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BASIC GEO-TECHNICAL ENGINEERING
MODULE 3
2.1 PERMEABILITY
2.2 DARCY‟S LAW
2.3 LABOARATORY METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY
2.4 FIELD METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY
2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY
2.6 PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOIL MASS
2.7 CAPILLARY PHENOMENA
2.8 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
2.9 LAPLACE EQUATION
2.10 FLOWNET
2.11 FLOWS THROUGH EARTH DAM
2.12 EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS
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2.1 PERMEABILITY
It is one of the important properties of a given soil which is defined as “the capacity of a
given soil to permit the flow of water through its pores or interconnecting voids”.
Coarse grained soils such as sand and gravel have relatively large void space and therefore
they have high permeability. On the other hand, fine grained soils such as clays have
relatively small voids space and therefore they have low permeability.
The flow of water through soils may either be a laminar flow or turbulent flow.
Laminar Flow: - In laminar flow, each fluid particles travels along a definite path which
never crosses the path of any other particle.
Turbulent flow: - In turbulent flow, the path are irregular, twisting and crossing at random.
 In most of the practical flow problems in soil mechanics the flow in laminar.
2.2 DARCY’S LAW

The law of flow of water through soil was first studied by Darcy, who demonstrated
experimentally that for laminar flow conditions in a saturated soil, “the rate of flow or the
discharge per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic gradient”.
i.e. 𝐐 = 𝐤 × 𝐢 × 𝐀 𝐨𝐫 𝐪 = 𝐤 × 𝐢 × 𝐀
Where,
Q or q = Discharge or rate of flow through the given soil
k = Darcy‟s co-efficient of permeability
i = Hydraulic Gradient (Head loss per unit length)
A = Total cross sectional area of the soil measured perpendicular to the direction of
Flow
If a soil sample of length „L‟ & cross section of area „A‟ is subjected to differential head of
water „h‟. The hydraulic gradient „i‟ will be equal to “h/L” and we have
Q = K× (h/L) ×A

Thus, the “co-efficient of permeability” is defined as the average velocity of flow that will
occur through the total cross sectional area of soil under unit hydraulic gradient.
The dimension of „coefficient of permeability‟ „K‟ is the same as those of velocity & it is
usually expressed as cm/sec or m/day or feet/day.
Note: - Laminar flow is also known as parallel flow which means that flow occurs in parallel
layers. However this is not true.
2.2.1 Validity of Darcy’s Law

1. Darcy‟s law of linear dependency b/w velocity of flow „v‟ & hydraulic gradient „i‟ is
valid only for laminar flow conditions in the soil.
2. From the experiments on flow through pipes, Reynolds found that the flow is laminar so
as long as the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity „V c‟ expressed in terms of
Reynolds number as follows,
𝑣𝑐 × 𝐷 × 𝛾𝑊
= 2000
𝜇×𝑔
Where,
Vc = Lower critical velocity in the pipe (cm/sec)
D = Diameter of the pipe (cm)
γw = Density of water (gm/ml)
µ = Viscosity of water (gm-sec/cm2)
g = acceleration due to gravity (cm/sec2)
3. Based on this analogy, the flow through the soils may be assumed to depend upon the
dimensions of the pore spaces.
4. Darcy‟s law is valid as long as the Reynolds number expressed in the form below is equal
or less than unity.
𝑣𝑐 × 𝐷 × 𝛾𝑊
≤1
𝜇×𝑔
5. Critical Reynolds number may vary from 0.1 to 0.75, for Darcy‟s law to be valid.
6. Allen Hazen concluded that linear dependency of the velocity & hydraulic gradient
existed if the effective size of soil did not exceed 3mm.
7. Critical velocities of flow for fine sands & fine gravels were found to be 0.94 × 10 -4
cm/sec & 5.56 × 10-4 cm/sec respectively.
8. For the ground water flow occurring in nature & normally encountered in soil engineering
problems, darcy‟s law is generally within its validity limit.

2.2.1 Seepage velocity & superficial velocity

Seepage velocity is computed on the basis of the cross-sectional area of voids in the soil.
Since the flow occurs through the cross sectional area of voids, it is known as “seepage
velocity” & it is also known as “True or Actual Velocity of flow”.
Superficial velocity is computed on the basis of total cross-sectional area of given soil. Since
the flow does not occur through total area of given soil mass it is known as “superficial
velocity”. It is also known as “False or Discharge velocity”.
2.2.2 Relation between seepage velocity and superficial velocity

