Coastal and Estuarine Processes

CIVE 487

Estuary Process Revision

Ming Li

Room 606, Brodie Tower

The University of Liverpool
E: mingli@liverpool.ac.uk
Exam: In-Person & Paper Based
● Timetabled in January 2024
● Total 3 hrs
● Covers both coastal process and estuary process
● Four questions, two from coastal process and two
from estuary process; 25 marks for each question
● Show ALL WORKINGS in answers to questions

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Contents
1. Wave kinematics
2. Wave transformation and propagation
3. Coastal sediment transport
4. Coastal structures
5. Coastal morphodynamics
6. Coastal defence
7. Tide and surge
8. Estuary sediment process
9. Estuary management and engineering

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Estuarine Process

• Inner zone: river-

dominated

• Outer zone: marine-

dominated

• Central zone: mixed

tide and river
process

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Astronomical Tides
Equilibrium theory of tides:
Assumptions:
1) The Earth is covered entirely by an ocean of uniform depth
2) There is no inertial in the system
3) The Coriolis and friction effects are ignored

Earth rotation and the semi-diurnal tide Lunar declination and diurnal inequality

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Astronomical Tides
Equilibrium theory of tides:

Solar-lunar interaction and spring-neap cycle:

http://stream1.cmatc.cn/pub/comet/MarineMeteorologyOceans/oceans_tides_intro/comet/oceans/tides_intro/print.htm
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 Harmonic Analysis
𝑁
2𝜋𝑡
𝜂 = 𝜂ҧ + ෍ 𝑎𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝜃𝑖
𝑇𝑖
𝑖=1

Partial tide Period T (h) Description

M2 12.420 Principal lunar

S2 12.000 Principal solar

N2 12.658 Elliptical lunar

K2 11.976 Lunar/solar
declination

K1 23.928 Principle
lunar/solar

O1 25.824 Principle lunar

P1 24.072 Principle solar

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Tide Classification
𝑎𝐾1 + 𝑎𝑂1
Tidal form factor 𝐹 =
𝑎𝑀2 + 𝑎𝑆2
𝐹 = 0.00 − 0.25: Semi-diurnal tide (a)
𝐹 = 0.25 − 1.50: Mixed dominantly semi-diurnal tide (b)
𝐹 = 1.50 − 3.00: Mixed, dominantly diurnal tide (c)
𝐹 > 3.00 ∶ Diurnal tide (d)

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Surge in Estuary

• A high pressure (anti-cyclonic)

feature will lead to a drop in water
level (negative surge).

• High pressure features are

normally associated with light
winds

• Low pressure features can

generate high surface winds which
will produce additional changes to
water levels, eg high surges (5 m
plus) in potentially devastating
hurricanes reaching a coastline

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Cumulative distribution function
o For a random variable X, its cumulative
distribution function F(x) is:
𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 𝑥)
e.g. the probability of X is less or equal to x.

o Weibull CDF:
𝒙 𝟒
𝑭 𝒙 = 𝑷(𝑿 ≤ 𝒙) 𝑭 𝒙 = 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −
𝟏𝟎
𝑪
𝒙−𝑨
= 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −
𝑩

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Surge in Estuary
o Given the Weibull CDF of annual surge level X:
𝟏.𝟐
𝒙 − 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑭 𝒙 = 𝑷 𝑿 ≤ 𝒙 = 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −
𝟎. 𝟖
Estimate the 100 year return surge level.
Solution:
1
The 100 year return event has an annual CDF value of 1 − = 0.99.
100
Assuming the corresponding surge level is x100, then: -
𝟏.𝟐
𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 = 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −
𝟎. 𝟖
𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟒𝒎
Exceeding rate is used instead of return period, e.g. 5%
exceedance level, meaning
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𝟏 − 𝑭 𝒙 = 𝟓%
Surge in Estuary
Trial values of the parameter A are tried
in the spreadsheet until the best straight
line is found from plotting

𝑙𝑛 −𝑙𝑛 1 − 𝐹(𝑥) verses 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐴

A=1.4
Slope (C) = 1.1002
Intercept (C ln(B)) = -0.8554

𝑪
𝒙−𝑨 𝒍𝒏 −𝒍𝒏 𝟏 − 𝑭 𝒙 + 𝑪𝒍𝒏(𝑩)
𝑭 𝒙 = 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙𝒑 +𝑨
𝑩 𝑪

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Water Level in Estuary

MHWS
MHWN
Surface waves
MSL Tidal range
MLWN (spring)
MLWS
Depth
Chart
Charted Datum
depth

