Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter Three
3. Introduction.........................................................................................................................2
3.1 Definitions of key Terms..................................................................................................2
3.2 Groundwater........................................................................................................................2
3.3 Head........................................................................................................................................2
3.4 Darcy’s Law..........................................................................................................................4
3.5 Empirical Relationships for k.........................................................................................5
3.6 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers.............................................................................................7
3.7 Flow Normal to Soil Layers.............................................................................................8
3.8 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability...................................................9
3.8.1 Constant-Head Test.......................................................................................................9
3.8.2 Falling-Head Test..........................................................................................................10
3.8.3 Pumping Test to Determine the Coefficient of Permeability........................12
3. Introduction
Groundwater is water under gravity in excess of that required to fill the soil pores.
Head (H) is the mechanical energy per unit weight.
Coefficient of permeability (k) is a proportionality constant to determine the
flow velocity of water through soils.
3.2 Groundwater
3.3 Head
Darcy’s law governs the flow of water through soils. But before we delve into
Darcy’s law, we will discuss an important principle in fluid mechanics – Bernoulli’s
Head refers to the mechanical energy per unit weight. If you raise the tube above
the table, the mechanical energy or total head increases. You now have two
components of total head – the pressure head (hp) and the elevation head (hz). If
water were to flow through the tube with a velocity , under steady state condition,
then we have an additional head due to the velocity given as . The total head
(3.1)
(3.2)
the tubes. The height of water in tube B near the exit is lower than A. Why? As the
water flows through the soil, energy is dissipated through friction with the soil
particles, resulting in a loss of head. The head loss between A and B, assuming
decrease in head is positive and our datum is arbitrarily selected at the top of the
cylinder, is ΔH = .
(3.3)
(3.4)
where is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow
(3.5)
The volume rate of flow, qv, or, simply, flow rate is the product of the average
velocity and the cross-sectional area:
(3.6)
The unit of measurement for q v is m3/s or cm3/s. The conservation of flow (law of
continuity) stipulates that the volume rate of inflow (qv)in into a soil element must
equal the volume rate of outflow, (qv)out, or, simply, inflow must equal outflow: (qv)in
= (qv)out.
The coefficient of permeability depends on the soil type, the particle size
distribution, the structural arrangement of the grains or void ratio, and the
wholeness (homogeneity, layering, fissuring, etc) of the soil mass. Typical value
ranges of kz for various soil types are shown in Table 2.7.
(2.31)
where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.2 if the unit of measurement of
D10 (effective diameter) is mm. Typically, C = 1.0. Other relationships were
proposed for coarse and fine-grained soils by Samarasinghe et al. (1982), Kenny et
al. (1984), and others. One has to be extremely cautious in using empirical
relationships for k because it is very sensitive to changes in void ratio and the
wholeness of your soil mass.
EXAMPLE 3.1
Figure E3.1
Strategy: For flow problems, you must define a datum position. So your first task
is to define the datum position and then find the difference in total head between A
and B. Use the head difference to calculate the hydraulic gradient and use Eqs. (3.4
to 3.6) to solve the problem.
EXAMPLE 3.2
A drainage pipe (Fig. E3.2) became completely blocked during a storm by a plug of
sand, 1.5 m long, followed by another plug of a mixture of clays, silts, and sands,
0.5 m long. When the storm was over, the water level above ground was 1 m. The
coefficient of permeability of the sand is 2 times that of the mixture of clays, silts,
and sands.
(a) Plot the variation of pressure, elevation, and total head over the length of the
pipe.
(b) Calculate the pore water pressure at (1) the center of the sand plug and (2)
the center of the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
(c) Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in the mixture of clays,
silts and sands.
Strategy: You need to select a datum. From the information given, you can
calculate the total head at A and B. The difference in head is the head loss over
both plugs but you do not know how much head is lost in the sand and in the
mixture of clays, silts, and sands. The continuity equation provides the key to
finding the head loss over each plug.
When the flow is parallel to the soil layer (Fig. 3.2), the hydraulic gradient is
the same at all points. The flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the
sum of the flow through each of the layers. There is a similarity here with the flow
of electricity through resistors in parallel. If we consider a unit width (in the y
direction) of flow and use Eq. (3.6), we obtain,
(3.6)
where H0 is the total thickness of the soil mass, kx(eq) is the equivalent permeability
in the horizontal (x) direction, z1 to zn are the thickness of the first to the nth layers,
and kx1 to kxn are the horizontal permeabilities of first to the nth layer. Solving Eq.
