PRE DISCUSSION:

On December 30, 1997, a United Airlines airplane carrying 374

passengers from Japan to Hawaii experienced severe turbulence
while cruising at 33,000 feet altitude. Passengers were having dinner
when the plane suddenly shook and went up and down. Some
passengers were thrown against the walls, while others fell to the
ground. Several items that were not properly secured also flew
around inside the plane. Sadly, one passenger died, and more than
100 were injured. The turbulence was caused by a turbulent eddy,
which is a common occurrence near jet streams. This chapter will
explore various types of eddy circulations, including how they form
and interact with the environment. We will also examine local winds
such as the sea breeze and the chinook, discussing how they form
and what kind of weather they generally bring.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lessons the students are expected
to:
•Learn different scales of motion in the atmosphere.
•Understand the planetary boundary layer and near-
surface wind; small scale eddies, wind shear, clear air
turbulence, and their effects on aircraft; specific
“local” wind systems.
•Familiarize the measurement and charting of winds.
INTRODUCTION:
The wind, an invisible choreographer of nature, has the
power to create awe-inspiring masterpieces as it sculpts
clouds, whips waves into a frenzy, and whispers through
leaves. However, if we look closely, we will discover that
there is a captivating ballet taking place on a much smaller
stage - the world of local wind systems. In this microscopic
and mesoscale domain, the air moves gracefully, swirling,
diving, and spinning in response to the slightest contours of
our environment, creating a symphony of miniature gusts and
eddies. The interplay between the wind and the surroundings
is a sight to behold, as it crafts a breathtaking display of
artistry, with each movement telling a story of its own.
Small-scale and Local Systems
 Small- and local-scale Flows
There are other scales of flow in the atmosphere:
Microscale flows occur over a few minutes and are
typically short-lived (e.g., smoke from a chimney)
Mesoscale flows occur over a few kilometers to about
100 kilometers, including things like sea breezes,
thunderstorms, and small tropical systems
Planetary scale flows cover the entire globe
Sometimes, the plantery and synoptic scales are
combined into what is called the macroscale.
Small- and local-scale Flows
Turbulence
Turbulence is a disturbed flow of air that can
produce wind gusts and eddies.

There are two common ways in which

turbulence can be induced, both of which are
related to friction in a fluid flow, which we call
viscosity.
In eddies, the wind speed and direction fluctuate
very rapidly, producing irregular air motions that
we call wind gusts.

When eddies are formed via obstructions at the

surface, we call this mechanical turbulence.
Viscosity
Molecular viscosity is due to the random motion of the
gas molecules in a fluid.

Consider two layers of air on top of each other, one

moving faster than the other, what happens?

Eddy viscosity is related to the internal friction induced by

whirling eddies.

Consider air moving over a landscaped dotted with

trees and/or buildings; it breaks into several irregular,
twisting eddies. What do these eddies do?
This turbulence changes the
wind profile in the planetary
boundary layer (which is the
region of the atmosphere
influenced by surface friction)
Surface heating and instability cause turbulence to
extend to greater altitudes.

Thermals and convective cells that are formed

when the Earth’s surface warms form vertical
motions that create thermal turbulence.

Thermal turbulence tends to be minimal in the

early morning (no surface heating) and largest
during the hottest part of the day.
Example of mechanical turbulence combined with
thermal turbulence.
The depth of this mixing (and the frictional
influence) depend on three main factors:

1)Surface heating

2)Strong winds

3)Rough/hilly landscape
Eddies
Eddies can be big or small.

The size of the obstacle and the wind speed are the
two primary factors that control the size of eddies.

For example, air moving over a shrub produces a

small eddy, while air moving over a mountain
produces large eddies with much stronger motions.
Eddies
Not all eddies are formed at the surface…

Turbulent eddies can also be created when the

wind abruptly changes speed or direction,
which we call wind shear.

