slot?
3. Will the module work well (be compatible) with the other existing modules on the motherboard?
4. What is the capacity of the module?

3. Warranty
- A warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and conditions of,
after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction.
- The most important consideration to make is whether the seller is ready to actually provide after
sales services. On top of the actual cost of the item, most manufacturers and suppliers include a
certain percentage charge to cover the warranty.

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A good warranty should cover the following points:
1. Scope of cover for example six months, one year etc.
2. Callout response and liability agreement. For example how long should the supplier take to repair a fault
or replace the product, and if he/she delays who bears the cost.
3. Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service, at intervals etc.

4. Cost
- The cost of a computer system depends on:

1. Its processing capability.

2. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than their equivalent
clones. This is because of their reliability and good after sale services.
3. Its size. Portable computers are more expensive than their desktop equivalents because of the superior
technology involved in manufacturing smaller components without losing performance abilities.

5. Upgradeability and compatibility

- When buying a computer, the best option would be to get one that can easily be upgraded to
accommodate emergent technologies.
- For example, some older computers cannot support large hard disks available in the market
today hence, difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard disks are no longer in circulation.

6. Portability
- The size of electronic devices including computers has become a major consideration
because smaller devices enhance mobility.

7. User needs
- When selecting computer hardware, consider the unique needs of the user.
- For example, if the users have special disability like inability to use their hands, consider buying
input devices that capture data through voice input.

Other considerations
- Other considerations for selecting computer hardware are:

1. Monitor
- Depending on preference, your choice for a monitor may depend on size, resolution and the
technology used to make it.
- Currently flat panel displays have become a new market standard quickly replacing the cathode ray
tube (CRT).

2. Multimedia capability
- This is the combination of video, audio, text and images to provide an interactive, creative and
effective way of producing and communicating information.
- A multimedia system should have speakers, CD/DVD drive, sounds card and a SVGA monitor. It
should also have software that supports multimedia capability (multimedia software).

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SOFTWARE CONSIDERATIONS
- Although one may have a good computer with the best hardware, the actual real determinant of a
computer’s value to the user is the software in it that can run to solve the day-to-day data and
information processing needs.
- The following factors should be considered when selecting software:

1. Authenticity
- The term authenticity refers to genuineness, validity and or legitimacy of an item.
- When you acquire software from the vendor, make sure it is an original copy that is accompanied by
the developer’s license and certificate of authenticity.
- This is because some people illegally produce pirated copies which is an offence.

2. Documentation
- It refers to the manuals prepared by the developer having details on how to install, use and maintain
the software.
- These include installation guide, maintenance guide and a user guide.
- The documentation enables the user to work with the software with minimum guidance.

3. User needs
- The needs of the user determine the type of operating system and application programs that should
be considered for acquisition.
- For example, if the user needs to type documents most often, he/she would go for a word-processor.
- People with disability will require software that recognizes other forms of input like voice and
natural sound.
- A good example is software used in mobile phones to store voice and allow the user to make a call
by just calling a name instead of keying in the number.

4. Reliability and security

- People are more comfortable with software that offers good security to confidential and
private information.

5. User friendliness
- One of the most important features normally considered when using a computer program is its user-
friendliness.
- This is a measure of how easily the users can be able to operate the computer. Some programs are
more user- friendlier than others.
- A lot of research and effort has been dedicated in trying to come up with more user-friendly software.
The ease of use of a program will most likely influence whether the user will prefer it or not.

6. Cost
- The cost of software is perhaps one of the most controversial issues that must be considered
carefully. One cannot just go for software because it is cheap. Many other factors may force a person
to buy far much more expensive software even with cheaper alternatives available. However, it is
illogical to buy expensive software if there is a reliable cheaper alternative that will meet ones

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 needs.

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 - In case the off- the-shelf software does not fit the needs of the users it would be advisable to develop
in-house software solutions even though they may be a bit more expensive.