Let,
VS = Seepage velocity of flow
V = Superficial velocity of flow
A = Total cross – sectional area of given soil
AV = Cross – sectional area of voids in given soil
Q = Rate of flow through the soil
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉𝑆
𝐴
𝑉𝑆 = ×𝑉
𝐴𝑉
𝑉𝑉 𝐴𝑉
WKT, 𝑛= =
𝑉 𝐴
𝐴 1
=
𝐴𝑉 𝑛
𝑉
𝑉𝑆 =
𝑛
 Where, „n‟ is porosity or percentage of voids.
Since the area of voids is less than total area, seepage velocity VS is greater than the
superficial velocity „V‟.
2.2.3 Co-efficient of Percolation (KP)

The constant of proportionality between seepage velocity and hydraulic gradient is termed as
co-efficient of percolation „KP‟.
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐾𝑃 × 𝑖 … 𝐸𝑞 1

From Darcy‟s law,

V = K × i ….. Eq 2
Dividing eq (1) by eq (2) we get,
𝑉𝑆 𝐾𝑃 × 𝑖
=
𝑉 𝐾×𝑖
𝑉𝑆 𝐾𝑃
= … . 𝐸𝑞3
𝑉 𝐾
𝑉
WKT, 𝑉𝑆 = … . . 𝐸𝑞4
𝑛
Substitute Eq (4) in Eq (3)
𝑉 𝐾𝑃
=
𝑉×𝑛 𝐾
𝐾
𝐾𝑃 =
𝑛
2.3 LABORATORY METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY

Permeability of the given soil can be determined in the laboratory by using any one of the
following methods,
1. Constant Head Permeability Test
2. Variable Head/ Falling Head Permeability Test
2.3.1 Constant Head Permeability Test

The constant head permeability test is preferred in the case of coarse grained soils such as
sand & gravels which have higher permeability as such large quantity of water can be
discharged through the given soil in reasonably short interval of time.
Before commencing the experiment care should be taken such that the soil specimen is fully
saturated. Place the mould assembly in the bottom tank and fill the bottom tank with outer
upto the outlet. Connect the outlet tube of the constant head tank to the inlet nozzle of the
permeameter. Adjust the hydraulic head by raising or lowering the air intake tube within head
tank. Start the stop watch, at the same time put a measuring jar at the bottom of the tank. Run
the test for convenient time interval. Measure the quantity of water collected in jar during that
time. Repeat the test for twice with the same head and same interval of time. The coefficient
of permeability is calculated from,
𝑸×𝑳
𝒌=
𝒉×𝑨×𝒕
2.3.2 Variable Head Permeability Test
Variable head permeability test is preferred in the case of fine grained soils such as clays and
silts which have low permeability.

1. Before commencing the experiment care should be taken to ensure that the given soil
specimen is fully saturated.
2. Keep the mould in the bottom tank and fill the bottom tank with water upon its outlet.
3. Connect the water inlet nozzle of the mould to the stand pipe filled with water. Permit the
water to flow for some time till steady state of flow is reached.
4. With the help of stopwatch, note the time interval required for the water level in the stand
pipe to fall from some convenient initial value to some final value.
5. Repeat the step 4 at least twice and determine the time required to fall in the stand pipe
from h1 to h2.
6. In order to determine the inside area of cross section of the standpipe, collect the quantity
of water contained in between two graduations of known distance apart. Find the mass of
this water accurate to 0.1gm. The mass in grams divided by the distance two graduations
will give the inside area of cross section of the stand pipe.
The expression for computing the permeability „K‟ is derived as follows,

Let „a‟ be the cross sectional area of stand pipe
„A‟ be the cross sectional area of soil specimen
„Q‟ be the discharge through the specimen under a head „h‟ at any interval
„-dh‟ be the change in the head in small interval of time „dt‟ (-ve sign indicates that the head
is falling)
The fundamental equation,
𝑄. 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑎. 𝑑ℎ ….. Eqn 1
By Darcy‟s Law,
Q = K×i×A
Where, i = h/L is a variable hydraulic gradient
Q = K× (h/L) ×A ….. Eqn 2
Substituting Q in Eqn 1 we get
K× (h/L) ×A × dt = -a × dh
−𝑎𝐿 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = ×
𝐾𝐴 ℎ
Thus the time interval for the head to fall from h1 to h2 is given by,
𝑡 ℎ1
−𝑎𝐿 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝐴𝐾 ℎ2 ℎ

ℎ1 ℎ1
𝑎𝐿 𝑑ℎ 𝑎𝐿
𝑡= = log 𝑒 ℎ +𝐶
𝐴𝐾 ℎ2 ℎ 𝐴𝐾 ℎ2
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑡= (log 𝑒 )
𝐴𝐾 ℎ2
𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒌 = 𝟐. 𝟑 × × 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝑨𝒕 𝒉𝟐
2.4 FIELD METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY

Field methods of determining coefficient of permeability are more reliable compared to
laboratory methods as the former involves large mass of soil with minimum disturbance
unlike the small sample used in laboratory test.
2.4.1 Pumping out test
 Pumping out test in unconfined aquifer
 Pumping out test in confined aquifer
 Pumping out test in unconfined aquifer

Let, r = radius of central well

d = height of initial water table above impervious layer
h = depth of water in the central well, during pumping, measured above impervious
boundary
q = discharge or rate at which water is pumped out of well

h1 & h2 = the corresponding heights of a drawdown curve above the impervious
boundary
r1 & r2 = the radial distance from the central well to two of the observation wells.
h1 = d – S1
h2 = d – S2
Applying Darcy‟s Law,
q=k×i×A
A = 2πrh
𝑑ℎ
𝑞=𝑘× × 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟
𝑞× = 𝑘 × 𝑑ℎ × 2𝜋ℎ
𝑟
Integrating between the limits r1 & r2 for r and h1 and h2 for h
𝑟2 ℎ2
𝑑𝑟
𝑞 = 2𝜋𝑘 ℎ. 𝑑ℎ
𝑟1 𝑟 ℎ1
𝑟 h2 ℎ 2
𝑞[log 𝑒 𝑟]𝑟21 = 2𝜋𝑘[ ]ℎ 1
2
𝑟2
2.303𝑞 log10 [ ] = 𝜋𝑘[ℎ22 − ℎ12 ]
𝑟1
𝑟
2.303𝑞 log10 [ 𝑟2 ]
1
𝑘=
𝜋[ℎ22 − ℎ12 ]

 Pumping out test in confined aquifer
HO = Thickness of pervious layer

q = k×i×A
Cylindrical surface area of flow A = 2πrHO
q = k×i×2πrHO
𝑑ℎ
𝑞=𝑘× × 2𝜋𝑟HO
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟
𝑞× = 𝑘 × 𝑑ℎ × 2𝜋
𝑟
Integrating between the limits r1 & r2 for r and h1 and h2 for h
𝑟2 ℎ2
𝑑𝑟
𝑞 = 2𝜋𝑘HO 𝑑ℎ
𝑟1 𝑟 ℎ1
𝑟 ℎ
𝑞[log 𝑒 𝑟]𝑟21 = 2𝜋𝑘HO [h]ℎ 21
𝑟2
2.303𝑞 log10 [ ] = 2𝜋𝑘HO [ℎ2 − ℎ1 ]
𝑟1
𝑟
2.303𝑞 log10 [ 2 ]
𝑟1
𝑘=
2𝜋HO [ℎ2 − ℎ1 ]
2.4.2 Pumping in test
The tests can be conducted in both unconfined aquifer and confined aquifer. An aquifer is a
water bearing stratum in natural ground formations. If it overlies an impervious stratum and
the bound by impervious strata both at top & bottom it is called confined aquifer.

2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

Following are the various factors which have a significant influence on permeability of a
soil:-
1. Particle size
2. Voids ratio
3. Properties of pore fluid (water)
4. Effect of structural arrangement of particles
5. Degree of saturation & presence of foreign matter
6. Adsorbed water
 Effect of particle size:-
 As the particle size increases, the permeability also increases.

 The permeability of a soil is approximately varies as the square of the particle size.
 Allen Hazen has suggested following empirical equation for determining permeability of
sands.
𝑲 = 𝑪 × 𝑫𝟐𝟏𝟎
Where, K = Coefficient of Permeability in cm/sec

D10 = Effective diameter of particle in cm
C = Constant whose values is about 100, when D10 is in cms
 Effect of void ratio: -

 As the voids ratio increases the permeability increases.
 If K1 and K2 represent the coefficient of permeability of a given soil corresponding to
void ratio e1 & e2, then the approximate relationship between K1 & K2 is defined by,
𝑲𝟏 𝒆𝟑𝟏 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟐
= ×
𝑲𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟏 𝒆𝟑𝟐
 Effect of properties of pore fluid: -

 It has been found that permeability of soil is directly proportional to the unit weight of
pore fluid i.e.′𝛾𝑊 ′, and inversely proportional to the viscosity „µ‟ of the pore fluid.
𝜸𝑾
𝑲𝜶
𝝁

 With a rise in temperature the unit weight as well as viscosity decreases. However the
change in unit weight in insignificant. As such, a decrease in viscosity increases the
permeability.
 The constant proportionality between Darcy co-efficient of permeability, Unit weight &
viscosity is called “Physical Permeability Coefficient”.
𝝁
𝑲𝒑𝒉𝒚 = 𝑲 ×
𝜸𝑾
 Effect of structural arrangement of particles: -
 Effect is significant in case of fine grained soils; hence the value of „K‟ of given soil
sample obtained in laboratory is different from its permeability in the field.
 Further in case of stratified soil masses (i.e. Soil deposits in layers), permeability in a
direction parallel to the bedding planes is greater than that at right angles to the bedding
plane.
 Effect of degree saturation and presence of foreign matters: -
 If the degree of saturation „S‟ is less than 100%, it means that the given that the given soil
contains an entrapped air which forms an obstruction to the flow of pore fluid. As such
the presence of entrapped air reduces the permeability.
 Similarly, presence of organic matter such as leaves reduces the permeability.
 Effect of Adsorbed water: -

