School of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Civil Engineering

Hydrology

Phase 2
Weather Basics (Meteorology):
Atmospheric Waters
After this chapter, the student should be able to
Objective  Discuss the concept of the Atmosphere and Cloud Physics.
 Define Solar Radiation and its effect on Earth’s Energy Balance

This chapter focuses on:

Content • The Atmosphere: Composition, General Characteristics and
Stability.
• Introduction of Cloud Physics: Nucleation, Growth and
Distribution.
• Solar radiation and Earth’s Energy Balance.
• General Circulation: Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation
• Temperature: Geographic Distribution
• Time Variation and Measurement,
• Humidity: Geographic Distribution, Time Variation and
Measurement

Related  https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/

Readings
J. E. Gribbin, P.E., (2014). Introduction to Hydraulics and Hydrology
References with Applications for Stormwater Management. New York, USA:
Delmar, Cengage Learning
W. Brustsaert, (2005). Hydrology an Introduction. Cambridge CB2
8RU, UK: Cambridge University Press, New York

Hydrology
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Weather Basics (Meteorology): Atmospheric Waters
Meteorology
Meteorology is the science that deals with the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena especially
with weather. It is a sub-discipline of the atmospheric sciences, a term that covers all studies of the
atmosphere.

Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place over a short period of time in terms
of wind, sunshine, precipitation, temperature, visibility, clouds, pressure, and humidity. While climate refers
to the weather pattern of a place over a long period of time (20 to 1,000,000 years). It is determined by
rainfall and temperature, which are influenced by latitude, elevation, and ocean currents which affects where
and how people live, and what they grow and eat.

The Atmosphere
Surrounding the Earth is a gaseous envelope or atmosphere, held in place by the planet’s gravitational
attraction. The Earth’s atmosphere is a complex dynamical, physical, and chemical system. Dynamic
processes cover a large range of scales from the microscopic-scale dynamics of evaporation, condensation,
cloud formation and precipitation, to small-scale, localized vertical and horizontal wind motions, to medium-
scale cyclones, anticyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, thunderstorms, fronts, etc., to the largescale
general circulation of the atmosphere.

Physical processes in the atmosphere include the transfer of incoming solar radiation through the
atmosphere to the surface, the heating of the surface, the emission of outgoing infrared radiation, the
absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases, the evaporation of water, the condensation of
atmospheric water vapor into clouds, and precipitation. Chemical processes include the transformation and
production of atmospheric gases, such as atmospheric ozone, via chemical reactions involving many dozens
of gases in the atmosphere.

While the Earth’s atmosphere extends upward for hundreds of kilometers until it merges with
interplanetary space, more than half of the atmosphere’s total mass is below an altitude of only about 6
kilometers (3.75 miles) above the surface. The
lowest region of the atmosphere, the troposphere,
extends from the surface to an altitude that varies
from 10 to 15 kilometers (km) (6.2 to 9.3 miles
(mi.)), depending on latitude and season. The top
of the troposphere is called the tropopause. The
regions of the atmosphere above the troposphere
are the stratosphere (from between 10 and 15 to
40 km (between 6.2-9.3 and 25 mi.)), the
mesosphere (40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi.)), the
thermosphere (80 to 500 km (50 to 310 mi.)) and
the exosphere (begins at about 500 km (310 mi.)).
The exosphere merges with interplanetary space.
The ionosphere is the region of atmosphere
between 40 and 300 km (25 and 185 mi.). It is the
region of positively-charged atoms and molecules
and negatively-charged electrons.

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Composition

The Earth’s atmosphere is a complex mixture of gases: nitrogen (N2) (about 78% by volume),
oxygen (O2) (about 21% by volume) and argon (Ar) (about 0.9% by volume) with small and varying
amounts of water vapor (H2O) (0 to 4% by volume) and still smaller amounts of carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3) and dozens of other gases at still smaller
concentrations. The chemical composition of the atmosphere is given below.

The protection afforded by the atmosphere is very important for life on Earth. The atmosphere
shields the Earth’s surface and its myriad forms of life from biologically damaging high-energy
cosmic radiation. In addition, ozone, found mostly in the stratosphere, absorbs ultraviolet radiation
from the Sun, shielding the Earth’s surface from this biologically damaging radiation.

General Characteristics

Atmospheric pressure is a measure of the force exerted by the mass of atmosphere on the
surface at a given location. The average pressure of the atmosphere at mean sea level is about 1 kg
per square cm, which is equivalent to about 14.7 pounds per square inch or a pressure of 1013.25
millibars (mb), and which is also referred to as 1 atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is measured with
a barometer.