7. Compatibility and system configuration

- Software compatibility refers to the ability of the computer to run the software depending on the
system setup (configuration).
- For example, some software may only run on a computer that has 32MB of RAM and above.
Any computer with lower than this, will be said to be incompatible.
- It is important that one reads the installation guide and system requirements that comes with
the software in order to avoid disappointment.

8. Portability
- Portability in this aspect refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in more than one
computer.
- Although, most software in the market today are portable some developers produce software which
can be installed on one machine only. This means that if one has twenty computers, one should buy a
license for each.

{Assessment exercise 2.8 on Pg 78}

{Revision Exercise 2 on Pg 79}

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TOPIC 3: OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS)

Introduction to Operating systems

- An operating system is the main program that controls the execution of user applications and enables
the user to access the hardware and software resources of the computer.
- Application programs do not directly utilize the hardware devices. They send messages through the
operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the hardware to perform a particular
task.
- An operating system therefore, supervises all the other programs in the computer and manages
access to the hardware.

Resources under operating systems control

- A computer is composed of a set of software-controlled resources that enable movement, storage and
processing of data and information.
- The resources or devices under the operating system control include:
a) the processor,
b) the main memory (RAM),
c) input and output device and parts,
d) secondary storage devices and
e) communication devices.

The processor
- The processor is a scarce resource. It executes tasks called processes. At any one time several tasks
may require processing hence creating competition.
- The operating system arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop a particular
task to allow the processor to service another one.

Main memory (RAM)

- At anyone given time so many tasks may require the memory so that they can be accessed and
processed by the computer.
- However, because memory is also a scarce resource, the operating system determines which task will
remain in memory waiting for execution and which one will be sent back to secondary storage to
wait.

- Because the operating system is large and very important, it is usually installed on the hard disk but
must be loaded to RAM during the booting process.
- Not all the operating system can fit in RAM so a small special part that contains the most necessary
commands and procedures called the kernel is the one that is loaded.

Input/output devices and ports

- In most cases, the operating system controls all data input and information output tasks.
- Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the operating system has to control
the flow of data from the time of input to the time the user receives it as information.
- It ensures that the right data reaches the processor at the right time.
- The operating system also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer e.g. printer
port.

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Secondary storage devices
- The operating system manages the storage and retrieval of data on secondary storage devices.
- It also utilizes the free space on hard disk to enhance the performance of the computer by
temporarily holding tasks on it that were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for some
time.

Communication devices and ports

- Communication in this case refers to how the various devices and programs in and out of the
computer system send and receive messages from one another and from the processor.
- The operating system controls the overall communication process between various tasks and
computers.
- External communication can be achieved by connecting an external device to a communication port
using a communication medium like cables or even wireless communication.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

- The functions of an operating system are:
1. Job scheduling
- The processor can only handle one task at a time. Therefore, the operating system has to
determine which task will be processed first and makes sure that the one that is currently being
processed is closely monitored to avoid wasting time in the processor.
- The criteria for selecting which task will come before the other depends on many factors. For
example, the operating system may decide to process smaller tasks before larger ones.

2. Resource control and allocation

- In order for the processor to be able to recognize and prioritize the use and requests for resources, it
gives each resource a unique identification number called an interrupt Request number.
- Hence when two tasks request to use a resource at the same time, the one with higher priority
interrupt request is granted control.
- This can be compared to the priority given to the presidential motorcade on a busy road.
- Secondly, the operating system tries as much as possible to avoid a situation where a particular task
holds a needed resource and refuses to release it for use by other tasks. Such a situation is called
deadlock.
- Resource control and allocation is a core operating system function because it determines which task
uses a particular resource and at what time.

3. Input/output handling
- Every computer has many input and output devices (I/O). Like a skilled traffic officer, the operating
system coordinates between these various I/O and other peripheral devices such as auxiliary storage
devices, making sure that data flows properly between them and sorting out any possible confusion.
- For example, when printing, the CPU directs its attention to the printing function. The operating
system searches for the printer, chooses the correct one, translates the name for the CPU and finally
the CPU sends the document to the printer. This then makes the CPU available for other activities.