 Adsorbed water surrounding the fine soil particles is not free to move and reduces the
effective pore space available for the passage of water.
 Presence of adsorbed water reduces the permeability.
 „K‟ is roughly assumed to be proportional to the square of net void ratio (e – 0.1).
2.6 PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOIL MASS

In nature soil mass may consist of several layers deposited one above the other. Their
bedding planes may be horizontal, inclined or vertical. Each layer, assumed to be
homogenous and isotropic has its own value of coefficient of permeability. The average
permeability of the whole deposit will depend upon the direction of flow with relation to the
direction of the bedding planes. We shall consider both the cases of flow.

2.6.1 Average Permeability parallel to bedding plane
Let Z1, Z2, Z3….Zn be the thickness of layers and K1, K2, K3….Kn permeability of layers. For
the flow to be parallel to the bedding planes, the hydraulic gradient „i‟ will be same for all
layers. However the velocity of flow will be different in different layers, since the value of K
is different.
Let KH be the average permeability of the soil deposit parallel to the bedding plane.
Total discharge through the soil = Sum of discharges through the individual layers
Q = Q1+Q2+Q3+Q4……Qn
KH.i.Z = K1.i.Z1 + K2.i.Z2 + K3.i.Z3 + K4.i.Z4 + ………… Kn.i.Zn
KH = (K1.Z1 + K2.Z2 + K3.Z3 + K4.Z4 + ………… Kn.Zn)/Z
Where, Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + Z4 + ………… Zn
2.6.2 Average Permeability perpendicular to bedding plane

In this case, the velocity of flow and the unit discharge will be same through each layer.
However the hydraulic gradient & the head loss through each layer will be different.
Denoting the loss through the layers by h1, h2 … hn and the total head loss as „h‟ we have,
h = h1 + h2 + ……. + hn
h1 = i1.Z1, h2=i2.Z2,…., hn = in.Zn
h = i1.Z1 + i2.Z2 + ……. + in.Zn
KV = Average permeability perpendicular to the bedding plane, we have
ℎ
V = KV × i = KZ ×
𝑍
𝑉×𝑍
ℎ=
𝐾𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Also, 𝑖1 = , 𝑖2 = , … … . . 𝑖𝑛 =
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑛
𝑉×𝑍 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= × 𝑍1 + × 𝑍2 + ⋯ . . × 𝑍𝑛
𝐾𝑉 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑛
𝐙
𝐊𝐕 =
𝐙𝟏 𝐙𝟐 𝐙𝐧
𝐊𝟏 + 𝐊𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐊𝐧
Where, Z = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + Z4 + ………… Zn
It can be shown that for any stratified soil mass KX is always greater than KZ.
2.7 CAPILLARY PHENOMENA

 Capillary Rise
The height above a free water elevation to which water will rise due to capillary action.

Upward component = 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑇𝑆 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

𝜋𝑑 2
Downward Component = × 𝛾𝑊 × ℎ𝑐
4
Equating upward force = Downward force
𝜋𝑑 2
𝜋𝑑 × 𝑇𝑆 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = × 𝛾𝑊 × ℎ𝑐
4
𝟒 × 𝑻𝑺 × 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝒉𝒄 =
𝜸𝑾 × 𝒅
Where,
hC = Capillary rise
TS = Surface tension force
α = Contact Angle
d = diameter of the glass tube or grain size of soils
 Capillary Phenomenon in soils

The voids in a natural deposit act as capillary tubes and water rises in the continuous voids to
a certain height above ground water table or free surface. The height to which water rises is
called capillary rise, which depends on particle size and void ratio. All other factors being
equal, the capacity rise in the fine grained soils is always greater than in course grained soils.
The capillary rise in soils depends on,
 The size of void that is effective. It varies inversely with the size of voids.
 The particle size and density of soil.
The capillary rise is most pronounced in soils composed mainly of fine sands, silts, silty clays
and colloids.
 Capillary rise decreases with increase in temperature

For a rough estimate of capillary rise the following equation has been suggested by Allen
Hazen.
𝐶
ℎ𝑐 =
𝑒 × 𝐷10
Where, C = empirical constant (0.1 – 0.5 cm2)
e = void ratio
D10 = effective size
hC] max is when α = 0