The shearing creates eddies along a mixing

zone; in clear air, this is called clear air
turbulence.
Eddies
This can happen in the presence of moisture…

Kelvin-Helmholtz waves
The Force of the Wind

A small increase in the

wind speed can greatly
increase the wind force
of an object, strong wind
may blow down trees,
overturn mobile homes,
and even move railroad
cars.
Microscale Winds Blowing
over the Earth’s Surface
• Wind erosion, desert
pavements, and sand
ripples
• Snow ripples, snow
dunes, snow rollers, and
snow fences
• Wind break and shelter
breaks
 The amount of energy
transferred to the water ( and
Waves forming thus the height to which a wave
by wind blowing can build) depends on three
over the surface factors:
of the water are
known as wind 1. The wind speed
waves. 2. The length of time that the
wind blows over the water.
3. The fetch, or distance, of
deep water the wind blows.
 Determining Wind Direction and Speed

Wind is characterized by Near large bodies of water and

its direction, speed, and in hilly regions, wind direction
gustiness may be expressed differently,
for example;
We can determine wind
direction by watching • Onshore wind
the movement of objects • Offshore wind
as air passes them. • Upslope wind
• Downslope wind
The wind direction
may also be given
as degrees about
a 360° circle.
The Influence of Prevailing Winds
Prevailing wind
- is the name given to the wind
direction most often observed
during a given time period.
- greatly affect the climate of the
region.

The prevailing wind can be

represented by a wind rose, which
indicates the percentage of time
the wind blows from different
directions.
Wind Power Wind power seems an
attractive way of
producing energy — it is
non-polluting and, unlike
solar power, is not
restricted to daytime use.
The prevailing wind can
be represented by a wind
rose, which indicates the
percentage of time the
wind blows from different
directions.
A wind vane determines wind
direction and consists of a
long arrow with a tail that
moves freely. The anemometer
measures wind speed and was
developed in 1667. The
pressure plate anemometer
has a metal plate that swings
vertically. As wind speed
increases, the plate moves
outward and the wind speed is
read from a scale beside it.
The aerovane (skyvane) Is an
instrument that indicates both
wind speed and direction. It
consists of a bladed propeller
that rotates at a rate
proportional to the wind speed.
Its streamlined shape and a
vertical fi n keep the blades
facing into the wind (see ● Fig.
9.20).
A device similar to radar
called lidar (light detection
and ranging) uses infrared or
visible light in the form of a
laser beam to determine wind
information reflected from
particles, such as smoke or
dust — it measures wind
velocity by measuring the
movement of these particles.
The scatterometer (a type of
radar) gathers wind data in this
manner: From the satellite, the
scatterometer sends out a
microwave pulse of energy that
travels through the clouds, down
to the sea surface. The amount of
energy returning to the
scatterometer (called the echo)
depends on the roughness of the
sea.
Local Wind System
Fig. 9.22 (a) displays vertical pressure distribution
where isobaric surfaces are parallel to the Earth’s
surface, resulting in no horizontal variation in
pressure, temperature, or wind.
In Fig. 9.22b, cooling in the north and warming in the
south causes isobars to dip, creating a horizontal
pressure gradient force that moves air from higher
pressure towards lower pressure.
Fig. 9.22c. Cool air flows south, warms, becomes
less dense, and moves northward horizontally
towards lower pressure. The air then sinks and flows
out of the surface high, completing the circulation.
These thermal circulations arise due to temperature
changes when warmer air rises and colder air sinks.
The regions of surface high and low atmospheric
pressure created as the atmosphere ether cools or
warms are called thermal (cold-core) highs and
thermal (warm-core) lows.
Thermal Circulation

Thermal circulation is a
circulation brought on by changes
in air temperature, in which
warmer air rises and the colder
air sinks.

Thermal (cold-core) highs are the

regions of surface high and low
atmospheric pressure created as
the atmosphere either cools or
warms.
Lake breeze > a similar breeze
along a lake shore.
*Sea breezes are strongest in the
afternoon due to the contrast in
temperature between land and water.
Land breeze > becomes when the
surface wind changes direction that
flows towards the water.
*When surface pressure increases over
land.
Sea breeze front > the boundary
where the sea breeze meets the
cooler onshore air.
Sea breeze convergence zone > they
form when the opposing breezes
meet on the opposite side of the
obstruction.
Fig. 9.27, the two breezes push
inland and converge near the
center of the peninsula, creating
afternoon clouds and showers,
while the lakeshore area remains
sunny, pleasantly cool, and dry.
Local Winds and Water

Figure 9.28 shows the wind

speed and direction as air
flows over a large lake. At
position A, on the upwind side,
the wind is blowing at 10 knots
from the WNW; at position B,
the wind speed is 15 knots from
the NW; at position C, the wind
is again blowing at 10 knots
from the WNW.
Wind speed changes
along a lake's shore
cause clouds on one side
and none on the other.
Strong winds make water
rhythmically slosh,
causing periodic water
level changes called
seiches.
SEASONALLY CHANGING WINDS — THE MONSOON