4. Memory management
- All data and instructions must be temporarily held in the main memory before and after processing.
The operating system may organize the main memory into blocks of sizes called partitions. It
constantly assigns main memory storage partitions to data and instructions. To access a piece of data

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 or instruction, the operating system knows where to find each piece of data as long as the correct
address of the partition is used.

5. Error handling
- The operating system has many ways of alerting the user, of errors he or she makes. Many operating
system usually express what the error is, and where possible make suggestions on how to correct the
error.
- The operating system does this by monitoring the status of the computer system and performing error
checks on both hardware and the software.

6. Job sequencing
- The operating system keeps a list of jobs or tasks currently being run and clocks them in and out of
the processor. It also arranges them in a particular order to make it easy for the processor to execute
them and to know how and when to fetch instructions and data for each task.

7. Interrupt handling
- An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program. An
external request causes the processor to stop executing the current task, and do something else
before returning the control back to the program that was interrupted.

8. Network Management
- The operating system is responsible for facilitating connectivity and managing
communication protocols. The term protocol refers to utility software that defines how
devices are to communicate to each other on the network.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

- Operating systems can be classified according to:

1. Number of tasks handled concurrently.

2. Number of users.
3. Human computer interface (HCI).

Classification according to number of tasks

1. Single program operating system

- Single program operating system allows processing of only one user program in the main memory at
a time.
- The user can only run one interactive program at a time. This means that the user must exit from the
program before loading and running another program.
- An example of a single user operating system is MS DOS from Microsoft Corporation.

2. Multi-tasking operating system

- This type of operating system allows a single CPU to execute what appears to be more than one
programs at the same time. However, internally only one program is being executed at a time.

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 - The CPU switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for processing, executing
statements from one program, and then from another using the concept of giving a time slice to each
application.

Classification according to number of users

1. Single user operating system

- A single user operating system is designed for use by only one person. It cannot support more
than one person and runs only one user application at a time.

2. Multi user operating system

- Multi user or multi access operating system allows more than one user to interactively use the
computer.
- It can be installed on a computer that is accessed by many people at the same time. Examples of such
operating systems are UNIX, Novell and Windows NT/2000, Linux.

Classification according to user-interface

- The term human computer interface refers to the method of interaction between the computer and the
user and determines how easily the user can operate the computer.
- The underlying principle in operating system design is to make complex tasks very simple for the
user to carry out. This is the reason why a lot of time has been spent by software developers in trying
to come up with user friendly interfaces.

- Currently the three main types of human computer interface are:

1. Command line Interface

- The user interacts with a computer by typing a command at the prompt found on a command line.
- A computer reads instructions from the command line and executes them. For a command to be more
user friendly, the words used should be descriptive verbs e.g. print, copy etc. Unique abbreviations
can also be used e.g. Del Ren Chkdsk etc.

NB: The user must press the enter key for the command to be executed.

- Examples of command line interface are the early versions of MS DOS, PC DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.

2. Menu driven interface

- This type of interface provides the user with a list of options to choose from.
- The interface therefore is suitable for beginners who may have difficulties recalling commands.

3. The graphical user interface (GUI)

- Most of the operating systems in the market today supports Graphical User-interface (GUI).
- A GUI interface consists of rectangular application frames called windows, icons and menus. These
graphical objects are given an acronym WIMP that stands for Windows, Icons, Menus, and
Pointer.

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 - GUI has become a very common type of interface because of its user friendliness.

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 - Examples of GUI-based operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Linux, Apple Macintosh,
Apple’s iOS and Android.

Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

- When choosing an operating system for a computer, the following factors should be considered:
1. Hardware specifications such as the memory capacity, hard disk capacity and processor speed.
2. Basic design of the computer e.g. is it an IBM or IBM-Compatible, or an Apple computer.
3. Applications intended for use on the computer.
4. Ease of installation and use of the operating system.
5. Available documentation such as user manuals and installation guides.
6. Cost - how expensive is the operating system?
7. Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft Windows based operating systems are very common.
8. Network and data security provided by the operating system.
9. Reliability i.e. can it run without crashing or hanging i.e. stop responding to commands.
10. Number of processors and users supported by the operating system. Most operating systems today
support multi-core and multi-user platforms.
{Assessment exercise 3.1 – page 87}

How operating system organizes information

- The most common method used in organizing data and information is setting up a directory structure
in on secondary storage media such as the hard disk, and removable media.
- For example, Microsoft windows operating system organizes information in a tree-like structure.
This is to achieve the following goals:
1. Ease of access: The organization method should allow quick access to stored data.
2. Ease of update: The organization method should allow ease of update and the operating system
must be able to keep a record of the date of file creation and modification.
3. Efficient storage: The organization method should use the least storage possible to save on the
storage space.
4. Ease of maintenance: The organization method should enable quick navigation through the file
system and make it easy for it to be maintained.
5. Reliability: The file and folder organization method must be reliable and consistent regardless of
the device size
- Microsoft Windows operating systems organizes information into files, folders, and drives.

FILES
- A file is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access, manipulation and storage
on secondary storage.
- In windows, a file has details that indicate the following:

1. A file name and extension. The filename and extension are separated by a period (.) e.g. a file named
JUNE.DOC has the filename attribute JUNE and DOC extension denoting that the file is a word processor
document. The extension usually suggests the type of information held by the file e.g. DOC suggests that it
is a document file created in an application program called Microsoft Word.
Extension File type Description
.doc Document A Microsoft Document file.
.txt Text A plain text file created using
notepad or DOS editor.

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 .tif Image A graphic file such as picture
taken using digital camera or
created using applications such as
Adobe photoshop.
.exe Application The file that launches a particular
application, e.g. Winword.exe,
PM.to.exe, etc.
.bat Batch file File containing a series of
commands loaded during bootup.
.sys System file System files that perform
fundamental operations in a
computer.

2. attributes denoting the file sizes, date and time the file was created or modified.

- There are two types of files namely: system files and application files.

System files
- These files contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer. For example, all
hardware devices are tested and made ready (initialized) during boot up by having the computer read
information from special system files. These files in Windows would have name extensions like .sys,
.ini and .dll
- An example of a system file is system.ini

Application files
- They are also called program files because they hold programs or application files. They may
have extensions such as .exe.
- When naming files, it is important to give meaningful names and extensions that suggest its content.
For example, when saving a letter written to John, give it a name such as Johnletter. The name
extension is automatically added by the application being used.

Folders
- A folder or a directory is a named storage area where the user can store related files to enable easy
access.
- Like with an ordinary file cabinet, a folder is meant to help the user divide a large storage media into
small manageable storage locations.

Subfolders
- A large folder may be divided into smaller units called subfolders. Therefore, a subfolder or
subdirectory is folder/directory within another folder/directory.
- In Windows, folders and subfolder icons mostly appear in yellow color while file icons are mostly
white with a fold at the top right-hand corner.

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Drive
- In windows, a drive denotes logical storage location usually associated with a physical storage
device like the hard disk drive.
- The drives are labelled using letters of the alphabet A-Z with drive C denoting the hard disk drive
onto which windows operating system is installed.
- The table below gives a summary of how Microsoft operating systems categorizes drives:

Drive Media Description

A and B Floppy disk These drive labels were reserved
for floppy drives, which are
now obsolete.
C Hard disk This drive is reserved for the
hard disk that holds the
operating system.
D-Z Hard disk, optical disks, These drive letters are reserved
network drives for extra fixed or removable
storage media like external hard
disk, DVD, flash disk, and
network drives.

