School of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

General Civil Engineering

Permeability and
Seepage
Module 2 Chapter 4 – Geotechnical Engineering – Soil Mechanics

After this chapter, the student should be able to:

Objective  To fully grasp the importance of permeability.
 To analyze and solve problems pertaining to permeability and
seepage.

This chapter focuses on

Content  Bernoulli’s Equation
 Darcy’s Law
 Hydraulic Conductivity Tests
 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil
 Transmissivity
 Capillarity
 Two dimensional flow
 Three dimensional flow

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

 B.M. Das, 2011. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (7 th
Readings Edition) Stamford, Connecticut, USA : Cengage Learning

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Module 2 – Permeability and Seepage

PERMEABILITY
Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which water can flow
from points of high energy to points of low energy. The study of the flow of water through permeable
soil media is important in soil mechanics. It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground
seepage under various hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems involving the pumping of water
for underground construction, and for making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining
structures that are subject to seepage forces.

One of the major physical parameters of a soil that controls the rate of seepage through it is
hydraulic conductivity, otherwise known as the coefficient of permeability.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
The Bernoulli’s Equation was named after the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700 -1782).
It is one of the cornerstones of fluid mechanics and one of the most well-known equations in
engineering, yet Bernoulli developed only part of the underlying theory and this never wrote this
equation. Later, investigators completed the work and developed the equation as we now know it, but
the credit has gone to Bernoulli.

It is commonly used to compare the different kinds of energies, namely the Potential Energy,
Kinetic Energy and Strain Energy. These are the energies due to elevation, velocity and pressure
respectively. They can be expressed in term of Joules or BTU (British Thermal Unit) or some other
suitable unit. However, it is more convenient to express them using the concept of head, which is
energy divided by the acceleration of gravity, g. They will then be expressed in their corresponding
“heights” known as elevation head (hz), velocity head (hv) and pressure head (hp).

𝒖 𝒗𝟐
𝒉= + +𝒛
𝜸𝒘 𝟐𝒈
Where:
h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
γw = unit weight of water

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If Bernoulli’s Equation is applied in

the flow of water through soils, the
velocity head can be neglected
because the velocity is too small thus
the total head can be represented by
the pressure head and the elevation
head.

𝒖
𝒉= +𝒛
𝜸𝒘

In the figure above, open standpipes called piezometers are installed at points A and B. The
levels to which water rises in the piezometer tubes situated at points A and B are known as the
piezometric levels of points A and B, respectively. The pressure head at a point is the height of the
vertical column of water in the piezometer installed at that point. The head loss between points A and
B can be expressed as,

𝒖𝑨 𝒖𝑩
∆𝒉 = 𝒉𝑨 − 𝒉𝑩 = ( + 𝒛𝑨 ) − ( + 𝒛𝑩 )
𝜸𝒘 𝜸𝒘

The head loss, ∆𝒉 can be expressed in a non-dimensional form as:

∆𝒉
𝒊=
𝑳
Where:
i = hydraulic gradient
L = distance between points A and B − the length of flow over which the loss of head occured

GROUNDWATER FLOW CONDITIONS

Laminar flow is the smooth and orderly fashion of movement of water through soil while
turbulent flow means water swirls as it moves.

For analysis purposes, we need to distinguish between one-, two-, and three-dimensional flow
conditions. A one-dimensional flow condition is one where the velocity vectors are all parallel and of
equal magnitude. In other words, the water always moves parallel to some axis and through a constant
cross-sectional area. Two-dimensional flow conditions are present when all of the velocity vectors are

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confined to a single plane, but vary in direction and magnitude within that plane. Three-dimensional
flow is the most general condition. It exists when the velocity vectors vary in the x, y, and z directions.
An example would be flow toward a water well.

DARCY’S LAW

One-dimensional Flow
It is the easiest condition to understand. Geotechnical engineers often need to predict the flow
rate, Q, through a soil. We could use Newton’s law of friction combined with the Navier-Stokes
equations of hydrodynamics to describe this flow condition but the resulting formulas are very
complex and are thus impractical for normal geotechnical engineering analyses. Therefore, a French
engineer named Darcy developed a simpler empirical method. He formulated the Darcy’s Law which
is defined as:

𝒗 = 𝒌𝒊
Where:
v = discharge velocity (quantity of water flowing in unit time through a unit gross cross
− sectional area of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow
k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as the coefficient of permeability)

From this, the equation of flow rate was acquired which states that:

𝑸 = 𝒌𝒊𝑨
Where:
Q = flow rate
k = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as the coefficient of permeability)
i = hydraulic gradient
A = area perpendicular to the flow direction

The velocity which is described in this condition is not the actual/real velocity because it
considers the gross cross-sectional area of the soil. The real velocity is called Seepage Velocity which
only considers the area of the voids contained in the soil but due to the complexity of the computations
in acquiring the area of the voids, a formula was derived to solve for the seepage velocity using the
discharge velocity.