Monsoon comes from the Arabic word "mausim" meaning

"seasons". It is a seasonal reversal of winds found in Eastern and
Southern Asia during the summer season. The low-pressure
system gets heated and causes moisture-bearing winds to sweep
into the continent from the ocean. The humid air converges with a
drier westerly flow, causing it to rise. Hills and mountains further
enhance lifting.
Rainfall is enhanced by weak,
westward moving low-pressure areas
called monsoon depressions.
Summer monsoon rains over southern
Asia can reach record amounts.
Located about 300 km inland on the
southern slopes of the Khasi Hills in
northeastern India, Cherrapunji
receives an average of 1080 cm (425
in.) of rainfall each year (see ● Fig.
9.31).
Mountain and Valley Breezes

Mountain and valley breezes develop along mountain

slopes. During the day, the sun warms up the valley walls
and the heated air rises gently uphill as a valley breeze. At
night, the mountain slopes cool down quickly, producing a
mountain breeze as the cooler and denser air flows down
the slope into the valley. These winds are also called
gravity winds or nocturnal drainage winds.
 KATABATIC WINDS (FALL)

 can rush down elevated

 From the Greek “katabatos,” slopes at hurricane
meaning “descending.” speeds, but most are not
 resembles tumbling, since that intense and many
they are essentially winds are on the order of 10
that flow downhill knots or less.
 Any downslope wind that
are much stronger than
mountain breezes. 1 knot = 1.15 miles per hour
= 1.85 kilometers per hour
 How Katabatic winds occur?
• plateau surrounded by mountains has a slope that drops
downhill
• snow on the plateau causes a dome of high pressure to
form near the surface
• cold air flows through gaps in the hills due to the
horizontal pressure gradient force
• continues downhill as a cool breeze
• during a storm or in a narrow canyon, the air flow can
increase destructively
Katabatic winds often result from cool,
denser air moving downhill towards
warmer, less dense air.
 How Katabatic winds occur?

NOTE: Horizontal
differences in pressure
(the horizontal pressure-
gradient force) and an
apparent force that
results from Earth's
rotation (the Coriolis
force). The pressure-
gradient force expresses
the tendency of pressure
differences to effectuate
air movement from higher
to lower pressure.
Where in the world
Katabatic Winds
usually occur?
Katabatic winds occur in various regions worldwide. In the
former Yugoslavia, cold air from Russia descends a high
plateau and reaches lowlands as the bora wind.

NOTE: Bora
— a cold,
gusty, North
easterly wind
with speeds
sometimes
above 100
knots
In North America, when cold air builds up over the Columbia plateau,
it can flow westward through the Columbia River Gorge as a strong
gusty wind. This wind is known as the Columbia Gorge wind or 'coho'.
The mistral is a cold wind that descends from the western
mountains into the Rhone Valley of France and then out over the
Mediterranean Sea.
 The winds around the Antarctic continent are strong and persistent,
and blow in a constant direction. They are most notable for their
katabatic origin, which means that cold and dense air from the
interior plateau moves towards the coast.

https://www.wunderground.com/cat6/Exploring-East-Antarctica-and-Its-Role-Climate-First-Hand-Report
In 1984, a strong downslope wind blew through Yosemite National Park,
California, at 100 knots. It caused extensive damage, toppling many
trees, and unfortunately, causing a fatality when a tree fell on a park
employee in a tent.
 CHINOOK (FOEHN) WINDS

Foehn winds are warm, In South western Alberta, Canada,

dry downslope winds that wind erosion is periodically associated
occur on the lee side of with strong Foehn winds that flow down
topographic barriers. the eastern flank of the Rocky
Mountains, locally known as Chinooks.
In the European Alps
such a wind is called a
Foehn and, in Argentina,
a Zonda.
 How Chinook occurs?

Chinooks happen when strong westerly

winds blow over a north-south mountain
range, creating low pressure on the eastern
side. As the air moves downward, it warms
up by 10°C per kilometer due to compression
known as the dry adiabatic rate.

Compressional heating is the main source of

warmth for a chinook. It brings potentially
warmer and drier air down from aloft.
How Chinook occurs?