Windows desktop
- Once you switch on the computer, Windows is automatically loaded into the main memory and a
mostly empty screen called the desktop appears. This shows that the computer is ready for use.

Desktop features
- Windows 10 desktop consists of background, icons, and the taskbar.

Desktop Background
- Background is the work space on the desktop on which icons and running tasks are placed.
- Most computers come with a preselected background but you can change it by applying your favorite
themes and wallpapers.

Icons
- An icon is a graphic representation of an application.
- Icons are mostly manipulated using a pointing device e.g. the mouse.
- Some of the common icons on the desktop are My Computer; Recycle bin, Internet Explorer, and
My Documents.

The task bar

- The taskbar gives the user access to the Start menu, application icons, and Notification area.
- Whenever the user starts a program or opens a file, its button appears on the taskbar and stays there
until the user exits from the program. You can switch between various programs and documents in
Windows by clicking these buttons. This process is called multi-tasking.

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 The taskbar has at least three main parts
- Start button: The leftmost button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the start menu.
- Task manager: This is the plain stripe that displays buttons of all currently running tasks.
- System tray: This is at the right most part of the taskbar. It has icons of tasks running in the
background put are not displayed on the screen. Examples are the time and calendar, an antivirus
program, volume control etc. To display such a task, simply double click its icon.

The start menu

- When you click the start button, a list of choices appears called the start menu. The items on the
menu may vary depending on the version of Windows you are using.

Programs
- This menu displays a list of all programs installed in the computer. The menu has a small solid arrow.
When you point at it, another list of menus called a sidekick menu will be displayed.

Managing files and folders

To manipulate files and folders, you can either use My Computer icon from the desktop or Windows
explorer from the start menu. Each in its own way lets you see how storage devices or locations, files and
folders are arranged. These tools also enable the user to manipulate files and folders.

File explorer
Windows explorer lets the user display the drives and folders in a hierarchy or tree structure. The computer
tree is an up side down structure with the highest level being the root. The explorer divides the window into
two panes. The left pane displays a tree of drives and folders while the right pane displays a list of files and
sub folders contained in a particular open drive or folder.

To display the Windows explorer in some versions of Windows, carry out the following procedure:
1. Click the start button then
2. Point to the programs menu
3. From the Programs go to the sidekick menu, click windows explorer

An explorer window will be displayed.

NB: In some operating systems, Windows explorer command may not necessarily be located on the program
s menu. The other method of displaying the explorer window is to:
1. Right click' my computer icon on the desktop.
2. Point and left click explorer from the shortcut menu.

This method of displaying the explorer window has been adopted as the standard way of displaying the explorer
window throughout this book to take care of various versions of Windows operating systems.

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Using My computer
Double clicking on my computer icon, gives you a graphical view of what is inside the computer. This
includes the drives, the control panel and other resources.
To display files and folders from a particular drive proceed as follows:
1. Double click a drive icon. A window appears displaying files and folders stored in the root of the drive in
question. The root is considered to be the highest level of the directory tree where all directories/folders
start.
2. Double click a folder to display its contents.
3. Double click the hard disk (drive C). Its content will be displayed.
4. From this window you can start manipulating your files and folders.

Creating a new folder

There will be times when the user would want to create new folders. Say, for instance, when working on a
detailed project that has multiple files. It is advisable that all related files be kept together in one folder. To
create a new folder proceeds as follows:
1. Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create a new folder.
3. From the File menu, click New then click Folder. Anew folder with a temporary name New folder appears
in the explorer window.
4. Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press Enter key or click the icon once.
NB: To create a subfolder, follow the steps above but select a folder as the location. To open a folder
proceeds as follows:
1. Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, click the plus sign against the storage location that contains the file
or folder you wish to open.
3. From the folder tree, select the folder. Its contents will be displayed on the right pane.

Creating a new file .