𝒒 = 𝒗𝑨 = 𝑨𝒗 𝒗𝒔
Where:
vs = seepage velocity
Av = area of void in the cross section of the specimen

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However,
𝒒 = 𝒗𝑨 = 𝑨𝒗 𝒗𝒔
Where:
As = area of soil solids in the cross section of the specimen

𝒒 = 𝒗(𝑨𝒗 + 𝑨𝑺 ) = 𝑨𝒗 𝒗𝑺

or

𝒗(𝑨𝒗 + 𝑨𝑺 ) 𝒗(𝑨𝒗 + 𝑨𝑺 )𝑳 𝒗(𝑽𝒗 + 𝑽𝑺 )

𝒗𝒔 = = =
𝑨𝒗 𝑨𝒗 𝑳 𝑽𝒗
Where:
Vv = volume of voids in the specimen
Vs = volume of soil solids in the specimen

𝑽
𝟏 + 𝑽𝒗 𝟏+𝒆 𝒗
𝒔
𝒗𝒔 = 𝒗 [ ] = 𝒗( )=
𝑽𝒗 𝒆 𝒏
𝑽𝒔
Where:
𝑒 = void ratio
𝑛 = porosity

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TESTS

Constant Head Test

In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the
difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period. After a
constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a known duration.
The total volume of water collected may be expressed as:

𝑽 = 𝑨𝒗𝒕 = 𝑨(𝒌𝒊)𝒕

𝒗 = 𝒌𝒊
Where:
V = volume of water collected
A = area of soil specimen
t = time duration when water was collected

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In the previous lessons, we

have defined “i” to be equal to the
headloss over the length. If the
reference datum is zero, then:

𝒌𝒉𝑨𝒕
𝑽=
𝑳

Rearranging,

𝑽𝑳
𝒌=
𝑨𝒉𝒕

Falling Head Test

Water from a standpipe flows through the soil.
The initial head difference h1 at time t1 = 0 is
recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the
soil specimen such that the final head difference at
time t2 is h2.

The rate of flow of water through the specimen at

any time t can be given by:

𝒉 𝒅𝒉
𝒒 = 𝒌 ( ) (𝑨) = 𝒂
𝑳 𝒅𝒕
Where:
q = flow rate
a = cross − sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross − sectional area of soil specimen

𝒂𝑳 𝒅𝒉
𝒅𝒕 = (− )
𝑨𝒌 𝒅𝒕

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Integration of the left side with limits of time from 0 to t and the right side with limits of head difference
from h1 to h2 gives:

𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒕= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 ( )
𝑨𝒌 𝒉𝟐
Rearranging,

𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒌= 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑨𝒕 𝒉𝟐
If t1 is not equal to zero, then:

𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒌= 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑨∆𝒕 𝒉𝟐

Sample Problem 1
The results of a constant-head permeability test for a fine sand sample having a diameter of 150 mm
and a length of 300 mm are as follows:
Constant head difference = 500 mm
Time of collection of water = 5 min
Volume of water collected = 350 cm3
Temperature of water = 20oC
Determine the hydraulic conductivity for the soil.

Solution:
For a constant-head permeability test,
𝑽𝑳
𝒌=
𝑨𝒉𝒕
Given that:
V = 350 cm3,
L = 300 mm,
A = (π/4) (150)2 = 17671.46 mm2,
h = 500 mm, and
t = 5 x 60 = 300 sec, we have:
[(𝟑𝟓𝟎)(𝟏𝟎𝟑 )]𝒎𝒎𝟑 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝒌=
𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝒎𝒎𝟐 (𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎)(𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒔)

𝒎𝒎
𝒌 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝒔𝒆𝒄

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Sample Problem 2
For a falling-head permeability test, the following values are given:
Length of specimen = 200 mm; Area of soil specimen = 1000 mm2; Area of standpipe = 40 mm2; At
time t = 0, the head difference is 500 mm; At time t = 180 sec, the head difference is 300 mm
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec.

Solution:
𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒌= 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑨∆𝒕 𝒉𝟐

(𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒎𝟐 )(𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎) 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎

𝒌= 𝟐
𝒍𝒏 ( )
(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 )(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒔) 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎

𝒌 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒌 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄

Sample Problem 3
A permeable soil layer is underlain
by an impervious layer, as shown.
With k = 5.3 x 10-5 m/sec for the
permeable layer, Calculate the rate
of seepage through it in m3/hr/m
width if H=3 m and α = 8o.

𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑺 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶

𝒊= = = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑺
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶

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𝒎
𝒒 = 𝒌𝒊𝑨 = (𝟓. 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ) (𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶)(𝟑𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶)(𝟏𝒎)
𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝒎𝟑
𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟖𝟗 𝒉𝒓
𝒎

Sample Problem 4
Find the flow rate in m3/sec/m length (at
right angles to the cross section shown)
through the permeable soil layer shown.
Given H = 8m, H1 = 3m, h = 4m, S = 50m,
α = 8o, and k = 0.08 cm/sec.

𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒉
𝒊= =
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑺
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶
𝒉𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶
𝒒 = 𝒌𝒊𝑨 = (𝒌) ( ) (𝑯𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜶)(𝟏𝒎)
𝑺

𝒎 𝟒𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟖°
𝒒 = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )( ) (𝟑𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟖°)(𝟏𝒎)
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟓𝟎𝒎

𝒎𝟑
𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒎

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Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivity

Hazen (1930)
- Used for fairly uniform sand (sand with a small uniformity coefficient)

𝒌 = 𝒄(𝑫𝟏𝟎 )𝟐
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec
C = a constant that ranges from 1.0 to 1.5
D10 = effective size in mm

Kozeny-Carman

𝒆𝟑
𝒌 = 𝒄𝟏
𝟏+𝒆
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec
C = a constant determined in laboratory
e = void ratio

Casagrande

𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝒆𝟐 𝒌𝟎.𝟖𝟓
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec
k 0.85 = corresponding value of coefficient of permeability at void ratio of 0.85
e = void ratio

Samarasinghe, Huan, and Drnevich

- Used for normally consolidated clays, whose present effective overburden pressure is the
maximum pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past.

𝒆𝒏
𝒌 = 𝒄𝟑
𝟏+𝒆
Where:
k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec
C3 and n = are constants determined in the laboratory

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EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOILS

In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction changes
from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed to simplify calculations.

Parallel Flow

𝟏
𝒌𝑯(𝒆𝒒) = (𝒌 𝑯 + 𝒌𝑯𝟐 𝑯𝟐
𝑯 𝑯𝟏 𝟏
+ 𝒌𝑯𝟑 𝑯𝟑 +. . … . +𝒌𝑯𝒏 𝑯𝒏 )

This equation was derived from the

formula of flow rate wherein the concept
of flow in parallel pipes was used.

Series Flow

𝑯
𝒌𝑽(𝒆𝒒) =
𝑯𝟏 𝑯𝟐 𝑯𝟑 𝑯
+ + +. . . … + 𝒏
𝒌𝒗𝟏 𝒌𝒗𝟐 𝒌𝒗𝟑 𝒌𝒏

This equation was derived from

the formula of flow rate wherein the
concept of flow in series pipes was used.
Alternatively, the variable “H” can be
changed to “L” when referring to
horizontal flow.

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Sample Problem 5
A layered soil is shown in Figure 7.20. Given:
H1 = 1 m k1 = 10-4 cm/sec
H2 = 1.5 m k2 = 3.2 x 10-2 cm/sec
H3 = 2 m k3 = 4.1 x 10-5 cm/sec
Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic
𝑘
conductivity, 𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
𝑉(𝑒𝑞)

Solution

𝟏
𝒌𝑯(𝒆𝒒) = (𝒌 𝑯 + 𝒌𝑯𝟐 𝑯𝟐 + 𝒌𝑯𝟑 𝑯𝟑 +. . … . +𝒌𝑯𝒏 𝑯𝒏 )
𝑯 𝑯𝟏 𝟏
𝟏
𝒌𝑯(𝒆𝒒) = [(𝟏𝟎−𝟒 )(𝟏) + (𝟑. 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )(𝟏. 𝟓) + (𝟒. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 )(𝟐)]
𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟐
𝒌𝑯(𝒆𝒒) = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟎𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝑯
𝒌𝑽(𝒆𝒒) =
𝑯𝟏 𝑯𝟐 𝑯 𝟑 𝑯
+ + +. . . … + 𝒏
𝒌𝒗𝟏 𝒌𝒗𝟐 𝒌𝒗𝟑 𝒌𝒏

𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟐
𝒌𝑽(𝒆𝒒) =
𝟏 𝟏. 𝟓 𝟐
−𝟒 + −𝟐 +
𝟏𝟎 𝟑. 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟒. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓

𝒌𝑽(𝒆𝒒) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 107.07
= = 140
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) 0.765

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TRANSMISSIVITY

The transmissivity – (T) (in m2/s) also called transmissibility - of an aquifer is the product of
hydraulic conductivity and the saturated thickness of the aquifer, Ha.
𝑇 = 𝑘𝐻𝑎

Combining this formula with Darcy’s Law produces the flow rate through an aquifer of width L:
𝑄 = 𝑇𝑖𝐿

Rewriting the equation to express Q as the flow per unit width of the aquifer gives:
𝑄
𝑞 = = 𝑇𝑖
𝐿
Where:
Q = flow rate through the aquifer
q = flow rate per unit width of the aquifer
T = transmissivity
i = hydraulic gradient
L = length of the aquifer perpendicular to the direction of flow
Ha = saturated thickness of the aquifer

CAPILLARITY

Capillarity (Capillary Action) – is the upward movement of a liquid into the vadose zone, which
is above the level of zero hydrostatic pressure. Capillarity action is the result of surface tension between
the water and the media (glass tube).

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The theoretical height of capillary rise, hc, in a glass tube of diameter d at a temperature of 20 oC is:
0.03
ℎ𝐶 =
𝑑
Where:
hc =height of capillary rise (m)
d = diameter of glass tube (mm)

Capillary rise in soils is more complex because soils contain an interconnected network of
different-size pores. However, using 0.2D10

As the equivalent d generally produces good results for sand and silts (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
Thus, the height of capillary rise in these soils is approximately:

0.15
ℎ𝑐 =
𝐷10
Where:
hc = height of capillary rise (m)
D10 = 10% grain diameter (mm)

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TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Two-dimensional flow occurs when all the velocity vectors are confined to a single plane. Many
groundwater flow problems are very close to being two dimensional and may be analyzed as such. A
good example of this would be FLOW NETS.

Flow Nets
The flow net solution is a graphical method of solving the two-dimensional LaPlace Equation. This
solution has been attributed to Forchheimer (1911) and the others. Flow nets are based on two
mathematical functions: the potential function, Φ and the flow function, Ψ (also known as the stream
function). Combining the LaPlace Equation and the equations formed by the potential function, we will be
able to draw a curve in the cross-section such that Φ is constant everywhere along the curve. This is known
as an equipotential line (even though it is a curve, not a line). We also can draw a family of curves in the
cross-section such that Ψ is constant everywhere along the curve. They are known as flow lines. When
presented together, these two families of curves (one set for potential and one for flow) are known as a
flow net.

𝑁𝐹 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐿∆ℎ ( )( )
𝑁𝐷 𝑎
Where:
Q = flow rate
k = hydraulic conductivity
L = length of aquifer perpendicular to the cross-section
Δh = head loss through the flow net
NF = Number of flow tubes
ND = Number of equipotential drops
b/a = length to width ratio of pseudo squares (formed by the intersection of equipotential lines and
flow lines)

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In any flow net, the strip between any two adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel. The figure
below shows a flow channel with the equipotential lines forming square elements. Let h1, h2, h3, h4,...,hn
be the piezometric levels corresponding to the equipotential lines. The rate of seepage through the
flow channel per unit length (perpendicular to the vertical section through the permeable layer) can
be calculated as follows.

∆𝑞1 = ∆𝑞2 = ∆𝑞3 = ⋯ … = ∆𝑞

From Darcy’s Law, the equation above can be written as:

ℎ1 − ℎ2 ℎ2 − ℎ3 ℎ3 − ℎ4
∆𝑞 = 𝑘 ( ) 𝑙1 = 𝑘 ( ) 𝑙2 = 𝑘 ( ) 𝑙3
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3

Because there is no flow across the flow lines, the equation above shows that if the flow elements are
drawn as approximate squares, the drop in the piezometric level between any two adjacent
equipotential lines is the same. This is called the potential drop. Thus,

And,

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If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to N f, the total rate of flow through all the
channels per unit length can be given by:
𝐻𝑁𝑓
𝑞=𝑘
𝑁𝑑
For Anisotropic Soil use:
𝐻𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = √𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧
𝑁𝑑

Sample Problem
Two sheet piles were driven 4 m apart into clayey sand, as shown in Figure 8.8, and a 2-m depth
of soil between the two sheet piles was removed. To facilitate some proposed construction work, the
region between the sheet piles is being dewatered where the water level is lowered to the excavation
level by pumping out water continuously. Some equipotential lines have been drawn. Complete the
flow net.

Assuming the hydraulic conductivity of the clayey sand as 2 x 10-4 cm/s, estimate the quantity
of water that has to be pumped out per meter length per day.