• When clouds and precipitation occur on the

mountain windward side , chinook can
form.
• Moist air is forced to rise over a mountain,
cools down and forms clouds.
• As the clouds move over the mountain,
descend on the other side, they release
latent heat.
• Resulting in the air at the base of the
mountain on the downwind side being
warmer.
How Chinook occurs?

Moist air rises up a mountain's

windward side, forming clouds and
leading to precipitation. As the
clouds descend the other side, they
release heat, resulting in warmer and
drier air on the downwind side. See
Figure 9.37.
How Chinook occurs?
How Chinook occurs?
Chinook as Snow Eaters

Chinooks are thirsty winds.

As they mover over a heavy
snow cover, they can melt
and evaporate a foot of
snow in less than a day.
 ADVANTAGES and
DISADVANTAGES • extreme fire hazard.
of CHINOOK • the seeds may die in the
parched soil.

It provides relief from the harsh • buildup of static electricity,

winter cold and also uncovers making a simple handshake a
prairie grass, enabling livestock shocking experience.
to graze on the open range. • some people feel irritable and
depressed and others become
Keep railroad tracks clear of sometimes adversely affected
snow, ensuring that trains can human behavior.
continue to operate.
SANTA ANA WINDS

A warm, dry wind that blows

from the east or northeast
into southern California.

The Santa Ana winds, also

nicknamed "devil winds,"
are strong, hot, and dry
winds that blow westward
through Southern California,
typically during the fall and
winter.
 How Santa Ana
wind occurs?

Air descends from desert

plateau, through mountain
canyons, over LA basin & San
Fernando Valley, then out to
Pacific. Wind in Santa Ana
Canyon often exceeds 90
knots.
 High pressure system: Over the
deserts and Great Basin east of
nicknamed "devil California, sits a high pressure zone.
winds," are strong, Cool, dry air: This air sinks and heats
hot, and dry winds up as it compresses.
that blow westward
through Southern Mountain ranges: These act like
California, typically ramps, channeling the heated air
during the fall and westward.
winter. California coast: As the air descends
the mountains, it speeds up and
becomes even drier.
https://greatbasinseeds.com/what-is-the-great-basin/
 • Dry desert air gets pushed and heated.
• It speeds down mountains like a hot, windy
waterfall.
• Blows across California, bringing heat,
Summing up dust, and wildfire danger.
Santa Ana
winds: • A similar downslope-type wind called a
California norther can produce unbearably
high temperatures in the northern half of
California’s Central Valley.
north·er
/ˈnôrT͟Hər/
a strong cold north wind blowing in
autumn and winter over Texas,
Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico.
● FIGURE 9.39 Surface weather
map showing Santa Ana conditions
in January. Maximum temperatures
for this particular day are given in °F.
Observe that the downslope winds
blowing into southern California
raised temperatures into the upper
80s, while elsewhere temperature
readings were much lower.
● FIGURE 9.40 Strong North
easterly Santa Ana winds on
October 23, 2007, blew the smoke
from massive wild fires (red dots)
across southern California out
over the Pacific Ocean.
 DESERT WINDS

Winds of all sizes develop

over the deserts. Huge dust
storms form in dry regions,
where strong winds can lift
and fill the air with particles
of fine dust.

● FIGURE 9.41 A large dust storm over the African Sahara Desert
during February, 2001, sweeps westward off the coast, then
northward into a mid-latitude cyclonic storm west of Spain, as
indicated by red arrow.
 develop in desert areas where loose sand
is more prevalent as high winds
SANDSTORM enhanced by surface heating rapidly
carry sand particles closer to the ground.

(from Arabic hebbe: blown) example of a

storm composed of dust or sand. It forms
as cold downdrafts along the leading
edge of a thunderstorm lift dust or sand
HABOOB into a huge, falling dark cloud that may
extend horizontally for over 150 km and
rise vertically to the base of the
thunderstorm (see ● Fig. 9.42).
FIGURE 9.42 A haboob approaching Phoenix,
Arizona. The dust cloud is rising to a height
of about 450 m (1475 ft.) above the valley
floor.

ACTIVE FIGURE 9.43 The formation

of a dust devil. On a hot, dry day,
the atmosphere next to the
ground becomes unstable. As the
heated air rises, wind blowing past
an obstruction twists the rising air,
forming a rotating air column or
dust devil. Air from the sides
rushes into the rising column,
lifting sand, dust, leaves, or any
other loose material from the
surface.
 or whirlwinds are the spinning vortices seen
DUST DEVILS on hot days in dry areas on a smaller scale.
(In Australia, the Aboriginal word willy-willy
refers to a dust devil.)