Depending on the programs installed in your computer, you can create files of different types such as
drawings, text document etc. To create a new text document proceed as follows.
1. Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to create a new file.
3. From the File Menu, point new
4. Select text document from a list of available applications and an icon with a temporary name appears
in the explorer window.
5. Type a new name for the new file to replace the temporary name and press enter key.
NB: In Windows, file names can contain up to 255 characters, including spaces but, with no special symbols
such as \ /: *? < > I.

The application Window

In order to enter data in the new file just created above, you have to open it in its application program. This
can be done by double clicking the file icon. A rectangular area called an application window appears.

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 Features of an application Window
1. Title bar
- This is a bar across the top of the window that displays the name of the current application
program or task.
- On the right of the title bar are three tiny buttons namely:

Minimize button: It reduces a window by pressing a button which is placed on the taskbar.
The restore/maximize button: It stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or restore it to its original size.
The close button: It is used to exit an application.

2. Menu ribbon
- Provides a list of commands that can be used to manipulate a task. For example, to save a
document, click file and then save.
3. Work area
- This is the working area where you can create your documents.
4. Status bar
- This is an interactive strip at the bottom of the application window that acts as a communication link
between the user and the operating system. Such interactive activities include saving, opening a file,
printing, cursor position etc.
5. Scroll buttons and arrows
- Scrolling is the moving up, down, left or right of a document window on the screen if it is too large
to fit. Scroll buttons and arrows are horizontal and vertical buttons at the borders of a window used to
scroll through long document.

{Assessment Exercise 3.2 – page 92}

{Practical activity 3.1 – page 92}

MANAGING FILES AND FOLDERS USING WINDOWS 10

Renaming files or folders
- Renaming refers to changing the previous name to a new name.
- To rename a file or a folder proceed as follows:

1. Click the File Explorer to display the folders on the content pane.
2. Right click the file or folder to display the shortcut menu.
3. Click Rename command, and then type a new file/folder name, then press the return key.

Deleting files and folders

- In Windows, when you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporarily held in a special
folder called the Recycle bin from which it can be restored if necessary.

- The recycle bin is a default icon on the desktop therefore it cannot be removed.

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Warning
1. One should not attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.
2. Items deleted from removable storage are not held in the recycle bin and are completely lost.

- To delete a file or folder proceed as follows:

1. Using File explorer or This PC, display the folder or files to be deleted.
2. Right click the file or folder, then click Delete on the shortcut menu. A message appears on the screen
asking whether you want to delete the item.
3. Confirm deletion by clicking yes.

Restoring deleted files and folders

- To restore a file or folder from the Recycle Bin to its original location proceed as follows:

1. Double click the recycle bin icon to display its content window.
2. Right click the file or folder, then click Restore on the shortcut menu.

Emptying the recycle bin

- To completely discard files and folders you deleted, you need to empty the Recycle Bin. Deleted
items take up the same amount of disk space they occupied before you deleted them. To free up that
disk space occupied, you have to empty the Recycle Bin.

To empty the Recycle Bin proceed as follows:

1 Double click the recycle bin icon on the desktop.
2. Choose Empty Recycle Bin command from the File tab.
3. Click yes when prompted to confirm deletion of specified number of files/folders.

NB: You can also delete selected items in the Recycle Bin by clicking file then delete.

Copying and moving files and folders

- Copying refers to creating a duplicate file or folder in the same or different storage location. When
you copy an item, it is temporarily held in temporary storage location known as the clipboard.

To copy a file or folder, proceed as follows:

1. Using File explorer or This PC, display the file or folder to be copied.
2. Right click the file or folder, then click Copy on the shortcut menu. The Copy command creates an image
of the file on the clipboard.
3. Right click the destination drive or folder where you wish to place the copy.
4. To insert the file image from the clipboard, click Paste on the shortcut menu. Depending on the size of the
file, a progress screen may be displayed.

Moving files and folders

- The move operation relocates a file or folder to a new storage location. The procedure for
moving files or folders is similar to that of copying only that we use the Cut command instead of
Copy.