MHWS – Mean High Water Springs HAT – Highest Astronomical Tide

MLWS – Mean Low Water Springs LAT – Lowest Astronomical Tide
MHWN – Mean High Water Neaps MSL – Mean Sea Level
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MLWN – Mean Low Water Neaps
Hydraulic behaviour of estuaries
o Effects of river flow
Stratified estuary Well mixed estuary Fresh
water

Fresh water
saline
saline water water

Iso - halines

Rising tide Rising tide

Fresh water
Fresh water
saline
saline water water

Iso - halines

Falling tide Falling tide 14

Estuarine sediment transport
o Flocculated sediments
▪ In fresh water, clay particles remain separated by virtue of the electrostatic
distribution of charge on the particles.
▪ With even low levels of salinity, the individual clay particles will form larger
flocs due to the presence of the electrolytes which nullify the individual
particle charges – flocculation.
▪ On forming flocs, the fall velocity of such flocs increase compared with the
very small values for individual clay particles.

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Estuarine sediment transport
o Initiation of motion
▪ Given the build-up of other particles and providing sufficient time for pore
water to dissipate, the flocs will consolidate and require higher bed shear
stresses to erode.
▪ Sea flora and fauna may colonise the deposits and provide further
biological detritus which often further increases the cohesiveness.

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Estuarine sediment transport
o Mode of sediment transport:
cohesive sediment

1. The fine sediment is more likely

to be affected by the estuarine
unsteadiness of the flow
dynamics (not responds
immediately to the flow
changes)

2. The flow stratification can also

affect the vertical distribution of
suspended sediment
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Estuarine sediment transport
3. The transport of flocculated sediment depends on their
degree of consolidation (‘age’):
• Freshly deposited sediment can be set in motion without given
sufficient time to consolidate – mud flow
• If the material is unconsolidated, erosion proceeds layer by
layer.
• Armoured mud deposits require higher erosion stress than
normal.

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Estuarine sediment transport
4. The flocs in suspension also change their sizes due to
aggregation, collision and shear action of velocity
gradient.
5. Consequently, the particle falling velocity is difficult to
determine.

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Long term evolution of estuaries
o Factors influencing estuary morphologies:
Factors influencing estuarine morphology,
from Prandle (2004).
▪ Tide
▪ River flow
▪ Waves
▪ Temperature
▪ Salinity
▪ Sediment size
▪ Climate change
▪ Sea level
▪ Engineering work
▪ Ecology
▪ Pollution
Dr. David Prandle (2010)
▪ … 20
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/s
ystem/uploads/attachment_data/file/291214/scho0310bsac-e-
e.pdf
Estuarine habitat and conservation
o The two prime functions of the networks of saltmarsh creeks are to
transport new sediment into the saltmarsh and to drain tidal water
from the marsh surface on the ebb tide.
o Sediment enters a marsh in two main ways, via the creek system and
across the marsh front at high stages of the tide.
o The presence of saltmarsh increases the attenuation of both tidal
currents and waves as they pass over the vegetated area.
o Sediment is more able to settle to the bed at this stage, leading to
general marsh growth or accretion – adaptation to SLR

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Estuary management
o Ever changing management strategy - Making Space for
Water (Defra 2005)
▪ Aim: “implement a more holistic approach to managing flood and
coastal erosion risks in England”

▪ Priorities:
• (1) to reduce the threat to people and property and
• (2) to enhance sustainability by adopting measures that deliver the
greatest environmental and socioeconomic benefits.

▪ Implementation: Managed Realignment in England –

‘soft’ coastal and estuary solutions for flood protection or the
conservation/restoration of natural habitats as a response to the loss of
important habitats by coastal squeeze or in compensation for habitat loss
as a result of industrial or other hard development projects.

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Estuarine engineering work
o Control of watercourse
▪ Training Walls, Revetments and Dikes
o Control of flux of solids:
▪ Capital dredging
• to deepen, widen or re-route navigation channels to enable vessels to
reach new port facilities with sufficient water depth etc. for safe
navigation with enough channel width for vessels to pass each other.

• changing a channel cross-section will change the tidal prism and is

likely to change water levels, the sediment transport patterns and the
long-term morphology of the estuary.

• Where stratified estuaries are concerned, channel deepening will allow

the saline wedge to move up the estuary, which will affect the
positions of maximum flocculation and therefore sedimentation
patterns.

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Estuarine engineering work
o Control of flux of solids:
▪ Maintenance dredging:
• to keep the channels clear over the operational tidal range.