Dust devils form on hot days over dry surfaces. Heated air rises,
and wind rotates it, often influenced by barriers. See Figure 9.43.

Dust devils and tornadoes are different. Tornadoes start from the
base of a thunderstorm, while dust devils start at the surface.
Winds over the Sahara Desert have local names in different
regions. During a storm, a hot, dry, and dusty wind called "leste"
blows over Morocco and into the Atlantic.
 OTHER LOCAL WINDS OF INTEREST

Texas Norther or blue norther is a

severe winter storm that moves
across the Great Plains of North
America. Cold northerly winds
follow the storm and often head
southward. When it passes through
Texas, it can cause a sudden drop
in temperature by tens of degrees
in just a few hours, especially if
accompanied by snow.
https://weather.com/news/news/blue-norther-20121003
Norte is a strong cold
wind that penetrates
Central America.

Specifically from the

North east of Mexico
to Gulf of Mexico.
Blizzard if the strong, cold
winds over the plains
states are accompanied
by drifting, blowing, or
falling snow.
Boulder winds along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains,
strong down-mountain winds occasionally blow during chinook
conditions. Such winds are especially notorious in winter in
Boulder, Colorado. These have been recorded at over 100 knots,
leaving a catastrophic aftermath.

Mountainadoes are high winds that are not completely

understood, some meteorologists believe that they may be
associated with large vertically oriented spinning whirls of
air that some scientists call.
 ASSESSMENT:
1. Winds originating over the Sahara Desert are given local names as
they move into different regions. If the wind crosses the
Mediterranean, it becomes the_____________.
A. Khamsin
B. Leveche
C. Sharav
D. Sirocco
2. In Australia, the Aboriginal word willy-willy refers to a____________.
A. Desert storm
B. Dust devil
C. Tornadoes
D. Whirlwind
3. It means “poison wind” a strong and dusty desert wind that blows over African
and Arabian deserts.
A. Harmattan
B. Levanter
C. Papgayo
D. Simoon
4. ___________along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, strong down-
mountain winds occasionally blow during chinook conditions.
A. Blizzard
B. Blue norther
C. Boulder winds
D. Norte
5. Winds occur when an elevated plateau surrounded by mountains has a slope
that drops downhill.
A. Chinook
B. Desert storm
C. Katabatic winds
D. Santa Ana winds
6. Rainfall is enhanced by weak, westward moving low-pressure areas called
______.
A. El Niño
B. Heavy Rainfall
C. Mausim
D. Monsoon Depressions
7. ____________ creates a drag on the flow of air, one far greater than that caused
by molecular viscosity.
A. Boundary layer
B. Eddie
C. Mechanical turbulence
D. Viscocity
8. The leading edge of the sea breeze is called the ____________.
A. Lake breeze
B. Land breeze
C. Sea breeze
D. Sea breeze front
9. Where the wind changes its speed or direction (or both)
abruptly such a change is called _________.
A. Clear turbulence
B. Planetary boundary
C. Thermal turbulence
D. Wind shear
10. A large vertically oriented spinning whirls of air that
some scientists called ______.
A. Blizzard
B. Boulder winds
C. Mountainadoes.
D. Norte
 SUMMARY:
• This chapter covers the impact of wind on the environment.
• Friction can be caused by air molecules' motion or turbulent
eddies.
• The depth of the atmospheric layer affected depends on
stability, wind speed, and terrain.
• Winds over obstacles create gusts or rotors. Strong wind
shear can cause extreme turbulence. Wind creates features
such as dunes, pavement, ripples, rollers, and trees.
• Shelterbelts protect crops and soil from wind damage.
• Land and sea breezes are mesoscale winds that respond to
heating and cooling rates of land and water.
• Valley breezes blow uphill during the day, while mountain breezes
blow downhill at night. Katabatic is a strong, cold downslope
wind.
• Chinook is a warm, dry wind that descends on the eastern side of
the Rocky Mountains, and Foehn is the same in the Alps. Santa
Ana is a warm, dry, and strong downslope wind that blows into
Southern California. Dust devils are caused by intense surface
heating, while downdrafts cause haboobs. Blizzard winds carry
snow, while sirocco carries dust. The wind's name may express
the direction it blows (Texas Northern) or its region (Santa Ana).