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SOIL MECHANICS-І

CHAPTER THREE
One-Dimensional Flow of Water through
Soils

Birhanu Belete (MSc)

 contents
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 Groundwater
 Head
 Darcy’s Law
 Empirical Relationships for k
 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers
 Flow Normal to Soil Layers
 Laboratory Determination of Permeability Tests
 Introduction
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 In chapter 2, we have discussed particle sizes and index

properties and used these to classify soils. You know that
water changes the soil states in fine-grained soils; the
greater the water content in the soil the weaker it is.
 Water can flow between the interconnected voids.
 Particle sizes and structural arrangement of the particles
influence the rate of flow
 In this chapter, we will discuss soil permeability by
considering one-dimensional flow of water through soils.
 When you complete this chapter you should be able to
determine the rate of flow of water through soils.
 Why Permeability
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 The study of seepage of water through soils is

important for the following engineering problems
1. Determination of rate settlement of saturated
compressible soil layer
2. Calculation of seepage through the body of
earth dams, and stability of slopes
3. Calculation of uplift pressure under hydraulic
structures and their safety against piping.
4. Ground water flow towards wells and drainage
of soil.
 Groundwater
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 Is water under gravity that fills the soil pores.

 Exists up to a certain level called ground water table.
 The top of the groundwater level is under atmospheric
pressure. We will denote the groundwater table by the
symbol ▼.
 We will be discussing gravitational flow of water
under a steady-state condition
 Gravitational flow can only occur if there is a gradient
 The steady-state condition occurs if neither the flow nor
the pore water pressure changes with time
 Head
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 Darcy’s law governs the flow of water through

soils.
 But before we delve into Darcy’s law, we will

discuss an important principle in fluid mechanics—

Bernoulli’s principle—that is essential in
understanding flow through soils.
 Head is simply mechanical energy per unit weight
 Bernoulli’s principle
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 Total head
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Total energy of water flowing through soil is given by.
𝑝 𝑣2
ℎ= +𝑍+
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔
Total velocity
head pressure head
head Elevation
head
❑ For soils, the fluid velocity is very small, so the velocity
head essentially equal to 0.
𝑝
ℎ= +𝑍
𝛾𝑤
 Total Head Cont.…
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 The elevation or potential head is referenced to an

arbitrary datum, and the total head will change depending
on the choice of the datum position. Therefore, it is essential
that you identify your datum position in solutions to flow
problems.
 The velocity of flow through soils is generally small (<1
cm/s) and we usually neglect the velocity head. The total
head in soils is then:

Where: u=pgh is the pore water pressure

 Head Loss
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 The head loss along path A-B or having a length L is

∆H=HA-HB
 The total head at outlet points is equal to the
elevation head (H=hz)
 Darcy’s Law
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 Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity

through soils is proportional to the gradient of the total
head. The flow in any direction, j, is :
dH
vj = kj
dx j

where v is the average flow velocity,

k is a coefficient of proportionality called the
hydraulic conductivity (sometimes called the
coefficient of permeability), and dH is the change
in total head over a distance dx.
 Darcy’s Law cont. …
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 The previous equation can be written as:

H
vx = k x = k xi
l
where i=∆H/L is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is
valid for all soils if the flow is laminar.
 Unit of measurement for k is length/time, that is, cm/s.

 The average velocity (v), calculated from the above

Equation is for the cross-sectional area normal to
the direction of flow.
 Darcy’s Law cont. …
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 Seepage Velocity : The velocity through the void

spaces is called seepage velocity (vs) and is
obtained by dividing the average velocity by the
porosity of the soil

kj
vs = i
n
 Darcy’s Law cont. …
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Flow Rate (qj)

 The volume rate of flow, qj, or, simply, flow rate is the
product of the average velocity and the cross-sectional
area:
qj = v j A = Ak j i

The unit of measurement for qj is m3/s or cm3/s.

 The conservation of flow (law of continuity) stipulates
that the volume rate of inflow (qj)in into a soil element
must equal the volume rate of outflow, (qj)out, or, simply,
inflow must equal outflow: (qj)in = (qj)out.
 Factors affecting the coefficient of Permeability (k)
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 Soil Type
 Particle size distribution
 Degree of Saturation
 Void Ratio
 Macro and Micro Structure….
 Coefficient of permeability for common soil types
 Empirical Relationships for k
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 A number of empirical relationships have been

proposed linking k to void ratio and grain size for
coarse-grained soils. Hazen (1930) proposed one
of the early relationships as:

k z = C  D cm/s
2
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 Where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.2

if the unit of measurement of D10 (effective
diameter) is mm. Typically, C = 1.0
 Example
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 A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube

1 m long. A constant supply of water is allowed to
flow into one end of the soil at A and the outflow at
B is collected by a beaker. The average amount of
water collected is 1cm3 for every 10 seconds. The
tube is inclined as shown in Figure. Determine:
(a) hydraulic gradient,
(b) flow rate,
(c) average velocity,
(d) seepage velocity, if e = 0.6, and
(e) coefficient of permeability.
 Example Figure
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 Solution
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Step 1: Define the datum position. Select the top of the table as
the datum. Do with point B, as the datum?
Step 2: Find the total heads at A (inflow) and B (outflow).

Step 3: Find the hydraulic gradient.

 Solution
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Step 4: Determine the flow rate.

Volume of water collected, Q=1cm3, t=10 seconds
𝑄 1 𝑐𝑚3
𝑞= = = 0.1
𝑡 10 𝑠
Step 5: Determine the average velocity.
𝑞 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋𝐷2 3.14 ∗ 102
𝐴= = = 78.5𝑐𝑚2
4 4
𝑞 0.1
𝑉= = = 0.0013 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 78.5
Step 6: Determine seepage velocity.
 Solution
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Step 7: Determine the hydraulic conductivity.