• impounded port facilities include locks to maintain the water depths

• offshore sand deposits, to win the fine aggregate for backfill, bedding
or reclamation

• Sand dredged from offshore sources is often pumped to the beach in

periodic recharge operations

• may be required as part of a managed realignment (MR) project

• cutting trenches when laying pipelines or cables to landfall and

appropriate service terminals
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Estuarine engineering work
o Control of flux of solids:
▪ Survey prior the work:
• Bathymetry - a combination of echo sounding, side scan sonar
and Lidar, estimates the volumes of material to be dredged;

• Geotechnical site investigations - a mixture of surface sediment

grab samples together with borehole cores and side-scan sonar,
identifying the types and properties of the sedimentary material;

• Environmental impact study - to assess the impact on benthic

flora and fauna together with the fauna above the bed, especially
the generation of plumes of suspended sediment at the dredging
point, as the spoil is put into the hopper and the overflowing water
carries sediment back into the sea.

• Operational capacity (weather windows) - to collect and assess

data on the met-ocean climate of wind, waves, tide heights,
current direction and strength distribution with depth and storm
surge etc.
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Estuarine engineering work
o Manage realignment and coastal squeeze
• Rising sea levels usually result in a
landward migration of habitats.

• Coastal defences fix the landward

boundary of intertidal habitats by
preventing the high water line to move
further inland.

• Rise in sea level will gradually increase

the frequency and duration of inundation
and ultimately loss of intertidal area.

• Managed realignment most often

involves planned breaching or removal
of coastal defences.
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Estuarine engineering work
o Manage realignment – method of implementation

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Estuarine engineering work
o Manage realignment – Management and Monitoring
▪ The successful management of a MR project must begin with the
preparation of a statement of the objective or objectives to be
achieved by whichever type of MR and site is finally selected.

▪ A high quality data base must be established:

• Topography checks on the terrestrial maps and Admiralty chart
information using some traditional ground survey but supplemented by
aerial photograph and Lidar survey techniques and satellite data;

• Tidal data must include surge, resonance and shallow water non-
linear tides as well as the standard astronomical tide data at the mouth
of the estuary;

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Estuarine engineering work
• Wave climate data is needed in view of the important role that
significant wave activity has in initiating erosion and subsequent
transport of sediments;

• Geology and near-bed sediment properties must be established by

traditional sampling techniques such as cores, pits and trenches
supplements by cone and shear vane investigations.

• Detailed sediment analysis is needed beyond the above issues

within geological investigations because there will be sediment
interchanges between the estuary and any new tidal basins
constructed as part of the MR project.

• Ecological surveys of the estuary flora and fauna together with the
relevant terrestrial boundary flora and fauna.

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Estuarine engineering work
o Manage realignment – Management and Monitoring

▪ Passive approach - the MR site is left to colonise naturally with

local flora and fauna as the different habitats mature.

▪ Active approach - programme of profiling the bed/ground levels

then seeding and planting may be executed.

▪ Some projects may be a mixture of both active and passive

management

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Estuarine engineering work
o Manage realignment – Management and Monitoring

▪ Consideration should be given to the distribution of tidal creeks

and perched tidal pools desirable for a given site.

▪ Current experience shows that the passive approach may take

longer to reach maturity and in some cases, the level of
biodiversity is more limited with a passive approach.

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Estuarine engineering work
o Manage realignment – Management and Monitoring

▪ Obviously care must be taken to avoid the introduction of unwanted

and invasive flora and fauna (eg. Zebra Mussels or Mitten Crabs).

▪ Regular monitoring to catch the first signs of invasive species is

important.

▪ Manual removal of invasive flora and catching or gathering invasive

fauna is preferable to the use of chemical spray that can damage
native species as well.

▪ It is important to check import sources of sands and clays, noting their

origins and whether they or the mechanical transport/placing
equipment may bring undesirable species on to the site.

▪ Also care should be exercised over the impacts on the local areas not
directly included in the MR site, e.g. changes to ground water levels
and chemistry. 32
Estuarine engineering work
o Manage realignment – Management and Monitoring

▪ The tools used to carry out the baseline data collection can be
used for a regular programme of monitoring the performance of the
MR project.

▪ However, assessing the degree of accretion or erosion can be

difficult if changes are small, year on year.

▪ In this case it may be necessary to use the best numerical models

available, coupled with measurements of suspended sediment
load etc., to predict the underlying accretion/erosion trends.

▪ This may provide early warning of impending pressures on the

desired flora and fauna profiles in particular zones of the MR
project.
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