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Humidity is a general term that refers to the water vapor content of the air. Absolute
humidity is the actual amount of water vapor per volume of air. Relative humidity is the percentage
of water vapor in the atmosphere compared with the maximum amount of water vapor that the
atmosphere could contain at that temperature. The dew point of a given parcel of air is the temperature
to which the parcel must be cooled, at constant pressure, for the water vapor component to condense.
Humidity is measured with a psychrometer.

Wind speed is measured with a 4-cup anemometer and wind direction is measured with a
weather vane. Winds are named after the direction from which they flow. For example, the northeast
trade winds flow in a southward direction from the northeast. The amount of cloud cover is estimated
either visually or photo graphically. The amount of precipitation is measured with a rain gauge.

Stability

We can think of air stability as the tendency for air to rise or fall through the atmosphere under
its own "power". Stable air has a tendency to resist movement. On the other hand, unstable air will
easily rise. What gives air "power" to rise? The tendency for air to rise or fall depends on the adiabatic
and environmental lapse rates.

How to determine atmospheric stability?

Imagine a ball in water:

– When does it rise? When it is lighter than environment, it will rise.

– When does it sink? When it is heavier than environment, it will sink.

Same is true with air parcels.

Temperature determines the density of an air parcel at a given pressure.

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To determine an air parcel temperature or the rising of air parcels and its adiabatic cooling,
consider a rising parcel of air as shown:

As the parcel rises, it will adiabatically expand and cool.

* adiabatic - a process where the parcel temperature changes due to an

expansion or compression, no heat is added or taken away from the parcel.

Lapse rate (0C/km) - rate of temperature change with height.

Dry-adiabatic lapse rate - unsaturated parcels cool at a rate of 10°C/km. This is

called the dry-adiabatic lapse rate.

Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate - For a saturated parcel of air, it cools at the moist
adiabatic lapse rate = 6°C/km.

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Introduction of Cloud Physics
Cloud physics is the microscale study of processes that govern all cloud and precipitation processes.

A cloud is aggregate of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air. Some are found only
at high elevations whereas others nearly touch the ground. They can be thick or thin, big or little and exist in
a seemingly endless variety of forms.

Nucleation

Nucleation is the initial process that occurs in the formation of a crystal from a solution, a
liquid, or a vapor, in which a small number of ions, atoms, or molecules become arranged in a pattern
characteristic of a crystalline solid, forming a site upon which additional particles are deposited as
the crystal grows.

Homogeneous nucleation (condensation of pure water with no dust or aerosols present)

requires a relative humidity of 400 – 500%. Though this can be achieved in a laboratory, such high
relative humidity does not occur in the atmosphere. Therefore, homogeneous nucleation cannot
explain the initial formation of cloud droplets.

Heterogeneous nucleation occurs much more often than homogeneous nucleation.

Heterogeneous nucleation applies to the phase transformation between any two phases of gas, liquid,
or solid, typically for example, condensation of gas/vapor, solidification from liquid, bubble
formation from liquid, etc.

Growth and Distribution

The continued growth of a cloud droplet, once condensation has started, is initially governed
by the diffusion of the water vapor molecules toward the droplet. Diffusion is the process of
molecules moving from regions of higher concentrations to regions of lower concentrations. At the
surface of a droplet, water vapor is simultaneously condensing and evaporating. When the
concentration of water vapor molecules is higher some distance from the droplet than it is at the
droplet surface, the water vapor in the air diffuses toward the droplet, condenses onto the droplet, and
the net effect is droplet growth. The rate of growth of the droplet depends on two things:

1. The gradient in vapor

concentration from the surface of
the droplet to the ambient
environment the presence of
super saturation, i. e., a relative
humidity H greater than the
equilibrium relative humidity H
of the droplet. Diffusional growth
gives narrow size distribution.

2. The surface area 4πr2

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Solar Radiation and Earth’s Energy Balance
To a large extent, the temperature of the Earth’s surface is determined by the amount of radiation
received from the Sun. Most of the incoming radiation from the Sun is in the form of visible radiation.

The atmosphere is mostly transparent to incoming solar radiation, i.e., this radiation is not absorbed
by gases in the atmosphere, with the notable exception of solar ultraviolet radiation, which is absorbed by
ozone mostly located in the stratosphere. However, some of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back to
space by clouds, by ice and snow at the poles, and by desert areas as shown. The surface of the Earth is
heated by the absorption of incoming solar radiation and reaches a mean global temperature of about –18 °C
(0 °F). Once heated to the mean temperature, the Earth emits radiation in the form of “long-wavelength,” or
infrared, radiation back to space. Unlike incoming solar radiation, which is not strongly absorbed by
atmospheric gases and passes through the atmosphere to the surface, outgoing infrared radiation is strongly
absorbed by several different atmospheric gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous
oxide and ozone.