From Darcy’s law, 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑖 .
 Flow through stratified soils
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 One dimensional flow through stratified soils is

either flow parallel or normal to the soil layers
 Flow parallel to soil layers
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 When the flow is parallel to the soil layer , the

hydraulic gradient is the same at all points.
 The flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal
to the sum of the flow through each of the layers.
 If we consider a unit width (in the y direction) of
flow, we obtain
qv = Av = (1 H 0 )k x(eq )i = (1 z1 )k x1i + (1 z2 )k x 2i +  + (1 zn )k xni
 Solving for the Kxeq,
1
k x (eq ) = ( z1k x1 + z 2 k x 2 +    + z n k xn )
H0
 Flow normal to soil layers
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 For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in

the soil mass is the sum of the head losses in each
layer:
H = h1 + h2 +    + hn
 Where ΔH is the total head loss, and Δh1 to Δhn are
the head losses in each of the n layers.
 The velocity in each layer is the same.

H h h2 hn
k z ( eq ) = k z1 1 = k z 2 =    = k zn
H0 z1 z2 zn
 Flow normal to soil layers cont.….
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 Using the above two equations we get Kzeq

H0
k z ( eq ) =
z1 z2 zn
+ +  +
k z1 k z 2 k zn
 Example
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 A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in

figure. Assuming flow takes place laterally and vertically
through the sides of the canal and vertically below the
canal, determine the equivalent permeability in the
horizontal and vertical directions.
 Solution
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 Solution
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 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability
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 Laboratory Determinations
 Constant Head method

 Variable Head method

 In-situ (Field) Determinations (Reading Assignment)

 Pumping test (unconfined and confined aquifer)
with example
 Pond test

 Packer test
 Constant head method
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 The constant-head test is used to determine the

coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained soils
 Water is allowed to flow through a cylindrical
sample of soil under a constant head (h).
 The outflow (Q) is collected in a graduated cylinder
at a convenient duration (t).
 Constant head method cont.…..
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 Constant head method cont.…..
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H h
H = h and i = =
L L
 q = Q/t, where Q is the total quantity of
water collected in the measuring cylinder over
time t.
qv QL
kz = =
Ai tAh
 Constant head method cont.…..
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 The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of

temperature, influences the value of k.

 T 0C
k 200 C = kT 0C = kT 0C RT
 200 C

RT = 2.42 − 0.475ln(T )
 Constant head method cont.…..
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 Variable Head method
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 The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils

because the flow of water through these soils is
too slow to get reasonable measurements from the
constant-head test.
 The head of water (h) changes with time as flow
occurs through the soil.
 At different times, the head of water is recorded.
 Let dh be the drop in head over a time period dt.
The velocity or rate of head loss in the tube is
dh
v =
dt
 Variable Head method cont….
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 Variable Head method cont….
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 Variable Head method cont….
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 The inflow of water to the soil is

dh
(q v ) in = av = − a
dt
 We now appeal to Darcy’s law to get the
outflow: h
(q v ) out = Aki = AK
L

 The continuity condition requires that (qv)in =

(qv)out. Therefore, dh h
−a = Ak
dt L
 Variable Head method cont….
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 By separating the variables (h and t) and

integrating between those appropriate limits,
the last equation becomes,
t2 h2
Ak dh

aL t1
dt = − 
h1
h

aL  h1 
k = kz = ln 
A(t 2 − t1 )  h2 
 Example 1
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 A sample of sand, 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm

long, was prepared at a porosity of 60% in a
constant-head apparatus. The total head was kept
constant at 30 cm and the amount of water
collected in 5 seconds was 40 cm3. The test
temperature was 200C. Calculate the coefficient of
permeability and the seepage velocity.
 solution
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 Given Required Solution

𝑄𝐿
D= 5cm K= ? 𝐾=
𝐴ℎ𝑡
𝜋𝐷 2 3.14 5
L=15cm Vs=? 𝐴=
4
= = 19.63𝑐𝑚2
4
𝑄𝐿 40(15)
n=60% 𝐾=
𝐴ℎ𝑡
= =0.2cm/s
19.63(30)(5)
𝑄 40𝑐𝑚3
H=30cm 𝑉= = = 0.41𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑡 19.63𝑐𝑚2 ∗5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Q=40cm3
𝑉 0.41𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
T= 5 sec 𝑉𝑠 =
𝑛
=
0.6
= 0.68𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
To =200c no need of temperature correction, why?
 Example 2
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 The data from a falling-head test on a silty clay

are
Cross-sectional area of soil = 80 cm2 Duration of test = 15 minutes

Length of soil = 10 cm Diameter of tube = 6 mm

Initial head = 90 cm Temperature = 220C

Final head = 84 cm

 Determine k.
 solution
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 Given Required Solution

A= 80cm2 K= ?
L=10cm
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
h1=90cm 𝐾= ln( )
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
−4
h2=84 cm 𝐾 = 1.61𝑥10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
Q=40cm3
T= 15min  T 0C
a= 0.28cm2 k 200 C = kT 0C = kT 0C RT
To =220c
 200 C
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END
 Quiz
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 In order to determine the average permeability of

a bed of sand 14 m thick overlying an
impermeable stratum, a well was sunk through the
sand and a pumping test was carried out. After a
certain interval, the discharge was 12.4 liters per
second and drawdowns on observation wells at
16m and 33m from the pumping wells were found
to be 1.787m and 1.495m respectively. If GWT
was originally 2.14m below ground level, find the
permeability.
 Quiz
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