𝟒×𝑻𝑺 ×𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
hC] max =
𝜸𝑾 ×𝒅
𝟒×𝑻𝑺
hC] max =
𝜸𝑾 ×𝒅
Hydrostatic pressure measured above the free water surface is considered to be negative, that
is below atmospheric. This negative is called capillary tension.
Maximum value of capillary tension,
𝟒𝑻𝑺
𝒖 = −𝜸𝑾 𝒉𝑪 =
𝒅

2.7 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS

Seepage is the infiltration or percolation of water through rock or soil. The term seepage is
usually restricted to the very slow movement of groundwater.
When the seepage velocity is great enough, erosion can occur because of the frictional drag
exerted on the soil particles. Vertically upwards seepage is a source of danger on the
downstream side of sheet piling and beneath the toe of a dam. Erosion of the soil, known as
“piping”, can lead to failure of the structure and to sinkhole formation. Seeping water
removes soil, starting from the exit point of the seepage, and erosion advances up gradient.
The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active pipe
soil.
Seepage is an upward direction reduces the effective stress within the soil. In cases where the
hydraulic gradient is equal to or greater than the critical gradient (i.e. when the water pressure
in the soil is equal to the total vertical stress at a point), effective stress is reduced to zero.
When this occurs in a non cohesive soil, a “quick” condition is reached and the soil becomes
a heavy fluid (i.e liquefaction has occurred).
2.8 LAPALACE EQUATION

2.8.1 Assumptions of Laplace Equation
1. The flow is two dimensional.
2. The soil is fully saturated.
3. Darcy‟s law for flow through soil medium is valid.
4. The flow is steady.
5. Water and soil are incompressible.
6. Soil is isotropic and homogeneous.
7. The hydraulic boundary conditions at entry and exit are known.
2.8.2 Limitations of Laplace Equation
1. Flow is laminar.
2. Degree of saturation is 100 %.
3. Co-efficient of permeability is constant everywhere in the soil medium.
4. Co-efficient of permeability is same in all direction.
5. No expansion or contraction.
6. No volume change occurs.

2.9.3 Derivation of Laplace Equation

Let us consider an element of soil of size „dx × dz‟ through which flow takes place and unit
thickness perpendicular to plane. Let „vx‟ and „vz‟ be the velocity components at the entry in
x and z directions.
The quantity of water entering the element in unit time vxdydz + vzdxdy and that leaving is
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧
𝑣𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
As the element is undergoing no volume change and the water is incompressible, the
quantities of water entering and leaving should be equal, and thus
𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
( + )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
+ = 0 … … … 𝐸𝑞𝑛 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
Eqn (1) is referred to as the equation of continuity in two dimensions.
Based on Darcy‟s law, vx = k.ix = k. (𝜕h/ 𝜕x) & vz = k.iz = k. (𝜕h/ 𝜕z) ….. Eqn (2)
The partial derivatives in equation (2) suggest a potential function in the form ɸ (x, z) such
that,
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑧 = … … . . 𝐸𝑞𝑛 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
Substituting equation (3) in equation (1), we obtain
𝜕2𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑
+ = 0 … … . 𝐸𝑞𝑛 (4)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Equation 4 is the Laplace equation which presents the two dimensional steady flow of an
incompressible fluid through an incompressible isotropic porous medium.
In simple terms, it represents the balancing of gradient changes in the x and z directions when
the volume is constant.
The existence of a potential function requires an irrotational flow such that
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
A flow function Ψ is defined in such a way that,
𝜕𝛹 𝜕𝛹
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
Then,
𝜕2𝛹 𝜕2 𝛹
+ = 0 … … . 𝐸𝑞𝑛 (5)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Equation (5) also satisfies the Laplace equation.
2.9 FLOWNET
A flownet is a graphical representation of two-dimensional steady-state groundwater flow
through aquifers.
Construction of flownet is often used for solving groundwater flow problems where the
geometry makes analytical solutions impractical. The method is often used in civil
engineering, hydrogeology or soil mechanics as a first check for problems of flow under
hydraulic structures like dams or sheet pile walls. As such a grid obtained by drawing a series
of equipotential lines is called a flownet. The flownet is an important tool in analyzing two-
dimensional irrotational flow problems.

 Flow Channel: - The space between any two adjacent flow lines is called flow channel.
 Field: - The space enclosed between two adjacent flow lines and two successive
equipotential lines is called a field.
 Equipotential Line: - It is an imaginary line in a field of flow such that the total head is
same for all points on the line and therefore the direction of flow is perpendicular to the
line at the points.
 Flow net: - A grid obtained by drawing a series of stream lines and equipotential lines.
2.9.1 Characteristics of flownets
 Flow lines and equipotential lines in a flow net intersect at right angles.
 All fields formed by equipotential lines and flow lines are approximate squares.
 Same quantity of flow occurs through each flow channel.
 Same potential drop occurs between any two successive equipotential lines.
 The smaller the dimension of a field, greater is the hydraulic gradient and also velocity of
flow.
 In homogeneous soils, the shape of curves is either elliptical or parabolic.