Immediately after being absorbed by these atmospheric gases, the infrared radiation is quickly
reemitted or released back to the atmosphere in both the upward and downward directions. The downward
component of the re-emitted infrared radiation strikes the surface and causes additional heating, increasing
the mean temperature of the Earth to about 15 °C (59 °F). This additional heating is called the “greenhouse
effect” and the gases that absorb and then reemit infrared gases are called “greenhouse gases.” Measurements
show that atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases—carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide —
are increasing with time most probably due to human activities. Atmospheric concentrations of water vapor
will increase as the temperature of the atmosphere increases. The buildup of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere has led to national and international concern about global warming and its accompanying
environmental consequences.

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General Circulation
Due to the curvature of the Earth (the Earth’s spherecity), the Sun’s rays are spread over a larger and
larger area the further the latitude from the equator. Therefore, the sunlight is less concentrated than at
latitudes nearer the equator and less solar heating takes place. This is why the Earth’s equatorial regions are
hot and the polar regions are cold. The atmosphere and ocean redistribute the excess solar energy from the
equatorial regions to the polar regions via their circulation. Hence, the solar-heated air at the equator rises
and then moves poleward at high altitudes in both hemispheres. This causes a surface low-pressure area at
the equator. The low pressure area between 5° N and 5° S is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITC).
At about 30° N and 30° S of the equator, some of the high-altitude poleward-moving heated air begins to
cool, which causes it to descend to the surface, creating high pressure areas at the surface.

The descending air sets up surface wind patterns that flow away from these high-pressure systems towards
the poles and the equator in both hemispheres. As air flows from regions of high pressure to regions of low
pressure, it is deflected to the right (in the northern hemisphere) and to the left (in the southern hemisphere)
by the Earth’s rotation. This is known as the Coriolis Effect. Thus, in the northern hemisphere, the surface
air flowing equatorward is turned toward the southwest. These winds are called the northeast trade winds
because they blow from the northeast (toward the southwest). In the southern hemisphere, the surface air
flowing equatorward is turned toward the northwest. These winds are called the southeast trade winds
because they blow from the southeast (toward the northeast). In both the northern and southern hemispheres,
the poleward surface flow gets directed by the Coriolis effect, resulting in westerly or prevailing westerly

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winds. The general flow of the atmosphere begins to get more complicated poleward of 30° in both
hemispheres due to the presence of fronts and the high-altitude jet stream. In the northern hemisphere, the
flow of the prevailing westerlies is further disturbed by the presence of land masses. Weather, particularly
poleward of 30°, is also impacted by dissimilar and interacting large air masses forming fronts and surface
cyclones and anticyclones.

Thermal Circulation and Earth’s Rotation

The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the rotation of the earth and the
incoming energy from the sun. Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three distinct cells which help
transport energy and heat from the equator to the poles. The winds are driven by the energy from the
sun at the surface as warm air rises and colder air sinks.

The circulation cell closest to the equator is called the Hadley cell. Winds are light at the
equator because of the weak horizontal pressure gradients located there. The warm surface
conditions result in locally low pressure. The warm air rises at the equator producing clouds and
causing instability in the atmosphere. This instability causes thunderstorms to develop and release
large amounts of latent heat. Latent heat is just energy released by the storms due to changes from
water vapor to liquid water droplets as the vapor condenses in the clouds, causing the surrounding air
to become more warm and moist, which essentially provides the energy to drive the Hadley cell.

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The Hadley Cell encompasses latitudes from the equator to about 30°. At this latitude surface
high pressure causes the air near the ground to diverge. This forces air to come down from aloft to
"fill in" for the air that is diverging away from the surface high pressure. The air flowing northward
from the equator high up in the atmosphere is warm and moist compared to the air nearer the poles.
This causes a strong temperature gradient between the two different air masses and a jet stream
results. At the 30° latitudes, this jet is known as the subtropical jet stream which flows from west to
east in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Clear skies generally prevail throughout the
surface high pressure, which is where many of the deserts are located in the world.

Temperature: Geographic Distribution

Distribution of temperature varies both horizontally and vertically.

A) Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

Distribution of temperature across the latitudes over the surface of the earth is called its
horizontal distribution. On maps, the horizontal distribution of temperature is commonly shown
by isotherms. Isotherms are line connecting points that have an equal temperature.

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When we analyze an isotherm map, it can be seen that the horizontal distribution of
temperature is uneven.

The factors responsible for the uneven horizontal distribution of temperature are:

1. Latitude
2. Altitude
3. Land and Sea Contrast
4. Ocean Currents
5. Air Masses
6. Vegetation Cover

B) Vertical Distribution of Temperature

The temperature in the troposphere decreases with an increase in the altitude. This vertical
gradient of temperature is commonly referred to as the standard atmosphere or Normal Lapse
Rate. However, this normal lapse rate varies with height, season, latitude and other factors.