Solution:
By symmetry, it is possible to analyze only one half of the configuration shown in Figure 8.8. The ow
net for the left half is shown in Figure 8.9. Here, Nf = 2.9 =3, Nd = 10, and H = 4.5 m.

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The flow rate in the left half can be given by

𝑁𝑓 2.9
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻 = (2𝑥10−6 )(4.5) ( ) (24 ∗ 3600) = 0.226 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑚
𝑁𝑑 10

Considering the two halves, the ow rate is 0.452 m3/day/m.

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Sample Problem
A dam section is shown in Figure 8.11a. The hydraulic conductivity of the permeable layer in the
vertical and horizontal directions are 2 x 10-2 mm/s and 4 x 10-2 mm/s, respectively. Draw a ow net and
calculate the seepage loss of the dam in ft3/day/ft

Solution:
For drawing the flow net,

2 𝑥 10−2
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = √
4 𝑥 102
1
= (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒)
√2

On the basis of this, the dam section is replotted, and

the flow net drawn as in Figure 8.11b. The rate of
𝑁
seepage is given by 𝑞 = √𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧 𝐻 (𝑁𝑓 ). From Figure
𝑑

8.11b, Nd = 8 and Nf = 2.5 (the lowermost ow channel

has a width to length ratio of 0.5). So,

2.5
𝑞 = √(5.67)(11.34)(20) ( )
8
= 𝟓𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕𝟑 /𝒅𝒂𝒚/𝒇𝒕

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THREE DIMENSIONAL FLOW

Three-Dimensional Flow problems can be very difficult to solve because of their complex
geometries. Three-dimensional finite element analyses are a possibility, but they are not commonly
used in engineering practice. The use of computer-aided solutions can also be applied be they
wouldn’t be practical in solving problems in a classroom setup. A more likely solution would be to
idealize the problem as a two-dimensional flow problem. However, one category of three-dimensional
problems is easily solved: flow to wells.

Permeability Test in the Field: Flow to Wells

In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of flow can be determined
by performing pumping tests from wells. Using the formula of flow rate derived from Darcy’s Law we can
derive the formula for the test wells. This setup is also called Unconfined Aquifer.

𝑟
𝑞𝑙𝑛 (𝑟1 )
2
𝑘=
𝜋(ℎ12 − ℎ22 )
Where:
Q = flow rate in wells
k = hydraulic conductivity of aquifer
H = saturated thickness of aquifer
h1 = total head in aquifer before pumping (datum = bottom of aquifer)
h2 = total head inside well casing during pumping (datum = bottom of aquifer)
r1 = farther radius from the test well. (ro if it is the farthest radius also called radius of influence)
r2 = nearer radius from the test well. (rw if it is the radius of the test well itself includes casing and
gravel pack)

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A confined aquifer is one that is sandwiched between two aquicludes. Thus, the upper and lower
flow boundaries are fixed and the water flows through the entire depth of the aquifer.

𝑟
𝑞𝑙𝑛 (𝑟1 )
2
𝑘=
2𝜋𝐻(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

The radius of influence ro is the distance from the well to the farthest point of drawdown and is
a difficult parameter to assess. Fortunately, even approximate estimates are often sufficient because
ln(ro/rw) is always very large and it is not overly sensitive to errors in ro. For example, changing ro/rw
from 1000 to 5000 increases ln(ro/rw) by a factor of only 1.2.

Sichart and Kyrieles (1930) presented the following empirical formula that gives the approximate of ro.

𝑟𝑜 = 300(ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑤 )√𝑘
This equation can be written as:
𝑅𝑖 = 300𝐷0 √𝑘
Where:
D0 = maximum drawdown in meters
k = hydraulic conductivity in m/sec

Transmissibility of Aquifer (Confined) in a Pumping Test

𝑟
𝑞𝑙𝑛 (𝑟1 )
2
𝑇=
2𝜋(𝑧2 − 𝑧! )

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Sample Problem
A pumping test from a confined aquifer yielded the following results: q = 0.303 m3/min, h1 =
2.44 m, h2 = 1.52 m, r1 = 18.3 m, r2 = 9.15 m, and H = 3.05 m. Refer to Figure 7.24 and determine the
magnitude of k of the permeable layer.

𝑟 18.3
𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑟! ) (0.303)𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ()
𝑘= 2
= 9.15 = 0.01192 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
2.727 𝐻(ℎ! − ℎ2 ) 2.727 (3.05)(2.44 − 1.52)

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References

Das, B. M., et al. (2018). Principles of geotechnical engineering (9th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning

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