2.9.2 Applications of flownets

The flow net helps in depicting and analyzing the behavior of irrotational flow. Many flow
phenomena which cannot be analyzed easily by mathematical means can be analyzed by
drawing flownets.
The following are some of the important uses of flow net analysis:
 For given boundaries of flow, the velocity and pressure distribution can be determined, if
the velocity distribution and pressure at any reference section are known.
 Loss of flow due to seepage in earth dams and unlined canals can be evaluated.
 Uplift pressures on the underside (bottom) of the dam can be worked out.
 Outlets can be designed for their streamlining.
2.9.3 Uses of flownets

 Quantity of seepage
 Seepage pressure at a point
 Hydrostatic pressure at a point
 Exit gradient
 Determination of Quantity of Seepage:-
• l = length, b = breadth (l = b = 1)
• ∆q = rate of discharge through each flow channel
• ∆h = head drop through the field
Applying Darcy‟s law we have,
∆𝐡
∆𝐪 = 𝐤 × × 𝐛×𝟏
𝐥

Where,
∆h = (H/ Nd)
H = Total head causing the flow
Nd = Number of potential drops in the entire flow net
𝐇 𝐛
∆𝐪 = 𝐤 × ×
𝐍𝐝 𝐥
𝐪 = ∆𝐪 × 𝐍𝐟
Where, Nf = Total number of flow channels in the net
𝐪 𝐇 𝐛
=𝐤× ×
𝐍𝐟 𝐍𝐝 𝐥
Where, l = 1 & b = 1
𝐍𝐟
𝐪 = 𝐤×𝐇×( )
𝐍𝐝
 Determination of Seepage Pressure:-

The hydraulic potential „h‟ at any point located after „n‟ potential drops, each of value ∆h is
given by,
𝐡 = 𝐇 − 𝐧. ∆𝐡
The seepage pressure at any point equals the hydraulic potential or the balance hydraulic head
multiplied by the unit weight of water and it is given by,
𝐏𝐒 = (𝐇 − 𝐧. ∆𝐡)𝛄𝐰
The pressure acts in the direction of flow.
 Determination of Hydrostatic Pressure:-

The hydrostatic pressure at any point within the soil mass is given by,
𝒖 = 𝒉𝒘 𝜸𝒘
Where,
u = Hydrostatic pressure
γw = Piezometric head
𝒉𝒘 = 𝒉 − 𝒛
h = hydraulic potential at the point under consideration
z = position head of the point above datum, considered positive upwards

 Determination of Exit Gradient:-
The exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient at the downstream end of flow line where the
percolating water leaves the soil mass and emerges into free water at the downstream.
∆𝒉
𝒊𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒕 =
𝒍
∆h = Potential drop
l = Average length of last field
2.9.4 Procedure for drawing flow nets

A flownet is to be drawn by trial and error. For a given set of boundary conditions, the flow
net will remain the same even if the direction of flow is reversed. Flow occurs along stream
lines and there is no flow across stream line. The other set of lines are orthogonal to the
streamlines and are known as equipotential line. Along the equipotential line the total head is
constant.
Procedure for drawing flownet:-
1. Draw the geometry of the structure correctly on the paper. It implies that the horizontal
and vertical scales should be the same. Otherwise, the square shape requirement (x = y)
cannot be met.
2. Identify the boundary flow lines and boundary equipotential lines in the drawing. The
upstream ground surface and downstream surface are the initial and the final equipotential
lines, respectively.
3. Draw a set of stream lines and equipotential lines within the boundaries, keeping in mind
the two points (i) stream lines do not intersect each other, and (ii) stream lines and
equipotential lines intersect each other at right angles.
4. Adjust the number of equipotential lines and flow lines such that the network is made of
curvilinear squares.

Flow net for isotropic soil:-

• x=z
• kx = kz
𝑵𝒇
𝒒 =𝒌×𝑯×( )
𝑵𝒅
Flow net for anisotropic soil:-

• x≠z
• kx ≠ kz
𝑵𝒇
𝒒= 𝒌𝒙 × 𝒌𝒛 × 𝑯 × ( )
𝑵𝒅

2.10 FLOW THROUGH EARTH DAM

Earth dam are constructed of well compacted soils. A homogeneous earth dam consists of
one type of soil but may contain a drainage blanket to collect seeping water. Water seeps
through the body of an earth dam and through its foundation. The velocity and quantity of
seepage through the earth dam has to be controlled, if left untreated it leads to the failure of
the dam due to erosion. Seepage through an earth dam presents an additional difficulty in that
it is an unconfined flow problem where the flow domain is bounded at the top by a phreatic
surface which represents the top flow line.
The pressure head along the phreatic surface is zero because the soil above it is assumed to be
dry. Because the pressure head along the phreatic surface is zero, it follows that the head
changes and elevation head changes are equal. Thus, for equal total head intervals ∆h
between equipotential lines, there will be equal vertical distances between the points of
intersection of equipotential lines with the phreatic surface.