Inversion of Temperature:

 The phenomenon in which temperature increases with increasing altitude

temporarily and locally under certain conditions is known as inversion of
temperature.
 Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless.
 Long winter night, clear sky, dry air and absence of winds leads to quick radiation
of heat from the earth’s surface, as well as from the lower layers of the atmosphere.
 This results in the cooling of the air near the earth’s surface. The upper layers which
lose their heat not so quickly are comparatively warm.
 Hence the normal condition, in which temperature decreases with increasing height,
is reversed. The cooler air is nearer the earth and the warmer air is aloft.

Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. It indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or
fog. Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of
evaporation of moisture from the skin.

Measurement

Humidity measurements at the Earth’s surface are required for meteorological analysis and
forecasting, for climate studies, and for many special applications in hydrology, agriculture,
aeronautical services and environmental studies, in general. General requirements for the range,
resolution, and accuracy of humidity measurements are given in table.

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Wlt-bulb Relative
Requirement Dew-point Temperature
Temperature Humidity
At least 50 K in the
Range -10 to 35 °C 5-100%
Range -60 to 35 °C
±0.1 K high
Target RH ±1% high RH ±0.1 K high RH
accuracy(1) ±0.2 k mid ±5% mid RH ±0.5 K mid RH
RH
Achievable
observing ±0.2 K ±3-5%(3) ±0.5 K(3)
accuracy(2)
Reporting
code ±.1 K ±1% ±0.1 K
resolution
Sensor time
20 s 40 s 20 s
constant(4)
Output
averaging 60 s 60 s 60 s
time(5)

1. Hygrometers - Instrument for measuring humidity is known as a hygrometer. The employing physical
principles are:

a. Gravimetric hygrometry,
b. Condensation methods
i. Chilled-mirror method (dew-or frost-point hygrometer)
ii. Heated salt-solution method (vapour equilibrium hygrometer, known as the dew cell)
c. The psychrometric method
d. Sorption methods
e. Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by water vapour (ultraviolet and infrared absorption
hygrometers)

2. Psychrometer
3. Hair hygrometer
4. The chilled-mirror dew-point hygrometer
5. The lithium chloride heated condensation hygrometer (dew cell)
6. Electrical resistive and capacitive hgrometers

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References:

https://acfloodcontrol.org/projects-and-programs/hydrology-
hydraulics/#:~:text=Hydrology%20is%20the%20scientific%20study,pipelines%2C%20and%20other%20h
ydraulic%20structures.
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrology/
http://www.foresitegroup.net/whats-the-difference-between-hydrology-and-hydraulics/
Hydrologic Cycle - Influences Of Human Activities On The Hydrologic Cycle - Water, Watershed, Flows,
and Agriculture - JRank Articles https://science.jrank.org/pages/3470/Hydrologic-Cycle-Influences-
human-activities-on-hydrologic-cycle.html#ixzz6SgCOw62e
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/726-humans-and-the-water-cycle
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/evapotranspiration-and-water-cycle?qt-
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
https://forestrypedia.com/infiltration-and-percolation/
https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1731-25045-9495/dl_perc.pdf
https://prezi.com/dsg1dd1ebl5b/surface-and-subsurface-runoff-
phenomenon/#:~:text=Surface%20runoff%20is%20water%20from,component%20of%20the%20water%20
cycle.&text=Interflow%2C%20also%20known%20as%20subsurface,that%20occurs%20below%20the%20
surface.
http://groundwater.ucdavis.edu/files/156562.pdf
https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf
https://lcp.org.ph/UserFiles/League_of_Cities/file/WPF-Weather101-updated.pdf
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/meteorology/
https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/atmospheric_moisture/lapse_rates_2.html#:~:text=We%
20can%20think%20of%20air,unstable%20air%20will%20easily%20rise.&text=The%20tendency%20for%
20air%20to%20rise%20or%20fall%20depends,adiabatic%20and%20environmental%20lapse%20rates.
https://www.weather.gov/media/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/clouds/stability_clouds/stability_clouds.pdf
https://www.britannica.com/science/nucleation
https://my.eng.utah.edu/~lzang/images/lecture-12.pdf
https://climate.ncsu.edu/edu/AtmosCirculation
https://www.clearias.com/distribution-of-temperature-earths-
atmosphere/#:~:text=Distribution%20of%20Temperature-
,A)%20Horizontal%20Distribution%20of%20Temperature,that%20have%20an%20equal%20temperature.
https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/IOM-87_TM-AWOS/IOM-
87_Module_B2_2.pps

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