(3.6) for kx(eq), we get,
(3.7)
For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of
the head losses in each layer:
(3.8)
where ΔH is the total head loss, and Δh1 to Δhn are the head losses in each of the n
layers. The velocity in each layer is the same. The analogy to electricity is flow of
current through resistors in series. From Darcy’s law, we obtain
(3.9)
where kz(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the vertical (z) direction and kz1 to kzn
are the vertical permeabilities of the first to the nth layer. Solving Eqs. (3.8 and 3.9)
leads to
(3.10)
Values of kz(eq) are generally less than kx(eq) – sometimes as much as 10 times less.
EXAMPLE 3.3
A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in Fig. E3.3. Assuming flow takes
place laterally and vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically below the
canal, determine the equivalent permeability in the horizontal and vertical
directions. Calculate the ratio of the equivalent horizontal permeability to the
equivalent vertical permeability for flow through the sides of the canal.
Fig. E3.3
Strategy: Use Eqs. (3.7 and 3.10) to find the equivalent horizontal and vertical
permeabilities over the depth of the canal (3 m) and then use Eq. (3.10) to find the
equivalent vertical permeability below the canal. To make the calculations easier,
convert all exponential quantities to a single exponent.
The flow rate through the soil is qv = Q/t, where Q is the total quantity of water
collected in the measuring cylinder over time t.
From Eq. (3.10),
(3.11)
(3.12)
0
where μ is the viscosity of water, T is the temperature in C at which the
measurement was made, and RT = μT℃/μ20℃ is the temperature correction factor
that can be calculated from,
(3.13)
The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water
through these soils is too slow to get reasonable measurements from the constant-
head test. A compacted soil sample or a sample extracted from the field is placed in
a metal or acrylic cylinder (Fig. 3.4).
Porous stones are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent
its disintegration and to allow water to percolate through it. Water flows through
the sample from a standpipe attached to the top of the cylinder. The head of water
(h) changes with time as flow occurs through the soil. At different times, the head
of water is recorded. Let dh be the drop in head over a time period dt. The velocity
or rate of head loss in the tube is
where a is the cross-sectional area of the tube. We now appeal to Darcy’s law to get
the outflow:
where A is the cross-sectional area, L is the length of the soil sample, and h is the
head of water at any time t. The continuity condition requires that (qv)in = (qv)out.
Therefore,
(3.14)
EXAMPLE 3.4
Strategy: From the data given, you can readily apply Darcy’s law to find k.
EXAMPLE 3.5
Final head = 84 cm
Determine k.
Strategy: Since this is a falling-head test, you should use Eq. 3.14. Make sure you
are using consistent units.
The equation, called the simple well formula, is derived using the following
assumptions.
The area of flow at a radial distance r from the center of the pumping well is
where z is the thickness of an elemental volume of the pervious soil layer. From
Darcy’s law, the flow is:
We need to rearrange the above equation and integrate it between the limits r1 and
r2, and h1 and h2:
(3.15)
With measurements of r1, r2, h1, h2, and qv (flow rate of the pump), k can calculated
using Eq. (3.15). This test is only practical for coarse-grained soils.
Pumping tests lower the groundwater, which then causes stress changes in the
soil. Since the groundwater is not lowered uniformly as shown in Fig. 3.5, the stress
changes in the soil will not be even. Consequently, pumping tests near existing
structures can cause them to settle unevenly. You should consider the possibilities
of differential settlement on existing structures when you plan a pumping test. Also,
it is sometimes necessary to temporarily lower the groundwater level for
construction. The process of lowering the groundwater is called dewatering.
EXAMPLE 3.6
A pumping test has been carried out in a soil bed of thickness 15 m and the
following measurements were recorded. Rate of pumping was 10.6×10 -3 m3/s;
drawdowns in observation wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the center of the
pumping well were 1.6 m and 1.4 m, respectively, from the initial groundwater
level. The initial groundwater level was located at 1.9 m below the initial ground
level. Determine k.
Strategy: You are given all measurements to directly apply Eq. (3.15) to find k.
You should draw a sketch of the pump test to identify the values to be used in Eq.
(3.15).