2.11.1 Phreatic line in an earth dam with filter
The following is the procedure for locating the phreatic line graphically:
1. AB is the upstream fac. Let its horizontal projection be L. On the water surface, measure
a distance BC = 0.3L. Then the point C is the starting point of the base parabola.
2. To locate the directrix of the parabola (apply the principle that any point on the parabola
is equidistant from the focus as well as from the directrix). Hence with point C as the
centre and CF as the radius, draw an arc to cut the horizontal line through CB in D. draw
a vertical tangent to the curve FD at D (CD = CF). Hence the vertical line DH is the
directrix.
3. The last point G on the parabola will lie midway between F and H.
4. In order to locate the intermediate points on the parabola we use the principle that its
distances from the focus and directrix must be equal. For example, to locate any point P,
draw vertical line QP at any distance „x‟ from F. Measure QH. With F as the centre and
QH as the radius, draw an arc to cut vertical line through Q in point P.
5. Join all these points to get the base parabola. However, some correction is to be made at
the entry point. The phreatic line must start from B and not from C. Also, the phreatic line
is a flow line, and must start perpendicularly to the u/s face AB which is 100%
equipotential line. Hence the portion of the phreatic line at B is sketched free hand in such
as way that it starts perpendicularly to AB and meets the rest of the parabola tangentially
without any kink. The base parabola should also meet the d/s filter perpendicularly (i.e.
vertically) at G.

Analytical method:-
𝒒=𝒌×𝒔
Where,
q = Discharge through the dam
k = coefficient of permeability of the dam material
s = focal distance
𝒔= 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙
At point C, x = D & y = H
𝒔= 𝑫𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 − 𝑫
2.11.1 Phreatic line in an earth dam without filter
The breakout point on the downstream discharge face may be determined by measuring out
„a‟ from the toe along the face. If α is the downstream slope angle then „a‟ may be computed
from the following equations.
 If α < 300
𝒅 𝒅𝟐 𝑯𝟐
𝒂= − −
𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶
 If 300 < α < 600
𝒂= 𝑯𝟐 + 𝒅𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐 − 𝑯𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝜶

The quantity of seepage can be obtained from the following equations:-

 For α < 300
𝒒 = 𝒌 × 𝒂 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶
0 0
 For 30 < α < 60
𝒒 = 𝒌 × 𝒂 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶
2.11 FILTER DESIGN

A protective filter is designed to provide for drainage of water from a body of soil without
allowing movement of soil particles by lowering water. It can be a single layer filter or a
multilayer filter. In the latter case each subsequent layer will be increasingly coarser than the
previous one and is sometimes referred to as reverse filter.
The filter design for the drainage layers and internal zoning of a dam is a critical part of the
impact point design. It is essential that the individual particles in the foundation and
embankment held in place and do not move as a result of seepage forces for stop this is
accomplished by ensuring that the zones of material met filter criteria with respect to adjacent
materials.
The materials used in filters provided for preventing piping should satisfy the following
requirements:
 The gradation of the filter material should be such that the words of the filter are small
enough to prevent the particles of protected soil from penetrating and clogging the filter.
 The gradation of filter material should be such that rapid drainage of incoming water
takes place without allowing development of large seepage forces within the filter.
The soil protected by filter is referred to as base material. Fillets are usually multilayered and
each layer should satisfy the requirements with respect to preceding layer.
A graded filter consists of layers of pervious material which permit flow of water but prevent
the moment of soil particles. The soil particles in a particular layer are coarser than that in the
preceding layer. However the difference of sizes of the particles in the two layers should not
be excessive otherwise the particles of the preceding layer will be carried into the next layer.
The particle sizes of different layers are fixed according to the design criteria given below:
1. The filter material should be coarse enough so that the percolating water moves easily
without any buildup of water pressure in the filter
2. The filter material should be fine enough that the soil particles of the base material are not
wash through the filter.

3. The material of the last layer should be coarse enough not to be carried away through the
openings of the perforated drainage pipes if provide.
4. The grain size curve of the filter material should be roughly parallel to that of the base
material.
5. To avoid segregation filter should not contain the particles of size larger than 75 mm.
6. For proper working, the filter material should not contain more than 5% of the file parsing
75µ IS sieve.
The thickness and area of the filter should be sufficient to carry the seepage discharge safely.