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To move a file or a folder proceed as follows:
1. Select the file or folder to be moved to another location.
2. Right click the file or folder, then click Cut on the shortcut menu.
3. Right click the destination drive or folder, and then click Paste. The move progress screen may be
displayed depending on the size of the file or folder.

Sorting files and folder

- Sorting means re-arranging files and folders in a sequential order, alphabetically or by size or date of
last modification.
- Widows automatically sorts files and folders into alphabetic order but the user can choose to arrange
them otherwise.

Manipulate files and folders using the shortcut menu

- When you right click an item, a shortcut menu is displayed which provides commands commonly
used to manipulate the item.

To copy, move, delete or rename an item proceed as follows:

1. Right-click the file or folder to display its context sensitive menu.
2. From the shortcut menu, left click the appropriate command i.e.
(a) To copy or move, right click the destination location then click paste
(b) To delete, simply click delete Command.
(c) To rename, type in a new file name to replace the old one.

Manipulate files and folders by drag and drop

Another easier method of handling files and folders is drag and drop. This is done as follows:
1. To copy a file or folder, hold down the CTRL key while you drag the icon of the file to a new location.
2. To move files from one location to another on the same drive but in a different folder, simply press down
the Mouse button and drag the item to the new location.
3. To delete any file or folder drag it into the recycle bin.
4. To copy file or folder from one disk to another, simply drag the item to the destination drive icon
e.g. from drive C to 31/2-floppy disk.
5. To move an item, hold down the Shift key while you drag it to new location.

Selecting multiple files and folders

- If you want to manipulate multiple files or folders at a go, you can select them by clicking each item
while you hold down the control (CTRL) or SHIFT key.

- If you want to select all files in an open folder, click edit then select all. This will highlight all files
in the folder. To manipulate the selected items, use the menu bar or the shortcut.

Searching for files and folders

- To search for a file or folder using Cortana, proceed as follows:

1. Click inside the Cortana search box on the taskbar.

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 2. Type the name of the file or folder to be searched. The result pane is displayed.

{Assessment Exercise 3.3 – page 99}

{Practical activity 3.2 – page 99}

Disk management in Windows 10

- Windows operating system provides the user with tools that help him/her to manage storage devices
and media.
- It is important to have a routine check of all the storage devices otherwise one may end up losing
very vital data and programs.
- These include the disk management tools for formatting, partitioning, defragmenting, scanning,
compressing, and backing up storage media.
- Warning: Do not attempt these operations on disks without the guidance of the computer teacher or
lab assistant. This is because some of these operations like formatting and partitioning lead to loss of
data stored on the disk.

1. Disk formatting
- Disk formatting is the process of preparing a storage media such as a hard disk, flash disk or
memory card for first time use.
- Storage media containing data may also be formatted to make it compatible with another operating
systems or blank for reuse.

To format removable storage media such as a flash disk, proceed as follows:

1. Click start button, and then click File Explorer on the Start menu.
2. In the File Explorer window, click This PC on the left pane. The drives mounted on the PC are
displayed on the right pane.
3. Right click the drive to be formatted, and then click Format.
4. Specify the Capacity, File system, and Allocation unit size.
5. Click Start button to format the drive.

2. Disk partitioning
- Partitioning a disk refers to the process of subdividing a large physical storage media into two
or more partitions called logical drives.
- A logical drive is a drive that can be accessed as if it is a separate disk but in actual sense, it is a
partition of one large physical disk.

Reasons for partitioning a disk

- The reasons are:

1. When the user intends to install more than one operating systems on the same disk. Install each on
a separate partition.
2. For purposes of backup on the same disk but different partitions so that if one partition fails, the other will
still be working.