2.12 EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS

Terzaghi developed the effective stress concept, which became a key concept in modern soil
mechanics. Effective stress in soil contributes to its strength and volume change. It also
influences the capillary rise, seepage force due to water flow, quicksand (sand boiling) and
heaving at the bottom of the excavation.
2.12.1 Importance of Effective stress

The effective stress controls the engineering properties of the soils.
 Compression and shear strength of a soil are dependent on the effective stress.
 As the effective stress in a soil increases, the compression of the soil occurs. This causes
settlement of structures built on soils.
 The shear strength of a soil depends on its effective stress. As the effective stress is
changed the shear strength changes.
 The stability of slopes, the earth pressures against retaining structure and the bearing
capacity of soils depend upon the shear strength of the soil and hence, the effective stress.
 The importance of shear strength in soil engineering problem cannot be over-emphasized.
It is one of the most important properties of soils.
 The permeability of a soil depends upon the void ratio. With a change in effective stress,
the void ratio of the soil changes. Therefore, to some extent the permeability of a soil is
also governed by the effective stress.
2.12.2 Total stress and Effective stress

 Effective stress (σ1): - Stress due to self weight and external loading which leads to
compression which again leads to decrease in void ratio and increase in frictional
resistance.
 Neutral stress or pore water pressure (u): - Stress due to water present in core which
tries to expel soil particles with same pressure in all the directions.
 Total Stress (σ): - Total stress is combination is the combination of both effective stress
and neutral stress.
𝝈 = 𝝈𝟏 + 𝒖

2.12.3 Impact of effective stress in construction of structures
1. Settlement of soil
The phenomenon of gradual reduction in soil due to expulsion of water from soil force is
called consolidation or compression or settlement of soil. As the effective stress increases the
void ratio increases therefore the settlement also increases.
2. Shear strength
Many geotechnical properties are required for the assessment of shear strength.
a. Structural foundation
b. Earth slope
c. Highway Pavement
 Structural Foundation: - Load from structure is transferred to ground through

foundation this produces shear stress and compressive stress. If shear stress produced is
more than the shear strength of soil which makes the structure to collapse.
 Earth slope: - On a sloping ground gravity produces shear stresses in soil. Is these shear
stresses exceed the shear strength of the soil landslide occurs.
 Highway Pavement: - Wheel loads from the vehicles are transferred to pavement and
consequently to the ground. These loads produce the shear stress in the soil which causes
the shear failure.
2.12.4 Quick Sand Condition

In the case of upward flow of water through a soil mass the seepage pressure acts in the
upward direction causing reduction in the effective stress.
In case of submerged soil mass the upward seepage pressure may become equal to the
downward pressure due to submerged weight of soil at a certain level.
When this happens in the case of cohensionless soil the soil at that level looses all its strength
as the effective stress becomes zero.
𝑪𝒇 = 𝑪 + 𝝈𝟏 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋
Where,
Cf = Shear strength
C = Cohesion
σ1 = Effective stress
ɸ = Angle of internal friction

In this case both C & σ1 becomes zero.

Because of this soil particles have tendency to be carried away by flowing water. This
phenomenon of lifting of soil particles by flowing water is called “quick sand
phenomenon”

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BASIC GEO-TECHNICAL ENGINEERING

2.2 DARCY‟S LAW

2.3 LABOARATORY METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY

2.4 FIELD METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY

2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

2.6 PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOIL MASS

2.7 CAPILLARY PHENOMENA

2.8 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS

2.9 LAPLACE EQUATION

2.11 FLOWS THROUGH EARTH DAM

2.12 EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS

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2.2 DARCY’S LAW

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2.2.1 Validity of Darcy’s Law

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2.2.1 Seepage velocity & superficial velocity

2.2.2 Relation between seepage velocity and superficial velocity

2.2.3 Co-efficient of Percolation (KP)

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From Darcy‟s law,

2.3 LABORATORY METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY

2.3.1 Constant Head Permeability Test

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2.3.2 Variable Head Permeability Test

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The expression for computing the permeability „K‟ is derived as follows,

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2.4 FIELD METHODS OF DETERMINING PERMEABILITY

 Pumping out test in unconfined aquifer

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Let, r = radius of central well

q = discharge or rate at which water is pumped out of well

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 Pumping out test in confined aquifer

HO = Thickness of pervious layer

2.4.2 Pumping in test

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2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

 Effect of particle size:-

 As the particle size increases, the permeability also increases.

Where, K = Coefficient of Permeability in cm/sec

 Effect of void ratio: -

 Effect of properties of pore fluid: -

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 Effect of structural arrangement of particles: -

 Effect of degree saturation and presence of foreign matters: -

 Effect of Adsorbed water: -