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 3. Disk defragmentation
- Disk defragmenter is a tool that is used to rearrange scattered folders and files on a storage
media in order to speed up access to files and folders. This enables the read/write head not to waste
time looking for the same item all over the disk. Notice that the fragmented disk has related data
elements spread all over it but the defragmented one has related data consolidated close to each
other.

4. Disk diagnostics
- Windows has a disk management tool called the scan disk that helps the user checkup and repair
minor storage problems, such as lost storage locations, or damaged surface.

5. Disk Compressing
- Disk compression is a utility used to store files in compressed format to save on disk space.
- In order to compress a drive, it must be an NTFS (New Technology file system) and the user
must have logged on as an Administrator.

6. Backing up Data
- Windows comes with a utility called backup. It enables the user to create copies of data and
programs (on separate storage device) to avoid losing important data and program files in
case the storage device or the computer fails.
- It is good practice to keep backups away from the computer room to ensure security of
the information in case of a calamity such as fire.

7. Scanning disk for malware

- Malware is a collective term that refers to malicious programs that are harmful to the
computer hardware or programs.
- Three common types of malicious programs are viruses, Trojan horse, and worms.

 Virus: harmful program that attaches itself on removable drives and causes damage to a computer
system such as deleting system files, data or application files.
 Worm: Malware that does not attach itself to a program but it self-replicates hence clogging
a computer storage and memory hence reducing the performance of the computer.
 Trojan horse: Harmful program that masquerades as genuine programs yet it is a carrier of viruses or
worms. Trojan horses may come in form in form of games and screen savers

Cleaning infected storage devices

- To guard a computer against virus attack, special programs called antivirus software such as Norton
Antivirus, PC-cillin or McAfee should be installed on the computer.
- These programs can check your system for thousands of known viruses and eradicate them.

To scan for viruses the following is done:

1. Right click the drive you wish to scan for malware.
2. On the shortcut menu click Scan With <antivirus name>. Installed antivirus could be Kaspersky, ESET
Smart Security, or McAFee etc.
3. Once the Scan process is initialized, a progress window is displayed.
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{Assessment Exercise 3.4– page 106}

Troubleshooting Windows related problems

- The term troubleshooting refers to the process of diagnosing and trying to fix (resolve)
hardware or software related problems. When using Windows, you may experience
some problems such as;

1. Failure to load the operating system during the booting process.

2. The computer hangs (stops responding) now and then.
3. Abnormal restarting.
4. Displaying a blue screen with a message such as Fatal exception error has occurred etc.
These problems may be due to one of the following reasons:
1. There may be hardware conflict or incompatibility caused by interrupt request (IRQ) or missing Widows
device drivers such as
Himem.sys (device drivers in Windows that helps in allocation of main memory)
2. There was a problem in the installation process e.g. missing system files that could not be copied due to
a damaged installation disk.
3. There may be a problem with your hard disk boot sector either due to virus infection or damage.
4. Insufficient system memory.
5. Corrupted system Windows registry. Registry is a database where Windows stores its configuration
information such as system hardware, installed programs, and property settings.
6. Due to interrupt request conflict i.e. if two devices are sharing a common interrupt request number.

To resolve these problems, you need to:

1. Study the troubleshooting guide that comes with the operating system
2. During the booting process, hold down the F8 key on the keyboard in order to get the start-up options
from which you can choose to start the computer in safe mode or display the command prompt.
This will help you to check whether the problem is due to disk failure or corrupted registry. With safe mode,
you can establish whether the problem is due to corrupted system registry or failed devices. If the registry
has failed, the computer will prompt you to reinstall the registry backup. If the problem is due to disk failure,
start the computer using the start-up disk and type Scandisk C: at the command prompt. Scandisk will
establish whether the failure is due to bad file or directory structure or damaged disk surface.

3. Use the device manager found in System properties dialog box to check on the devices that are causing
problems. You get system properties dialog box by right clicking my computer then properties

4. Reinstall the operating system if the problems above persist. In case the problem is beyond repair.

{Revision Exercise 3 – page 113}

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